Was King George III quite absurd or just misunderstood? Was he really the mad King that ruled like a tyrant or was he simply a man who succumbed to mental illness? If so, can we argue that he as an individual as well as his legacy have been misjudged and misconstrued? The year is 1788. At Kew Palace. Inside the stone walls, a 50-year-old King George has descended into madness in the last few months. His behavior and mannerisms have shifted from calm and confident to agitated, angry and incoherent. The problem unclear, his family and five personal doctors are concerned. In their panic the King is placed into a mental asylum to be treated in secrecy. The question that concerns the monarchy is can the King be cured or will his legacy be overshadowed by his illness?Sophie Riley explains. George III. 1779 painting by Benjamin West. The Crisis of 1788-89By late 1788, the Kings decline could no longer be ignored what started as hours of endless monologues quickly turned into violent outbursts that ended in tearful fits. His Courtiers watched in alarm as they witnessed the decline of a man they once respected.Doctors were quickly summoned but late 18th century medicine was ill equipped for curing mental illnesses. Some believed his blood had been poisoned which caused the king to have consistent bloodletting sessions, whilst others believed his mental decline was caused by his nerves and the rest blamed it on divine punishment. Alongside the bloodletting the additional treatments were severe and coldly dished out. In their desperation for the king’s welfare, he was subjected to hours of isolation, physical restraints and blistering several doctors in the hope of shocking the King back to good health.  None worked and he became a spectacle and a man to be feared by parliament and his own family.As the Kings condition declined, the monarchy teetered on the brink. With the sovereign ill who would govern the country if the worst should happen? The Price of Wales and his allies pushed for the Regency Bill to be drawn up, whilst the Kings hopeful ministers clung to a quick recovery.  Britain however would have to watch in a state of desperation as their fate hung in the balance of a man’s fragile mind.  Contemporary Conceptions As the King’s health continued to decline, the news began to spread beyond the confinements of Kew Palace. His illness became a public spectacle. Britain in 1788 was nation of rumor where daily updates about the King’s mental wellbeing spread like wildfire through tavern gossip and in the news bulletins.  The caricature of the mad monarch pacing the palace grounds became a source of both pity and fascination by the public. For ordinary citizens to see the king decline felt like a personal attack on their stability. Despite his legacy of madness King George III was a dutiful and conscientious monarch who made decisions for the good of his country.  Despite his loss of America, he was a popular figure who brough stability in a time of industrial and social change. As well as being a dutiful monarch he was also a devote family man who set an example for his wife, children, and his people.   To see him unravel like this was to watch stability begin to shatter, some prayed for his recovery whilst others deemed this as a divine punishment for losing their colonies in America.  The media of the 18th century like now was unforgiving, Satirical artists seized an opportunity to dehumanizer and degrade the King.  Caricature images of George in deranged poses surrounded by his concerned family and attendants appeared daily. He was forever compared to the Flamboyant Price of Wales who was portrayed as a saint waiting eagerly for power. These cruel yet compelling images shaped the public’s imagination by reducing a complex human illness to a farce. Parliament became a political battlefield in which the kings condition became ammunition for both sides. The Prince of Wales argued for immediate regency through establishing the Regency Bill, however the Kings cabinet insisted on patience and loyalty to the crown. George’s health became a state emergency where every doctor’s report and flicker of coherence where up for debate as if it where law. The monarchy during this time had never been so fragile.  Yet despite all the mockery and intrigue there was a quiet sympathy from those who served the King personally. Accounts from them speak of a man who was tormented by illness, a man who begged for forgiveness from his wife and children and above all this a sovereign who begged for empathy from those around him. In their eyes George was not mad but a tragic symbol of human fragility.  Medical Theories Then and NowMedicine and science were still a mystery when King Georges health declined. His physicians observed his erratic behavior and yet they had no framework to go off. The belief during the 18th century was to purge and shock the body into releasing the illness. Treatments were brutal and consisted of constant bloodletting and purging whilst being restrained. The Kings Doctors led by Francis Willis believed that a combination of strict control and moral discipline would restore their King. Towards the end of the century, it seemed that the Kings health was improving as he began to recover and gradually return to his royal duties. His subjects, parliament and his family were both relieved and uncertain. Historians today are also stunned as some would argue that his recovery was miraculous, however modern historians believed that his illness had a cyclical nature and that the moments of clarity were followed by relapse.  The mystery of King George’s illness still baffles people today. Researchers in the 20th century would propose that King George III suffered from porphyria when they studied his medical records. Porphyria is a disorder that affects your nervous system which in turn can cause confusion, depression, and memory loss. This proposal at the time was very persuasive as it transformed the mad king into a misunderstood patient.  For decades the diagnosis of Porphyria would reign until modern day scholars revisited his records and in turn cast a shadow on the late King’s diagnosis. Recent in-depth studies into the Kings medical records and his own personal letters have highlighted a more appropriate diagnosis of bipolar disorder. His personal letters highlight periods of mania where his energy would burst off the page in long sentences some of which contained over 400 words and eight verbs.  he would also often repeat himself and talk until he was foaming at the mouth.    Were eighteenth century physicians saw mental weakness and twentieth century researchers saw chemistry, twenty first century scientists seen a mind that was struggling with mental illness. This ever-changing diagnosis tells us much about ourselves as a society as it does about King George’s condition. Each century has diagnosed and depicted his story to fit their own understanding of madness- from divine punishment to bodily disorder to mental health condition. However, what remains consistent is the humanizing of George’s suffering. The King who once governed an empire was reduced to a man trapped by the medicine and judgements of his time. A King Beyond IllnessHistory remembers him for his madness but King George should be remembered for more than just that.  Long before the illness came, he had already changed the country and the monarchy in ways that would extend beyond his lifetime. Unlike previous monarchs, George valued simplicity in life and the monarchy, he showed this in his devotion to his wife and fifteen children.  He strived to make the monarchy a symbol of morality in the age of scandal. His modest lifestyle and agricultural interests earned him the affectionate nickname Farmer George which showed his enthusiasm for rural improvement and scientific innovation. George was also a consumer of the arts and had a passion for knowledge which he showed in creating a national library from his own personal book collection. He was also the first monarch to have a formal education in science and have his own astronomical observatory. This shows that despite his illness George seen himself as a servant of the people and not just a ruler from privilege. Even in the face of losing the Americas and bouts of illness George’s resilience was remarkable.  His subjects who once either ridiculed or where fearful of him came to see him as a symbol of endurance and strength. By the end of his reign satire had been replaced with sympathy. The once mocked King was now a symbol of dignity in suffering— a man who wore his crown and his condition with strength. Conclusion- Reassessing King George IIITo label George as the mad King is a sign that you support his enemies who were calling for his abdication. His story is one of tragic humanity where a man was reduced to a shell of himself due to mental illness. An illness that pulled his whole life as a king, father, and a servant to his people into question.  His legacy has become a footnote of his own derangement. This sadly overshadows the diligent monarch, father, and the patron of artistic and scientific progression that we have come to discover.  He was a man who struggled with illness in a time were no sympathy was given and no medicine could cure. The ability we have now to reassess him is to acknowledge not just human tragedy but also the endurance of George’s spirit. Perhaps, in understanding him better, we also see how far our own perceptions of mental health and the monarchy have come.  Did you find that piece interesting? If so, join us for free by clicking here.

The Battle of the Somme, fought between July and November 1916, is often remembered as a symbol of futile slaughter and military incompetence. This perception stems from the staggering casualties and the protracted nature of the battle. However, a closer examination reveals a more nuanced reality. The offensive was a strategic response to relieve pressure ...

  Although the longsword and katana are often compared to one another in hypothetical debates about which sword is better, some commentators point out that the longsword may not be the most apt weapon to compare to the katana because it is too different mechanically. How true that is lies outside the scope of this piece; instead, we’re going to compare the katana to similar cutting blades of various traditions, collectively called sabers.   A caveat: we aren’t attempting to decide which sword is inherently better. Every weapon created is intended for use in its specific context. Where one sword might excel, another may fall short, and vice versa. This is simply an analysis of the katana as it compares to the saber.   Katana Overview Katana, c. 1500. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The katana has existed in one form or another since the late 13th century and was in military use until World War II. It is a refinement of earlier swords such as the tachi. It is 36 inches long, and roughly 28 inches of that is the blade.   The weapon has a gentle curvature that lends itself well to drawing and cutting, and once out, it can be used in one or two hands. However, most ryuha (Japanese fencing styles) teach the use of both hands for most situations; the extra length of the hilt grants extra leverage. One aspect that singles out the katana is its distinctive hilt: it is constructed of wood and made to hold the tang of the blade with friction and retaining pins. Atop the wooden core of the hilt, a fishskin wrapping and a flat cotton or silk wrapping make the katana easy to grip, both from the contours of the wrap and the material’s absorbency.   The handguard, or tsuba, is an iron or brass disc or square that offers only slight protection for the hands, mainly being used to keep the swordsman from sliding his own hand up onto the blade inadvertently. However, the comparative lack of protection gave the ability to quickly grasp the hilt and be ready for action.   Although it only weighs a kilogram on average, the lack of a pommel and the relatively thick blade make the katana a slightly tip-heavy sword. Its blade profile is larger than the saber, with the wedge-like curved structure making it suited for fast, powerful blows driven by hip rotation.   Saber Overview British military saber, 1796. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The saber, a single-edged, one-handed sword, was originally the chief close-combat weapon of the various nomadic tribes of 5th-century Eurasia, such as the Avars, Magyars, Huns, and others. These tribes fought mostly from horseback. Cutting downward from such a height advantage and the momentum from a galloping horse with a curved blade like the saber is devastating to the victim. Different variants of the saber had their own curvature. Through the centuries, the saber became the adopted weapon for cavalry and infantry officers, eventually becoming the close-quarters sidearm until swords were phased out of military action altogether because of the bayonet.   Unlike the katana, it is not possible to use the saber in two hands because there is not enough room on the hilt. Also, many saber hilts have a knuckle bow or similar guard that wraps around the hand, so it could be used as a sort of brass knuckle–style implement. The saber weighs about the same as the katana, with some variation. Both the distal and profile cross-sections are thinner, creating a nimble sword that can be used to make cuts from the wrist as well as the elbow.   How Were They Wielded? Taiheiki Eiyu-den, by Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 1849. Source: Japanese Prints   Schools of Japanese fencing teach that the katana be held with the smallest and ring fingers gripping the hilt, a moderate grip with the middle finger, and the index finger and thumb barely touching. Cuts mostly receive their power through a step that drives hip and torso movement. The arms and hands naturally follow. The most common targets are the crown of the head, throat, collarbones, torso, wrists, and the insides of the thighs.   The saber tended to be wielded with more emphasis on motions driven from the elbow and wrist. Cuts occurred along diagonal and horizontal lines, with wrist rotations called moulinets aiding in transition from one angle to another. The left hand often rested on the hip to act as an aid in supporting the swordsman’s upright posture.   What Societal Role Did These Swords Have? American Civil War cavalry officer at the Battle of Hanover. Source: Gettysburg Daily   To fully compare the katana and the saber, it is also important to consider their social context. The katana was, in addition to being a battlefield backup weapon, the everyday carry weapon for samurai. After the Great Sword Hunt of 1588, ordered by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, only samurai were legally permitted to own a katana or any other weapons, as a means of quelling peasant unrest. Samurai wore it and the wakizashi as a pair called daisho, which served as a samurai’s signifier of social status. Even if they were not master swordsmen, they were expected to have at least a basic skill in handling the weapon. Numerous schools of fencing developed in the Sengoku and Edo periods.   The saber was also a military sidearm worn by the officer class in the military, but unlike the katana, there were fewer legal restrictions on its ownership. Of course, Japan is a single country, while various European countries over the medieval, Renaissance, and Early Modern periods used them to various degrees. That being said, swords were far too expensive to afford for most people and had little practical purpose outside warfare. Wealthy civilians in many European countries in the 17th through 19th centuries would instead use a smallsword or a pistol for dueling or self-defense.   Did Katana and Saber Designs Draw From One Another? Kyu-gunto (bottom) and shin-gunto (top) on a sword rack. Source: Wikimedia Commons   For most of its history, Japan had little to no contact with the various European nations except for Portugal and the Netherlands. When Commodore Matthew Perry landed in Tokyo Harbor in 1854, Japan was forced for the first time in over two centuries to open its ports to the outside world. The exposure to modernized technology drove the Japanese to aggressively pursue a program of modernization and emulation of the Western world. The samurai class was abolished and prohibited from wearing swords.   As Japan developed a nationalized military, they equipped their officers with sabers at first; then merged the design elements with traditional katana. The resulting sword was called the kyu-gunto. It had a closed handguard and shorter grip, as well as a shorter blade. Kyu-gunto and other military swords post-Meiji were made on an industrial scale for equipping officers, gradually replaced by shin-gunto, which more closely resembled a traditional katana. Some officers who came from samurai families would bring their family katana into battle.   There is little to no evidence of the katana’s design influencing Western swords on a widespread scale, although individual swordsmiths may have incorporated aspects they found appealing.

  Before Europeans spread their influence across the Western Hemisphere, the Americas were a place with vibrant cultures stretching from the frigid north and south to the temperate zones and the tropics. The land offered its bounty, and great civilizations rose and fell long before Columbus made his voyage west.   These civilizations built towns and cities, with great construction works and wonders, some of which have been lost to the steady march of history.   Here are 4 of the biggest cities that existed in the Americas before colonization (in no particular order).   Cahokia: The Center of the Mississippian Culture Cahokia. Michael Hampshire for the Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site. Source: Wikimedia Commons   From 800 CE to 1600 CE, a collection of Native American societies flourished in the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States. Of the Mississippian Culture’s settlements, Cahokia, believed to be a major religious center, was the largest. It was also likely the largest pre-Columbian/precolonial city north of Mexico.   Cahokia lasted from around 1050 CE to 1350 CE, and at its height in 1100 CE, it is estimated to have been the dwelling place of around 15,000 to 20,000 people, living in an area that covered 40,000 acres. New evidence uncovered in the 21st century suggests the population may have been as high as 40,000, making it larger than contemporaneous European cities like London and Paris.   Although named Cahokia, there is no record of what the inhabitants actually called their city. The Cahokia tribe were the people who lived in the area during the 17th century when French explorers discovered the site.   An artistic reconstruction of what Cahokia looked like. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Archaeological evidence shows that Cahokia was a complex and well-organized city in which urban planning was evident, with the city divided into residential, public, and specialized zones. Feeding such a large population required food, and Cahokia was blessed by being surrounded by fertile land. It is believed that much of this land was used for farming corn.   The society of Cahokia was likely hierarchical in nature, and highly religious. Large mounds played home to religious rites performed by a ruling class of priests. Like many other large societies in pre-Columbian America, these rites included human sacrifice, which was most likely theatrical as well.   The remnants of this great city reside in Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site, eight miles northeast of St. Louis, Missouri. The site contains 51 mounds and partial reconstruction of the city’s palisade. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982.   Teotihuacan: Ancient and Mysterious The view of the Avenue of the Dead from the Pyramid of the Moon. Source: MIKHEIL/Wikimedia Commons   Despite being situated just 25 miles northeast of Mexico City, a site associated with the Aztec Empire, Teotihuacan predates the Aztecs by around 1,500 years. Although the area was settled from around 400 BCE, it was three centuries later that the site underwent massive change with megaprojects being built, transforming the site into an awe-inspiring city filled with structural wonders.   At its height from around 1 CE to 500 CE, Teotihuacan was the biggest city in the Americas, with a population of 25,000 people, although some estimates claim the city may have been home to as many as 125,000 people. The city was dotted with temples and plazas and had a canal that served as a source of water. Bisecting Teotihuacan was the Avenue of the Dead. This road was 1.5 miles long, and 130 feet wide, and terminated at its north end by the magnificent Pyramid of the Moon. An even bigger pyramid, the Pyramid of the Sun, lay on its eastern side.   A ceramic bird from Teotihuacan in the National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Teotihuacan was a massive and powerful trade metropolis at the time, and likely had a monopoly on the obsidian trade, which was extremely important. Other goods such as cotton, cacao, ceramics, and feathers were also likely traded in significant quantities.   Knowledge on who built the city is left to theories and conjecture, but there was possible reciprocal influence, as common design features from past, present, and future civilizations in Central America can be found in Teotihuacan. No one knows who really built the city, and it is very much a subject of archaeological and historical debate.   No one is sure what happened when the city fell either. What is known is that there was a great fire. It has been suggested that there was an uprising against the ruling elite, or that the city was sacked by invaders. Whatever the cause, however, by the middle of the 8th century CE, the city had been abandoned.   Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, Teotihuacan covers 32 square miles (83 square kilometers) and is one of the most visited sites in Mexico.   Chan Chan: A Desert Metropolis The entrance to the Tschudi palace in Chan Chan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The largest city in South America during the pre-Columbian era, Chan Chan was the capital of the Chimor Kingdom, which rose around 900 CE and which was conquered by the Incas in 1470 CE.   Chan Chan is thought to have been built around the middle of the 9th century CE, reaching its peak around 1000 CE. Situated in the arid desert coastal plain of the Pacific, the city was built at the mouth of the Moche River, fed by a glacial lake high up in the Andes. At its height, Chan Chan held an estimated population of between 40,000 and 60,000 people.   The vast ruins span 14 square miles (36 square km) and are remarkably well-preserved due to the dry desert climate in which they are situated. As such, much of the adobe constructions and their details have been preserved. Recent climatic changes and El Niño have threatened the preservation of the city, and some efforts have been made to restore some of the damage. Chan Chan represents the biggest adobe city ever built.   Carved adobe decoration from Chan Chan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The city reflected the hierarchical nature of the society, and the center of the city consists of several walled citadels with plazas, gardens, reservoirs, pyramidal temples, cemeteries, and living spaces for the aristocracy, while the rest of the population lived in much smaller dwellings outside of the city center.   After the Chimor Kingdom was conquered by the Incas, the societal structure of Chan Chan broke down, and the city went into decline. It suffered further when the Spanish established the city of Trujillo 3 miles east of Chan Chan, further diminishing its importance. Soon after, the Spanish looted Chan Chan, and thereafter, its ruins stood abandoned.   It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986.   Tenochtitlan: The Famed City of the Aztecs Painting of Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco on Lake Texcoco. Source: Aztec (Mexica) Gallery, INAH, National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City via Wikimedia Commons   Around 1325, the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan was established on an island near the western coast of Lake Texcoco. The site was chosen according to a prophecy from the war god Huitzilopochtli, who had directed the Aztecs to build a city where they saw an eagle perched on a cactus, eating a snake.   Tenochtitlan grew quickly. A breakaway city Tlatelolco, was established on the north of the island, but was conquered and absorbed into Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs, through alliances and conquests, quickly established dominance in the region, and Tenochtitlan grew to house between 200,000 and 400,000 people. In Europe, only Paris, Venice, and Constantinople were comparable in size at the time.   An illustration of the temple complex at the heart of Tenochtitlan attributed to Diego Rivera, 1900. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Tenochtitlan was a city of immense grandeur with many religious structures and towering pyramids. The greatest of these was the Templo Mayor, a pyramidal temple dedicated to Huitzilopochtli, and the rain god, Tlaloc. Famously, or perhaps infamously, the religious rites performed at this site were particularly gruesome.   Marvels of engineering, the city was connected to the mainland via causeways built of stone, with wooden bridges that could be raised to facilitate water traffic through the water zones.   Tenochtitlan’s story came to an end in 1521 with the arrival of the Spanish and a subsequent siege. Conquistadors, allied with the Tlaxcalan people, razed the city after a 75-day siege. Today, Lake Texcoco has disappeared, and upon it, and the rubble of Tenochtitlan, lies the sprawling metropolis of Mexico City.

  The Medieval Church was the cornerstone of European society, shaping nearly every aspect of life from the 5th to the 15th centuries. It went far beyond the religious sphere, making its presence felt in the social, political, cultural, educational, and economic arenas. It is hard to imagine a part of life that the Church did not directly or indirectly impact. The Church was the glue that kept Medieval society together and shaped its future. From there, the spread of Western culture resulted in the Church having a worldwide impact centuries later, even though it was indirect.   The Religious Role Old Saint Peter’s, 1450, by Henry William Brewer, 1891. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The primary role of the Church was religious. The Church was the mediator of religion to a largely illiterate populace. They administered the sacraments, which the Church at that time, as some still do, considered essential for salvation. At the beginning of the Medieval Period, only baptism and the Eucharist were considered sacraments. During the Middle Ages, the theology of the seven sacraments developed, and the original two saw confirmation, penance (confession), anointing of the sick, holy orders, and matrimony added to their ranks.   Similarly, the Church defined orthodoxy and combated heresy, establishing spiritual and social order within the Church. At times, the methods the Church used to eradicate doctrine that did not align with their own saw groups like the Albigenses, Cathars, and Waldensians persecuted and, in some instances, almost annihilated. These actions would sow the seeds for the Reformation at the end of the Medieval Period.   The Church was instrumental in establishing and ordering spiritual and monastic life. The Church formed Benedictine, Cistercian, Franciscan, Dominican, Carthusian, Augustinian, and Poor Clare orders. The Church established many monasteries that became centers for prayer, scholarship, and asceticism. These establishments preserved religious traditions and fostered spiritual discipline.   The Political Role A depiction of the 11th-century Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and his family barefoot before Pope Gregory VII at Canossa Castle, 1570 CE. Source: Cambridge University   During the latter part of the Medieval Period, the Church wielded significant political power. The Church and secular powers clashed when they impeded each other’s domain. The Investiture Controversy (1075–1122 CE) was one such instance.   The Holy Roman Emperor claimed the authority to appoint (invest) bishops and other church officials. That was a right the Church believed it alone had. Pope Gregory VII issued the Dictatus Papae, a collection of 27 statements asserting the powers and authority of the pope. It asserted papal supremacy, including the right to depose emperors, which the pope used in 1076 when the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry IV, defied him. It famously resulted in the penance at Canossa, where Henry stood barefoot in the snow, seeking the pope’s forgiveness. Papal primacy, however, was not fully settled. Later, Pope Innocent III (1198–1216 CE) asserted the right to intervene in secular affairs, arguing that spiritual power superseded temporal power. The Church’s ability to excommunicate even kings gave it considerable political influence, which it regularly used.   Pope Innocent III, fresco, mid 13th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Medieval Church was fully integrated with the feudal system and became one of the largest landowners in Europe. As such, it increased their political sway because the bishops and abbots managing these estates could mobilize resources to influence local lords and leaders.   Because of its political clout, the Church could play a significant role in medieval diplomacy. Church leaders, at times, mediated conflicts and promoted Christian unity. An example is the Peace and Truce of God movements of the 10th to 11th centuries. The Church was, however, also the impetus behind wars like the Crusades. They mobilized European powers to reclaim the Holy Land.   Papal power was significant enough that the Church operated a legal system, based on canon law, distinct from civil law. They operated Canon Law courts that offered, in some instances, an alternative to secular justice. This authority further blurred the lines between the spiritual and secular powers of the Church.    The Social Role Two lepers are denied entry into the city, miniature from a manuscript by Vincent of Beauvais, 14th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Church was the primary social institution in medieval Europe. It had a unifying influence in a society divided by class, geography, and language. It provided a structure within which opposite ends of the social spectrum, from peasants to nobles, shared some values and beliefs.   Religious gatherings, such as those held on Sundays, religious festivals, and saints’ feast days, fostered a sense of community and even identity. The Church became the primary provider of charity to the poor, sick, and orphaned, which they regarded as their religious duty. The Benedictine Monasteries deserve special mention for providing refuge and hospitality, offering food and shelter to travelers and pilgrims. Other monastic houses often ran hospitals, cared for lepers, and provided care for the needy.   The Economic Role Siege of Damascus, second crusade, by Sébastien Mamerot, 1474 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Because of the Church’s large property holdings, it was already a significant economic power, raising taxes and benefiting from fiefs working the land. It also benefited from donations, taxes on income, and monasteries that became hubs for trade and agriculture. The Knights Templar played a significant role in developing banking and facilitating transactions.   The Church was also the source of new developments, which bolstered their economic power, such as the Cistercians, who pioneered advanced farming techniques that increased production. Their financial might enshrined the Church’s place as one of the mightiest institutions of the Middle Ages.   The Cultural Role Cathedral Notre Dame de Paris, West view, Paris, France. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Church’s influence on Medieval culture is undeniable. It impacted art, music, literature, and architecture, even shaping festivals and celebrations.   Religious themes dominated art during the Middle Ages. It primarily depicted biblical narratives or martyrs and saints, serving educational purposes to the illiterate masses. The artworks took the form of sculptures, paintings, tapestries, and stained-glass windows, among other things.   One of the most notable influences the Church had on music, which endures to this day, was the Gregorian Chant, named in honor of Pope Gregory I (r. 590–604 CE). It developed from earlier Roman and Gallican chants and added a unique flavor to sacred music. Initially, it was monophonic, but during the 12th and 13th centuries, polyphony (multiple independent lines) began to develop in cathedral schools like Notre-Dame in Paris.   The Church was instrumental in the development of musical notation. Notation was a significant advancement that allowed complex music to be recorded and transmitted. Musical notation started in the 9th century, and the Church, as the primary commissioner and preserver of music, had schools where clergy learned to chant using the new notation systems.   Due to the influence of the Church, Latin was the dominant language of the age. Most written works were theological, devotional, or moralistic and included genres like hagiography, allegory, and mystical writings, among others. Monks copied and preserved these texts, making the Church a guardian of Western literary heritage.   Church buildings were the places where these different art forms came together. It is not surprising that cathedrals and Church structures became works of architectural art in and of themselves. The change in architecture from Romanesque to Gothic styles provides insight into the levels of artisanship during the Medieval Period. Cathedrals still in use today showcase the apex of architectural innovation and the immense wealth of the Medieval Church.   The City of Prague Museum, Room of Medieval art, holds many samples of the Christian nature of these art pieces. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Notre-Dame de Paris in France is arguably the most notable structure the Church erected during the Middle Ages. Construction began in 1163 and lasted until 1260, with modifications continuing into the 14th century. It is a masterpiece of Gothic engineering and artistry.   Some festivals, like Easter, Christmas, Lent, Advent, and Pentecost, predate the Medieval Period. The Church, however, added several festivals and celebratory days to the Christian calendar. Pope Gregory III formalized All Saints Day (1st of November) in the 8th century. The monastery at Cluny introduced All Souls’ Day (2nd of November), a celebration for the dead, in the 10th century. Both festivals emphasize prayer, purgatory, and remembrance. Today, western culture relates to these two festive days by celebrating Halloween, named for the eve before the two festivals, on the evening of October 31st.   In addition, Corpus Christi, celebrating the Eucharist outside of Lent, originated with Pope Urban IV in 1264. Local and national saint cults and major pilgrimage festivals were established and celebrated with distinctly medieval scope and spectacle.   The Educational Role Theology course at the Sorbonne, illumination from the late 15th century. Source: Library of Troyes   Illiteracy was widespread in Medieval times. The Church became the keeper of knowledge. It preserved, copied, and studied sacred texts and provided education to the clergy and lay elites, teaching them to read and write with special emphasis on theology, which shaped the study of subjects like mathematics, astronomy, and science.   Latin, as the liturgical and scholarly language of the Church, allowed for a universal medium for communication among the educated. By the 12th century, universities, which were often connected to, if not controlled by, the Church, sprang up all over Europe. These institutions allowed the Church access to the students in many fields, such as clerics, lawyers, and physicians. The Church mostly had a monopoly on education, which increased their power and influence on society and allowed them to shape knowledge and thought among the intellectual elite to suit their purposes.   It would be impossible to separate Western culture from the influence the Church had on it during the Medieval Period. The Church, therefore, largely shaped Western society.