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5 Holidays That Date Back to Ancient Rome
The calendar we use today is heavily influenced by the ancient Roman calendar, down to the names of the months. The Roman calendar was full of important festivals that honored the gods and maintained social cohesion; the Romans loved a good party! While many ancient Roman festivals feel quite alien today, aspects of those festivals have found their way into modern holiday celebrations. From Halloween to Christmas, many modern celebrations can be linked directly to Roman customs. Here are five Roman festivals that have influenced modern holiday rituals.
1. Lupercalia
Capitoline Wolf Suckling Romulus and Remus, unknown, c. 16th century. Source: National Gallery of Art, Washington
Celebrated on February 15, Lupercalia was an ancient festival that is sometimes thought to have been the precursor to what we know today as Valentine’s Day. However, whereas modern Valentine’s Day is dressed up with flowers, dinner dates, and acts of romance between lovers, Lupercalia had much more brutal customs.
It is thought to have started with the founding of Rome, when the infant twin brothers Romulus and Remus were rescued from the Tiber River by a she-wolf who nursed them until they were adopted by shepherds. When they were older, the brothers returned to the den where they lived with the she-wolf and named it the Lupercal (lupa meaning “wolf” in Latin). According to legend, Romulus and Remus created the holiday to honor both the she-wolf who saved them as well as Lupercus, the god of shepherds and fertility. But the Romans had odd rituals for promoting fertility.
February, fragment of a mosaic with the months of the year, starting with the Roman first month March, El Jem, Tunisia, c. 3rd century CE. Source: Archaeological Museum of Sousse
The earliest known recorded celebrations of the festival date back to the 3rd century BCE. It started off in the Lupercal cave with the sacrificial killing of one (or many) male goats and a dog to symbolize sexuality. The priests of the cult of Lupercus, who were known as Luperci, then anointed two of their own with the goat’s blood, which was then removed with wool soaked in milk. A feast followed the ritual, and the hides of the goats were fashioned into whips, or februa. After the feast, the two anointed priests ran naked around the Palatine Hill, where the Lupercal was located, whipping any woman in their path with the februa to promote fertility and easy childbirth. According to the Roman poet Ovid, “Neither potent herbs, nor prayers, nor magic spells shall make of thee a mother, submit with patience to the blows dealt by a fruitful hand.”
When Christianity became the official religion of Rome in 380 CE, it co-opted several pagan holidays. Some argue that Lupercalia was not the origin of Valentine’s Day because the two days have virtually no customs in common. However, both holidays traditionally promote love and fertility; it is the belief of the Catholic Church that the main purpose of marriage is to reproduce. It is also worth pointing out that the last recorded celebration of Lupercalia was in the late 5th century CE, coincidentally around the time Pope Gelasius I had dedicated February 14 as the Feast Day of St. Valentine.
2. Saturnalia
Roman Feast, by Roberto Bompiani, late 19th century. Source: J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles
Considered the precursor to Christmas, Saturnalia was a celebration honoring Saturn, the god of agriculture and harvest. The holiday fell on the winter solstice, December 17 on the Roman calendar, to mark the end of the autumn planting season and the start of days getting longer. Many farmers offered gifts or sacrifices to Saturn during the winter in hopes of being blessed with a fruitful harvest in the new year. However, as Rome grew and evolved, so too did Saturnalia.
By the late Roman Republic (133-31 BCE) the single day holiday had turned into a week-long festival with grand merrymaking. The days were filled with singing, dancing, drinking, and gift-giving. Ritual sacrifices took place at the Temple of Saturn in the Roman Forum, followed by a communal banquet. One of the more peculiar traditions of Saturnalia was the reversal of social norms during the celebration. Roman society usually adhered to a strict hierarchy, but on this occasion they were lifted.
Slaves were temporarily freed from labor, and everyone could participate in games and activities usually restricted by social class. Senators wore servants’ attire to show that everyone was considered equal during this time. Some slaves were even served by their masters. Activities typically frowned upon, such as gambling, were also encouraged. All the festivities were overseen by a mock king, or Saturnalicius princeps, who was chosen by planting a coin in a piece of cake. The lucky individual was in charge of creating an atmosphere of chaos and fun.
Saturnalia, by Antoine-François Callet, 1783. Source: Wikimedia Commons
Domestic celebrations were similar but warmer, with a greater focus on family coming together. Families had large dinners, played games, and exchanged gifts. Some popular gifts included wax taper candles to signify the return of light after the winter solstice, as well as small terracotta figurines called sigillaria. Given to loved ones on the last day of the festival, the origins of these figurines are unknown. Some say they referred back to older customs of human sacrifice, some say they were a tribute to Hercules, who tossed human effigies of those who died during his seven labors in a river.
In 380 CE, Emperor Theodosius I made Christianity the official religion of Rome. In an effort to convert the Romans to Christianity, the church integrated pagan customs into Christian holidays, especially those of Saturnalia. Links to Roman practices can be seen in modern Christmas traditions, including gift-giving, lighting candles, dining with our families, singing carols, and decorating with wreaths and greenery.
3. Kalends of January
Roman denarius depicting the god Janus, 225-214 BCE. Source: Art Institute of Chicago
Though not made an official public holiday until 389 CE, festivals celebrating the new year were popular in ancient Rome. The original Roman calendar was influenced by the Etruscans, who had a lunar calendar that started with the month of March. It was only in 46 BCE that Julius Caesar introduced a more accurate solar calendar and made January 1st the start of the new year.
The month of January was named for the Roman god Janus, the god of new beginnings, transitions, and doorways. Janus is depicted with two faces, one looking backwards toward the past and the other looking ahead toward the future. This would make January the perfect month to start the new year, and Janus the perfect god to honor in new year celebrations.
Initially, the holiday was simple and solemn. Romans offered sacrifices to Janus and gave him gifts so that he might forgive them for their past mistakes and bring them good fortune in the coming year. Newly elected government officials took office on the first day of the new year, and members of the army renewed their vows of loyalty to the emperor. But, as with many festivals, the festivities of the Kalends became more elaborate and rowdier over time. And in traditional Roman fashion, a grand party was held.
Masquerade depicted in an Alexander Romance, in MS Bodleian 264, fol. 21v, illustrated by Jehan de Grise, 1338-1344 CE. Source: Bodleian Libraries, Oxford
It soon became customary to ring in the new year by sharing a large feast with friends and family, accompanied by dancing, singing, and drinking. Merrymakers went door-to-door exchanging gifts and well-wishes. Fire was used as entertainment and to make loud noises, similar to how we set off fireworks today. However, the Romans also used the displays to ward off evil spirits and prevent any from accompanying them into the new year.
One aspect of the holiday made popular in Late Antiquity was the custom of dressing up in costumes, often to disguise one’s identity, while enjoying the public festivities. Some did it to enjoy themselves more freely without being judged, while others did it for more vindictive reasons, such as attacking corrupt politicians.
To the Romans, the start of the new year was not just about turning the calendar page. It was about reflecting on the past year while embracing the future, and more importantly the prospect of new beginnings. Janus was seen as the opener of doors and gates, and the Romans believed the beginning of the new year was a giant doorway to new opportunities. This is reflective of the Romans’ approach to history and future planning, where the past was constantly seen as a lesson and used to inform future decisions. The Romans also believed the new year offered a chance to better oneself and made pledges to improve themselves in the coming year; a practice still popular today.
4. Lemuria
Detail from Aeneas and the Sibyl in the Underworld, by Jan Brueghel the Younger, 1630s. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art
It is commonly known that Halloween originated in Ireland with the ancient Celtic holiday Samhain. In addition to celebrating the fall harvest, Samhain was a time when many believed the boundary between the worlds of the living and the dead were at their weakest, and evil spirits could pass through. The Romans had a similar festival, called Lemuria or Lemuralia, held on May 9, 11, and 13, since even numbers were considered bad luck. The festival was connected to the story of Romulus, who murdered his brother Remus and was haunted by his vengeful spirit. The festival has been described as an ancient mass exorcism designed to drive away evil spirits.
Not much is known about the public activities or spectacles for Lemuria, but thanks to Ovid we know about the most important domestic custom. On the last day, the head of the household performed a ritual to banish ghosts. At midnight, he woke up and made a fist with his thumb between his fingers, a sign of protection: “lest an insubstantial shade meet him in the silence”. He then washed his hands in spring water, took nine black beans and, walking through the house barefoot, threw them behind him, saying with each one, “with these beans I throw I redeem me and mine.” Afterwards he washed his hands again and cried nine times, “ancestral spirit, depart!” The ceremony was considered a success if the beans disappeared, assuming the spirits gathered them and left satisfied.
Memento Mori mosaic, Pompeii, c. 1st century BCE. Source: Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli
With the popularity of Christianity rising throughout the 3rd and 4th centuries, Christian Romans increasingly celebrated a feast day commemorating Christian martyrs instead of Lemuria. In 609 CE, Pope Boniface IV reconsecrated the Pantheon temple in Rome to the Virgin Mary and the Martyrs and declared May 13th as the Feast Day of All Martyrs. Over a century later, Pope Gregory III moved the feast day to November 1st to co-opt Samhain and curb paganism in Ireland.
By this time the festival of Lemuria had diminished entirely, yet some traces of it are still alive in modern culture. For instance, seances, where spiritual mediums try to communicate with and appease the dead, are still often performed around Halloween. In Italy, common treats baked during “spooky season” include dolci dei morti (sweets of the dead) which are cookies shaped to look like finger bones or fava beans, a fun way to remember ancient traditions.
5. Parentalia
Roman sarcophagus from Aphrodisias (present-day Turkey), 1st century CE. Source: New York University
Similar to Lemuria, Parentalia was a week-long festival surrounded by ghosts and the afterlife. However, Parentalia was a much more public and joyous event that was intended to honor dead loved ones, paralleling the Mexican holiday Day of the Dead.
Parentalia activities began on February 13th with a public rite conducted by a Vestal Virgin. For the rest of the week, rituals were held domestically at home or at the tombs of lost loved ones. During this time, all official business came to a halt: temples were closed, weddings were forbidden, and magistrates and senators did not wear their insignia, signaling that this was a time of reverence. Similarly, families in Mexico today visit the graves of their lost loved ones, build small altars, and leave treats and trinkets at the graves for the spirits to enjoy. Businesses and banks in Mexico tend to close or reduce hours to allow their employees time to prepare and celebrate.
During Parentalia, only the last day of the festival was allocated for making public offerings to the dead, and this day was called Feralia. This custom is thought to have originated with the legend of Aeneas, who once offered humble gifts to his father’s spirit at his tomb. Ovid listed the specific items Aeneas offered:
“And the grave must be honored. Appease your fathers’ spirits and bring little gifts to the tombs you built… A tile wreathed round with garlands offered is enough, a scattering of meal, and a few grains of salt, and bread soaked in wine, and loose violets… This custom was brought to your lands, just Latinus, by Aeneas, a fitting promoter of piety. He brought solemn gifts to his father’s spirit.”
Ancient Roman tomb with a semicircle bench along the inside of an exedra, Pompeii, c. 1st century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons
According to Ovid, this legend established of leaving simple gifts at the graves of passed loved ones. Families were also known to share a meal with the dead. Archaeological evidence from Pompeii suggests that benches were included in many tombs and mausoleums for this exact purpose.
At first glance it may appear our modern-day holidays have nothing in common with 2,000 year old Roman festivals, but a closer look reveals connections between ancient and modern practices. The early Christian church, in an effort to spread and solidify the faith, integrated familiar pagan customs into its own holidays. This made the church more accessible to pagans. Recognizing this historical interplay does not diminish the spiritual significance of today’s celebrations; rather, it enriches our understanding of how faith, culture, and history intertwine to shape the traditions we continue to honor today.
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