Among surviving examples of ancient Egyptian literature, the poem The Tale of Sinuhe stands out for its suspense, action, and complexity. In addition, many copies of the poem survive, attesting to its popularity in the ancient world. So what happens in this epic poem, and what does it tell us about ancient Egypt?   What Is The Tale of Sinuhe? Photograph of Edmund Purdom as Sinuhe for the film Sinuhe the Egyptian, by Frank Powolny, 1954. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While ancient Egypt had a sophisticated culture spanning millennia, little of its rich literary tradition survives today, often only in fragments. But around two dozen copies of The Tale of Sinuhe survive, produced over about 750 years, suggesting that the Egyptians were still reading the poem several hundred years after it was composed.   Written in verse, The Tale of Sinuhe is an autobiographical work that follows the life of Sinuhe, who is said to have served at the court of the Pharaoh Amenemhat I (died c. 1962 BCE), the founder of the 12th dynasty. The earliest surviving copies of the poem date to the reign of Amenemhat III (died c. 1814 BCE), the sixth pharaoh of that dynasty.   Following the classic three-act structure, the story relates how Sinuhe was forced to flee Egypt. He established a successful life abroad but sorely missed his home. After a time, the pharaoh asks him to return and take up a place at court. This allows Sinuhe to fulfil his dream of being buried according to traditional customs in his homeland. The story inspired both an acclaimed novel by Finnish writer Mika Waltari and a 1954 epic movie directed by Michael Curtiz.   Act 1: Escape From Egypt Relief of Amenemhat I, Egyptian, 12th Dynasty, c. 1971-1926 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   At the beginning of the first act, we are put in the sandals of Sinuhe, a high official in the court of Amenemhat I during the 30th year of his reign. Sinuhe was returning from battle with his armies when he learned that the pharaoh had been killed in a coup. His reaction to the news was to flee Egypt, going eastward.   Sinuhe crossed the Red Sea on a cargo boat without a rudder. Once in Asia, he hid in the bushes so nobody would recognize him. While Sinuhe is afraid, it is unclear whether he feared retaliation from the rebels or being accused of complicity in the attack against Amenemhat. Whatever the reason, he crossed the wall that marked the easternmost boundary of Egypt at night, evading the armed guards.   He then crossed mountains and deserts, travelling farther away from his homeland, until he succumbed to exhaustion and dehydration. Nearly dead, a Syrian took pity on him and gave him water and milk and nursed him back to health. Sinuhe then spent a year and a half in Byblos and other towns, until a local ruler named Amunenshi learned of his reputation and invited him to join his court. Although this was certainly a downgrade from being part of the pharaoh’s court, he gladly took the job.   The Pharaoh was considered the representative of the divine on earth, responsible for maintaining Ma’at, or divine order. The unending line of pharaohs was considered essential to Egypt’s prosperity. Learn more about the Egyptian Pharaohs.   Act 2: Life in Asia Leaders of the Aamu of Shu, facsimile of a painting from the 12th dynasty Tomb of Khnumhotep, by Norman de Garis Davies, 1931. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Amunenshi greatly respected the pharaoh and took pride in having Sinuhe in his household. He gave Sinuhe important responsibilities, including overseeing the education of his children. He also gave Sinuhe his daughter in marriage and let him choose a plot of land to build his household. According to Sinuhe, the land he received was fertile with figs, grapes, honey, “wine more abundant than water,” barley, wheat, and cattle.   Despite his foreign origins, Sinuhe became very powerful in his own right. He and his sons became clan leaders and respected members of the Syrian elite. All travellers, Egyptian and other foreigners, were welcome in his home. However, anyone who tried to make trouble in the land was hunted down. Amunenshi continued to send Sinuhe on missions. He proved himself in combat and as a commander in Syria and the surrounding regions.   Sinuhe fled Egypt via the Levant, traveling through Palestine and Lebanon before settling in southern Syria in an area the Egyptians called Upper Retjenu.   Once, Sinuhe was challenged to combat by the leader of another tribe. His wealth and role at Amunenshi’s court were bound to cause jealousy among other clansmen. The combat was set for sunrise. Sinuhe managed to dodge or deflect his opponent’s dagger blows and blade strikes. Sinuhe fought with bow and arrow, soon felling his enemy with an arrow lodged in his throat. He then pillaged his opponent’s village, becoming even richer and more prestigious.   Act 3: Thebes Calling Relief depicting King Senusret I embraced by Ptah, Egyptian, 12th Dynasty, c. 1971-1926 BCE. Source: Egyptian Museum, Cairo   When Sinuhe was at the peak of his career in Asia and had everything a man could want, he still felt empty inside. Aware that he was growing old, he knew that if he stayed in Syria, he would be buried according to the local custom, draped in a sheepskin, instead of properly mummified according to Egyptian tradition. Sinuhe knew that without the proper funerary rites, he would not live eternally in the Duat, the Egyptian afterlife. He frequently discussed his homesickness with Amunenshi, but the ruler insisted that Sinuhe stay at his side.   However, Sinuhe’s success in Asia was so great that even the new Egyptian pharaoh, Senusret I, had heard of him. He sent a servant to tell Sinuhe that he was safe from accusation and prosecution and could return to the Egyptian court at Thebes. The pharaoh promised that Sinuhe would have a job and would be awarded a tomb and a proper Egyptian burial.   Sinuhe was humbled to receive this message. He returned home and served the pharaoh for the rest of his life.   Did you know that both Amenemhat I and his son Senusret I had pyramids? But the pyramids of the Middle Kingdom were made from less durable materials and did not survive as well as those of the Old Kingdom. Learn more.   Did Sinuhe Really Exist? Limestone Ostracon with a fragment of The Tale of Sinuhe, Egyptian, 19th Dynasty, c. 1295-1186 BCE. Source: British Museum, London   Egyptologists question whether this is a historical account or a work of fiction. It does start with a well-attested historical fact, the assassination of Amenemhat I. Therefore, it is possible that Sinuhe was a celebrity of sorts who gained fame during his lifetime.   While possible, there is no other proof that he lived at this time. No tomb of Sinuhe has ever been found, and there are no corroborating references to Sinuhe outside of the poem. There are also no sources mentioning Amunenshi; however, this was probably an Egyptianized version of his Syrian name that would have been spelled differently in local documents.   Consequently, the current consensus is that the tale is a work of historical fiction, with a genuine historical setting but a fictional protagonist. This was not uncommon in Egyptian literature, especially during the Middle Kingdom. Other popular themes were mythical and supernatural topics, as exemplified in the story of The Shipwrecked Sailor.   The “Shipwrecked Sailor” is the story of the sole survivor of a shipwreck who meets an enormous snake on a deserted island. The last of its kind, the snake tells the sailor many secrets, which the sailor takes back to Egypt and tells the pharaoh.   What Can the Tale of Sinuhe Teach Us? Scene from the Tomb of Sennedjem, Egyptian, 19th Dynasty, c. 1295-1186 BCE. Source: Nile Magazine   The poem reveals information about the political organization of small communities in Asia during the early part of the 2nd millennium BCE. They were ruled by local leaders, who intermarried in political alliances and maintained their position through strength. Leaders needed to own cattle, win combats, successfully raid other villages, and equitably distribute the spoils of war among their people. There was a hierarchy among the rulers, as shown by Sinuhe’s submission to Amunenshi, a more powerful regional chief.   The poem also reveals the chaos that could ensue when the line of pharaohs was broken, as it was temporarily with the assassination of Amenemhat I. He was later succeeded by his son and co-ruler Sensuret I. Sinuhe immediately felt his position threatened and took the dramatic decision to go into voluntary exile from his homeland for decades.   The story underscores the importance of funerary rites and the afterlife in ancient Egypt. Nothing was more important to Sinuhe than following the proper procedures to ensure his passage into the afterlife. It was not just a matter of dying in his homeland but also of receiving the proper funerary rites to live eternally in the Egyptian afterlife.   Do you know the story of Osiris? He was killed by his brother Set and reanimated by his sister Isis, who then created the Duat, the Egyptian underworld, for him to live in, creating the afterlife for all Egyptians.