1791 - First US cabinet meeting, held at George Washington's home in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of War Henry Knox, and Attorney General Edmund Randolph attend. 1805 - Official opening of Thomas Telford's Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, the longest aqueduct in the UK and the highest canal aqueduct in the world, carrying the Llangollen Canal 126 feet above the River Dee 1894 - King Lafia "Absalamu" of Nikki signs accord with France 1940 - Nazi Germany began walling off the Jewish Ghetto in Warsaw 1953 - KBOI (now KBCI) TV channel 2 in Boise, ID (CBS) begins broadcasting 1966 - 1st major tidal power plant opens at Rance estuary, France 1990 - US proposes addition to UN resolution that would require Iraq's withdrawal from Kuwait by January 1 1996 - Baseball owners approve interleague play, 26-4 More Historical Events »

Wikimedia CommonsMap of Ireland featuring Hy-Brasil by Abraham Ortelius in the 16th century. Every seven years, a green wonderland supposedly appears out of the mist off the western coast of Ireland. Rich with forests, gold, and even faeries, the island allegedly lingers for one day before vanishing again. It’s known as Hy-Brasil, and though it seemingly exists only in legend, it appeared as a small, curious smudge on European maps for centuries. Indeed, Hy-Brasil can be seen on maps starting in the early 14th century, usually positioned just west of central Ireland. Over the centuries, some people even claimed to have visited the island, where they encountered friendly locals, black rabbits, gold and silver, and magical books. But the island stopped appearing on maps in the 19th century, around the same time that it was reportedly seen for the very last time. Since then, fascination about this mythical place has only grown. This is the story of Hy-Brasil, the mysterious mythical island near Ireland. What Is Hy-Brasil? Inside The Legend Of The Mythical Island Near Ireland Library of CongressA 14th-century map of Europe which appears to place Hy-Brasil just west of Ireland. Hy-Brasil existed in legend for generations, seemingly named for a legendary Irish king named Breasal. Also known as Hy-Breasal, Hy-Brazil, Hy-Breasil, Brazir, O’Brasil, the Enchanted Island, and the Isle of the Blessed, it’s allegedly located somewhere off the western coast of Ireland. It first appeared on a map in 1325, when Majorcan cartographer Angelino Dulcert placed an island called “Bracile” just west of Ireland. A century later, Venetian cartographer Andrea Bianco similarly indicated the existence of an island (this time called “Insula de Brasil”) in the same area. The cartographers seemingly placed the island on their maps because they’d heard rumors of its existence. Indeed, though Hy-Brasil existed in legend as “floating island” that appeared for just one day every seven years, then vanished as anyone tried to reach it, some claimed to have stepped foot on the mythical island. According to Irish Central, some of the earliest accounts come from 5th-century Irish saints, Saint Barrind and Saint Brendan, who both claimed to have seen the island which they called the “Promised Land.” Public DomainSaint Brendan was associated with the island of Hy-Brasil. They were hardly the only ones who claimed to have visited Hy-Brasil. Over the following centuries, a handful of others would also provide compelling accounts of reaching the island’s mythical shores. Sightings Of Hy-Brasil Over The Centuries Though most expeditions to Hy-Brasil have ended in disappointment, a handful of explorers have, allegedly, reached the shores of this mythical island. That said, some of their stories are more fantastical than others. According to the Royal Irish Academy, one such encounter with Hy-Brasil occured in the 17th century. In the telling of Roderick O’Flaherty, who wrote about the local history and lore of West Connaught in 1684, a man named Murrough O’Ley went for a walk in April 1668 after a fight with his wife, and was abducted by three men. His abductors took him to an island they called “O’Brazil,” which O’Ley described as similar to the Aran Islands. Returned unharmed to his home, O’Ley purportedly found that he suddenly possessed an incredible healing ability, despite never studying medicine. Library of CongressHy-Brasil, just visible beneath the stamp on this 18th century map, has been downgraded to the “Rock of Brazil.” Shortly thereafter, another alleged encounter with Hy-Brasil took place when a sea captain named John Nisbet came upon the island with his crew. Described in some accounts as Scottish, and in others as hailing from Killybegs in County Donegal, Ireland, Nisbet and his men were sailing from France to Ireland in 1674 when a sudden fog moved in. When the mist lifted, they found themselves dangerously close to an outcropping of rocks. Nisbet and his crew anchored their ship, and a small expedition rowed to a nearby shore. They allegedly found themselves on Hy-Brasil, where they claimed to have encountered black rabbits, a magician in a castle, and a kind old man who gave them gold and silver. Though the story of Nesbit’s crew may a fictitious invention, his discovery of the island purportedly prompted a second ship, this one captained by Alexander Johnson, to explore Hy-Brasil. Apparently, Johnson’s men were able to find the island as well and confirm Nesbit’s accounts. Two centuries later, in 1872, antiquarian and archaeologist T. J. Westrop also allegedly saw the island while sailing with his mother, brother, and several friends. Westrop had reportedly seen the island before, but in this final viewing, he and the other allegedly saw the island “suddenly” appear. “It was a clear evening, with a fine golden sunset, when, just as the sun went down, a dark island suddenly appeared far out to sea, but not on the horizon,” Westrop stated. “It had two hills, one wooded; between these, from a low plain, rose towers and curls of smoke. My mother, brother, Ralph Hugh Westropp, and several friends saw it at the same time.” Public DomainT.J. Westropp, an Irish antiquarian and archaeologist who claimed to see Hy-Brasil in the 19th century. Shortly thereafter, in 1878, the residents of Ballycotton, County Cork also allegedly saw the island. According to a collection of Irish tales put together in 1888 by D. R. McAnally, the residents noticed an island “where none was known to exist.” McAnally writes: “The men of the town and island of Ballycotton were fishermen and knew the sea as well as they knew the land. The day before, they had been out in their boats and sailed on the spot where the strange island now appeared… the day was clear and the island could be seen as plainly… It was rugged in some parts rocky, in others densely wooded; here and there were deep shadows in its sides indicating glens heavily covered with undergrowth and grasses.” Around the same time, however, Hy-Brasil began to disappear from maps of Europe. It seemingly last appeared on an 1873 British Admiralty Chart before it vanished back into the mist. The Legacy Of An Irish Legend Today, Hy-Brasil is mostly a charming setting for fantasy works, featured in films like Erik the Viking and books like Mary Stewart’s Merlin Trilogy. Elusive, magical, and located on the edge of reality, it’s reminiscent of other “lost” places like Atlantis or the continent of Lemuria. So what is Hy-Brasil? Maybe the island is a mirage. Maybe adding a fake island was a mapmaker’s trick, to track those who copied them. Or maybe Hy-Brasil exists somewhere off the coast of island, shrouded in mist, except for one day every seven years. Whatever it is, stories of the “Enchanted Island” help lend a touch more magic to the history of the Emerald Isle. After reading about the legend of Hy-Brasil, the Irish island that purportedly only appears every seven years, discover the fascinating stories of mythical creatures from Irish folklore. Or, go inside the harrowing story of Loftus Hall, the most haunted mansion in Ireland. The post The Enchanting Story Of Hy-Brasil, The Mythical Irish Island That Purportedly Appears Every Seven Years appeared first on All That's Interesting.

Colorized photo of the plague of Florence in 1348, as described in Boccaccio’s Decameron by Luigi Sabatelli, in the Wellcome Collection   Medieval Europe faced many problems caused by a growing population that reduced the value of peasant labor. Land scarcity also caused many peasants to be bound to manors owed by landlords. Consequently, feudal lords ended up controlling the daily lives of agricultural laborers (serfs) and suppressed any resistance in order to maintain the status quo. The system shaped medieval life in Europe for hundreds of years. However, it was decimated by the Black Death, along with other factors.    When the Black Death Began Dance Macabre, from the Nuremberg Chronicles, by Michael Woglemut, 1493. Source: The MET, New York   In 1347, Europe was struck by a demographic catastrophe as the Black Death spread. Approximately half of the continent’s population was wiped out in four years. The plague was indiscriminate and brutal, shattering the core system on which feudalism was based as both landlords and peasants lost their lives. Soaring death tolls soon slowed down agricultural production and crippled economic activity across the continent. The demographic shock led to a rise in demand for peasant labor due to a severe labor shortage. As entire villages were wiped out, many lords started to pay higher wages to their workers in order to get them to cultivate their lands.   The Plague in Rome by an unknown artist, c. 17th century, via Getty Images   Soon, peasants in some struggling manors started to convert their newfound leverage into social and economic freedom through wage labor. Landlords now competed for workers. In many cases, peasants demanded and received higher wages. Serfs soon abandoned their ancestral manors for better offers.   How Revolts Led to the Decline of Feudalism Serfs as depicted in the Queen Mary’s Psalter, 14th century. Source: Medievalminds.com   The growing power of the peasantry led to aristocratic concerns and prompted authorities to pass laws designed to realign economic systems. In England, the Ordinance of Labourers of 1349, for example, partnered with the Statute of Labourers in 1351 to set fixed pre-plague wage limits across the kingdom. The attempts to turn back the clock were, however, futile as prevailing labor shortages forced landlords to pay higher wages in contravention of the statutes.   Tensions between the aristocrats and peasants across Europe soon led to open revolts that decried the re-imposition of old feudal wages. According to accounts from chroniclers, the French Jacquerie revolt, for example, led to chaos in 1358. Similarly, English peasants began to use organized rebellion to fight back against aristocratic control. The English Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 was, for example, massively popular.   Although the revolts were eventually suppressed, they sent a clear message to the ruling class, and the nobles became afraid of causing more rebellions. They were also less likely to enforce the rules of serfdom. This fear helped speed up the shift to a system of free labor.   Events After the Upheavals Sheep farming, from the Luttrell Psalter, c. 1320–1340   The long-term result of the upheavals was the slow death of traditional serfdom. The nature of the manorial system on which feudalism was based had allowed it to function across lands that may otherwise have been difficult for a central government to control. But the plague made the system inconvenient for lords looking for reliable labor. As such, lords began to abandon the old system of labor service and corvée, in favor of cash payments.   Alternative types of land use also started to emerge such as sheep farming for wool, which required far fewer workers when compared to grain cultivation, for example. Increased wages, additionally, created a new class of prosperous peasants and yeomen, who could now buy their own land, blurring the old social divides.   How Conflicts Hastened the Process The spread of the Black Death in Europe, North Africa, and the Near East (1346–1353) Source: Wikipedia   Long-lasting conflicts, especially the Hundred Years’ War that spanned from 1337 to 1453 between England and France, also weakened the feudal system. The nature of warfare also changed. The traditional feudal knight on horseback was no longer the most effective soldier. Paid, trained soldiers were much more powerful.   To fight the new kinds of wars, kings needed to raise their own professional armies instead of relying on their nobles to provide knights. To pay for these armies, kings created new systems of taxation that collected money directly from the general population. The system achieved two things. It made the king the central, most powerful figure in the land and stripped local lords of their authority.   Economic Changes That Emerged After the Black Death The Unicorn Purifies Water, from the Unicorn Tapestries, French/Netherlandish, c. 1495-1505. Source: The Metropolitan Museum   After the Black Death, the old ways of life in Europe fell apart and almost everything changed. As the serfdom social system weakened, peasants embraced creative means to improve their lives. Some poor farm workers, for example, began to sell goods in markets that used to be controlled by the rich.    The changes meant that wealth came more from the money one earned rather than the land that they inherited. The new economy also compelled many peasants to leave the countryside for towns to find better jobs. As a result, many cities grew bigger. A new middle class made up of skilled workers and sellers also emerged from the shift in economic dynamics. Ultimately, the terrible sickness led to a new age where people had more economic freedom.

  Nestled high in the Caucasus Mountains bordering Russia, Svaneti is a place of jaw-dropping beauty, fierce independence, and unbroken traditions. For centuries, this remote region defied the mightiest empires, from the Mongols to the Russians, managing to preserve its unique identity in a way no other region could. It is hidden among snow-capped peaks and deep valleys, its smattering of ancient villages seemingly untouched by time. Today, Svaneti is an unrivaled, off-the-beaten-path destination for lovers of untamed wilderness and history—challenging to get to but incredibly rewarding.   Svaneti: A Land That Bowed to No One Svaneti’s famous towers, with the Caucasus in the background, photo by Arian Zwegers. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Svaneti’s story is primarily one of defiance. Shielded by the sheer vertiginous walls of the Caucasus, the Svans—an ancient Georgian highland people—resisted every army that tried to subdue them. Even when Mongol and Persian forces swept through the lowlands, they never managed to break Svaneti’s defenses. The region became Georgia’s very last refuge, where kings sent their most sacred relics for safekeeping.   Medieval towers of Svaneti, photo by Arian Swegers. Source: Flickr   During the Middle Ages, Svaneti thrived in its near-complete isolation. While the rest of Georgia fell under Ottoman and Persian influence, the Svans maintained their own way of life, governed by blood ties, unwritten codes of honor, and warrior traditions. The landscape is still dotted with medieval stone towers, once used as both homes and fortresses, a sign of constant vigilance against invaders. Because in this part of the world, one must never lower one’s defenses.   Svaneti’s mountains are the highest on the European continental shelf, photo by Panoramio. Source: Wikimedia Commons   When the Russian Empire expanded into the Caucasus in the 19th century, the Svans stood their ground once again. It wasn’t until 1858 that they reluctantly accepted Russian rule, but even then, control remained superficial, and the area mostly autonomous. Being cut off from the rest of the empire geographically meant Svaneti was essentially left to rule over itself. The Soviet Era saw attempts to modernize and integrate Svaneti, yet its people remained fiercely attached to their traditions, language, and autonomy. Even nowadays, the region feels like a world apart—a living relic of a time when mountains meant freedom.   Best Historical Highlights in Svaneti You Shouldn’t Miss   1. Mestia: The Beating Heart of Svaneti Photo of Mestia after dark, by Uwe Brodrecht. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Mestia is the main town and gateway to the Svaneti region, which is known for its rich history. Walking through its narrow streets, you’ll find medieval stone towers rising above traditional Svan homes, remnants of a time when every family built its own fortress for survival. Aside from being defensive, these iconic towers, some over 1,000 years old, were symbols of lineage, power, wealth, and resilience.   A visit to the Svaneti Museum of History and Ethnography is essential. This treasure trove holds gold and silver icons, ancient manuscripts, and intricate Svan artifacts, many of which were hidden away here during Georgia’s darkest times to prevent them from being stolen or destroyed. You’ll also find illuminated gospels from the 9th century, rare medieval armor, and religious relics that once belonged to Georgian royalty.   Mestia is where past and present meet. While modernity has reached this highland town (the main road from the capital, Tbilisi, is now fully sealed, albeit with a few oversized potholes), traditions remain strong. Locals still speak the Svan language—totally unrelated to Georgian or Russian—and ancient polyphonic singing echoes through the valley during feasts and celebrations.   2. Ushguli: Europe’s Highest Inhabited Village Ushguli and its extraordinary towers, photo by Dito1993. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Perched at an altitude of 6,890 feet (2,100 meters), Ushguli is one of Europe’s highest continuously inhabited settlements and one of the most striking. With its cluster of ancient towers set against the backdrop of Mount Shkhara, Georgia’s tallest peak (17,027 feet/5,193 meters), Ushguli feels like a place untouched by time. It is no wonder it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.   What makes Ushguli remarkable isn’t just its (literal) breathtaking altitude but rather its exquisite isolation. The village has been inhabited for over a thousand years, with families passing down homes and fortresses from generation to generation. Many of the stone towers, which number more than houses, date back to the 9th and 10th centuries. They were built to protect against invaders and blood feuds, and some were inhabited well into the 20th century.   Despite harsh winters and near-total cut-off from the outside world, people here still live by the old ways—herding livestock, baking in traditional stone ovens, and preserving customs unchanged for centuries. Because of its remoteness, Ushguli was sometimes used as a place of banishment for criminals and outcasts. They had nowhere to escape—the mountains made sure of that!   3. Chazhashi Everywhere you look, towers! Photo of Chazhashi by Franck Zecchin-Faure. Source: Flickr   The village of Chazhashi is a place of folkloric legends, home to one of the world’s most remarkable concentrations of medieval defensive towers. Unlike other parts of Georgia, where castles were built for rulers, in Svaneti, entire villages were fortified.   Chazhashi is part of the UNESCO-listed Upper Svaneti region and is home to over 200 ancient structures, many of which likewise date back nearly a thousand years. Families would retreat inside during times of danger, sometimes living for months on stored supplies. Although external conflicts were rare, internal clashes were a regular part of Svan life.   Walking through Chazhashi feels quite surreal. Stone towers rise in every direction, and you can still climb some of them for sweeping views of the Enguri River Valley. Unlike the more touristy Mestia, Chazhashi retains a raw, almost ghostly atmosphere. Many of its structures are now abandoned and make for fantastic explorations. If you want to feel the true historic spirit of Svaneti, this is where to go.   4. The Church of St. Kvirike and Ivlita Church of St Kvirike and Ivlita, photo by Natia an. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Hidden away in the blink-and-you’ll-miss-it village of Kala, the unassuming 12th-century Church of St. Kvirike and Ivlita holds some of Georgia’s most beautiful medieval frescoes. Its vibrant murals, showcasing the artistry of Svaneti, have wonderfully withstood the test of time.   Unlike grand European cathedrals, Svan churches were built in secrecy—small, humble, and often hidden in the mountains to protect them from invaders. This one is particularly striking because of its dramatic location, set against cliffs and wild landscapes. The frescoes inside depict biblical scenes with a distinctive mix of Byzantine and local artistic styles.   One of the most fascinating aspects of this church is that it still plays a central role in local life. Every summer, Svans gather here for the Kvirikoba Festival, an ancient religious and pagan celebration that includes traditional feasts, horse races, boulder tossing, and sacred rituals. It is one of the rare chances foreign visitors have to witness a long-standing historical tradition that has remained unchanged for hundreds of years.   5. The Enguri Hydro Power Dam: A Soviet Megastructure in Svaneti Photo of Enguri dam, by Karelj. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Enguri Dam is an unmissable highlight for history lovers, although it is one of the region’s most recent. It was built in the 1970s and is considered a Soviet-era engineering marvel. It has one of the tallest arch dams in the world, standing at 891 feet (271.5 meters), and feeds hydroelectric power not only to Georgia but also to the breakaway region of Abkhazia, making it one of the most politically complex and highly contentious structures in the Caucasus.   The dam itself is a testament to Soviet ambition, designed to harness the raw power of the 132-mile-long Enguri River, which carves through the Svaneti mountains. Enguri is Europe’s tallest dam and, up until 2000, when China began constructing mega-dams in earnest, was the third tallest in the world. Beyond its gargantuan size, the Enguri Dam is also a symbol of Georgia’s complex relationship with its Soviet past and its present geopolitical struggles. You’ll learn much more on this on guided tours of the dam, which are highly recommended!   6. The Monastery of Mkheri There are no shortages of remote monasteries to visit in Georgia. Pictured above is Jvari, near Mtskheta. Photo by Alexxx1979. Source: Wikimedia Commons   If you seek to visit a remote historical highlight, the Mkheri Monastery might just be the spot for you. It is an arduous pilgrimage well worth making. The remote 12th-century monastery sits high above Mestia and is accessible only by a grueling hike, but the reward is unmatched.   In contrast to Georgia’s more well-known religious sites, Mkheri remains way off the tourist trail. Its isolated location was intentional—monks built it in the mountains to escape invasions and practice their faith in peace. Few foreign visitors make it here, which makes the experience even more extraordinary. The silence is broken only by the wind, the occasional ringing of cowbells, and the distant murmur of mountain streams.   7. The Nakipari Church of St George A fresco in the Nakipari church, depicting the torture of St George, photo by T’eodore. Source: National Agency for the Cultural Heritage of Georgia   Deep in the Iprari Valley, snuggled between mountain slopes and rushing rivers, stands the Nakipari Church of St. George, a site that embodies both the spiritual and warrior traditions of Svaneti. It was built in the 10th century near the village of Iprari, and houses frescoes painted by the famous Tevdore, one of Georgia’s most celebrated medieval artists. His work also appears in Zarzma Monastery and other important sites across the country.   The frescoes inside Nakipari are strikingly bright, showing Christ, saints, and warrior figures in rich reds and deep blues. One of the most intriguing details is how some figures are depicted wearing traditional Svan warrior gear, showing the fusion of religious and local traditions that has defined Svaneti’s history since Christianity was introduced to the region in the 4th century.   Nakipari is also home to a prized relic—a 9th-century icon of St. George, one of the most revered saints in the country. It was once at risk of being stolen, so locals moved it to Mestia’s Historical-Ethnographic Museum, where it is now safely displayed. Although some believe the country was named after St. George, debates as to its etymology abound. Mostly, because in Georgian, the country is named “Sakartvelo,” deriving from the Kartvelian people.

  Beowulf is the longest and most well-known Old English poem, probably composed between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. However, while Beowulf was composed in Old English, it describes heroes from Germanic tribes living in Scandinavia in the 6th century CE. Why did the English composers decide to produce such a complex work about their overseas neighbors, and how much of the poem preserves verifiable information about the pre-Viking world versus how the Christian English imagined life in the pagan world on the other side of the North Sea?   When Was Beowulf Composed? The opening words of Beowulf, in the Nowell Codex (Cotton MS Vitellius A XV, f. 132r.), c. 11th century. Source: British Library   The oldest surviving manuscript of Beowulf, known as the Nowell Codex, dates between 975 and 1025 CE. It is part of Cotton MS Vitellius A XV, which is considered one of the four major Old English poetic manuscripts. The manuscript also contains The Life of Saint Christopher, Wonders of the East, Letter of Alexander to Aristotle, and Judith. However, it is best known for its association with Beowulf and is sometimes referred to as the Beowulf Manuscript. Nevertheless, it is presumed that the poem itself was composed earlier and transmitted orally before it was finally recorded.   The story is set in Scandinavia during the pre-Viking era of the 6th century CE, providing this version of the poem with a terminus post quem. But determining when the poem was composed is important, because while the poem describes a thoroughly pagan world, England was undergoing swift Christianization in the 6th and 7th centuries. Therefore, the composition date can help us better understand the origins of the descriptions of paganism in the poem.   If the poem is old, with a long oral tradition, the pagan elements described in the story may recall first-hand knowledge and experience preserved over the centuries. A later composition date, for example in the 10th century, suggests that pagan elements were added to create atmosphere and may have been based on assumptions about heathen neighbors.   Reconstructed rider motif from the Sutton Hoo Helmet and a Danish stamp from Tåsinge showing a similar motif. Source: National Museum of Denmark   Scholarly opinion is currently divided. Some scholars favor a composition date in the 7th century, during which time there were strong cultural and economic ties between East Anglia and Scandinavia. This connection is evident in the archaeological record, for example, the Sutton Hoo ship burial, an Anglo-Saxon ship burial with clear Norse influences. It has long been suggested that the famous Sutton Hoo Helmet could have been imported from Scandinavia. Moreover, a newly discovered metal stamp found in Denmark shows a warrior on horseback that matches a motif on the Sutton Hoo Helmet, potentially confirming Danish origins. New DNA studies also suggest a significant Scandinavian presence in East Anglia between 500 and 800 CE.   Other scholars suggest that the poem could not have been composed until the start of the 11th century, when Norse influence in England had become more pronounced following Viking raids, the arrival of the Great Heathen Army, and the reigns of Viking kings of England, including Swein Forkbeard and Cnut the Great. This is supported by clear Christian references in the text, for example, Grendel is described as a descendant of Cain, one of the sons of Adam and Eve.   Beowulf: Plot Summary Reconstruction of the Sutton Hoo Helmet. Source: Smart History   The poem is named for the eponymous hero Beowulf, who is described as coming from the Germanic Geats tribe that had settled in the Gotland region of southern Sweden. However, the story starts by introducing King Hrothgar of Denmark, who built a mighty mead hall called Heorot to celebrate his prosperous reign. The noise from his hall angers a monster living in nearby swamplands, called Grendel, who proceeds to attack Hrothgar’s kingdom every night for 12 years.   Beowulf hears about Hrothgar’s situation and is inspired to take up the challenge. He sails to Denmark with a small group of warriors determined to slay the monster. While he is welcomed, and a great feast is held in his honor, one of the Danes, called Unnfert, taunts Beowulf, suggesting that he is not worthy of his reputation. Beowulf responds by telling stories of his great exploits.   Illustration of Grenel, by J.R. Skelton, 1908. Source: Wikimedia Commons   That night, Grendel appears as expected, and Beowulf fights him bare-handed. He rips off the monster’s arm, and the mortally wounded Grendel returns to his swamp to die.   While the community is celebrating the fall of Grendel, his mother, a swamp hag, descends on the hall to get revenge. On the night she arrives, she murders Aeschere, one of Hrothgar’s most trusted advisors. This time, a company of warriors travels to the swamp, where Beowulf dives into the water and fights with Grendel’s mother, killing her with a sword forged for a giant. He also finds Grendel’s corpse and decapitates it, bringing his head back to the hall as evidence of his victory.   As a result of these great victories, Beowulf’s fame spreads. When he returns to his homeland, he recounts the stories to his king and queen. Beowulf gives his king most of the treasure he had been given by Hrothgar, and the king rewards him richly in return.   Bees, Serpents, and Dragons in a Bestiary, Harley 3244, fols. 58v–59, c. 1236-75, Source: The Getty Blog   Soon after, both the king of the Geats and his son die. Beowulf is made the new king. He rules wisely for 50 years, but as an old man, a thief disturbs a burial barrow where a dragon is hiding a hoard of treasure. The enraged dragon starts attacking the Geats. Even though Beowulf feels his imminent death, he goes to fight the dragon, and with the help of his friend Wiglaf, kills the beast. But the dragon also bites his neck, and its venom kills him moments after the encounter. His body is burned and buried in a barrow.   Beowulf’s Historical Setting Map of Germanic tribe migrations between 400-600 CE. Source: University of Cambridge   While the debate over when Beowulf was composed remains open, there is evidence that the epic tale was set in the historical world of 6th-century Scandinavia.   First, many of the clans and people mentioned in Beowulf also appear independently in Norse sources. To take just one example, Healfdene is named as the father of Hrothgar and as the previous king of the Scyldings in Beowulf. He also appears in Old Norse sources as a king of the same people and as a son or brother of Frodi, a Viking who appears in many historical sources. Healfdene appears in two 12th-century Danish works, the Chronicon Lethrense and Saxo Grammaticus’ Gesta Danorum. He also appears in later Icelandic works, including the Ynglinga saga, the Saga of Hrolf Kraki, and the Skjoldunga saga, which recounts the story of the historical clan he is said to have led.   Certain historical events referenced also appear to be genuine. In Beowulf, there is a battle on the ice of Lake Vanern. It begins with the death of the Swedish king Ohthere, often regarded as the first historical king of Sweden, when his brother Onela attempted to seize his throne. Ohthere’s sons flee to the Geats, currently ruled by Beowulf’s brother Heardred. When Onela attacks the Geats, Headred is killed, so in vengeance, Beowulf decides to help one of the sons, Eadgils, retake the Swedish throne. This results in a battle between Eadgils and the Geats against Onela on the ice of the lake. This event also appears in the same Norse sagas, which describe a conflict between Onela, also known as Ali, and Eadgils, also known as Adils. The raid by King Hygelac into Frisia is also mentioned by Gregory of Tours in his History of the Franks, confirming it as another historical event.   Ragnarök, color lithograph on paper by Louis Moe, 1898, in Alfred Jacobsen, Danmarks Historie i Billeder VII. Ragnarök, Source: GetArchive   This suggests that whoever composed the poem had a good grasp of the legendary history of Scandinavia. They also seem to have been familiar with Norse mythology, as Beowulf’s battle with the dragon clearly mirrors the story of Thor’s final fight with the serpent monster Jormungandr at Ragnarök. According to the prophecy, at the end of days, the god Thor will kill Jormungandr, but will die within seconds of his victory due to the amount of venom the serpent spits onto his body.   Beowulf is then laid to rest according to Viking pagan tradition, with his body cremated and his remains placed in a burial mound.   Is Beowulf a Useful Historical Source? Reconstructed Viking Age longhouse at the Trelleborg Museum. Source: National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen   Due to the clear Christian references in the surviving text of Beowulf, scholars have suggested that we be cautious when using Beowulf as a historical source for the Norse world of the 6th century. However, there is also evidence that the composers of Beowulf had some knowledge of the pre-Viking world of that time.   In a recent publication, Beowulf and the North Before the Vikings, historian Tom Shippey cites archaeological evidence to support certain aspects of Norse life depicted in Beowulf. He cites a passage about “taking away the mead-benches from many tribes.” This suggests that as part of their territorial conquests within the Norse realm, the Scyldings destroyed the long halls of other tribes as a way of destroying their power centers. This kind of activity is now being supported by archaeologists at the University of Uppsala. They have found evidence of mead halls that have been deliberately smashed and vandalized but not plundered, suggesting ritual over violence.   This suggests that Beowulf may contain interesting insights about the early Viking world, but like all our written sources for the Viking Age, written by Christian observers, everything must be evaluated with care to unpick genuine memory preserved through centuries of oral tradition from the projections of Christian authors who had already been living in a very different world for centuries.