Recognized as ‘alaxulux’en in the Chumash language, the Chumash Painted Cave once operated as a ceremonial site. Due to colonization and the establishment of Spanish missions in Chumash territory, traditional use of the cave ceased over 300 years ago. Vibrant hues of red, white, and black adorn the cave walls, depicting figures, animals, and shapes believed to have been painted by shamans. Today, members of the Chumash community are working to revitalize their languages and traditions, with the cave remaining an important heritage landmark that connects them to their ancestors.   Discovering the History of the Chumash Painted Cave Petroglyphs at Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park, Santa Barbara, California. Source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division   The Chumash Painted Cave, part of the Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park, is known to the Chumash as ‘alaxulux’en. Located at the edge of the traditional Barbareño Chumash territory, or present-day Santa Barbara, California, the small cave can be viewed by visitors from a distance. Once serving as a ceremonial site, ‘alaxulux’en represents some of the last preserved wall art of the Chumash people, offering modern descendants a connection to their ancestors.   The Chumash have lived in central and southern coastal regions of California for over 10,000 years. Before European contact, the Chumash lived in a network of up to 100 villages encompassing modern-day Santa Barbara, Los Angeles, San Luis Obispo Counties, and nearby islands, with a population of over 15,000. Spanish missions were established in Chumash territory in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, leading to the forced conversion of many Chumash people to Catholicism. This period resulted in significant changes for the Chumash community, including the loss of land, the erasure of languages and cultural practices, and a devastating decline in population due to introduced diseases and violence.   Photograph of Ernestine Ygnacio-De Soto, 2020. Source: United States National Park Service   As the Chumash Painted Cave has been subject to harm from graffiti and flash photography, CyArk collaborated with California State Parks and Barbareño Chumash Elder Ernestine Ygnacio-De Soto to virtually preserve ‘alaxulux’en using 3D documentation. Ygnacio-De Soto is the great-great-granddaughter of Maria Ygnacia, the daughter of the last wot, or chief, of Syuxtun, a large Chumash settlement. Her mother, Mary Yee, was the last surviving first-language speaker of Barbareño, one of the Chumash languages once widely spoken in the region, which Ygnacio-De Soto is active in documenting.   Life Between the Mountains and the Sea Photograph of Chumash community members paddling a tomol from the California mainland to the Channel Islands, by Robert Schwemmer, 2016. Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration   The rich culture of the Chumash tribe has strong ties to the land and sea, with their ancestors having resided between the Santa Ynez Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. Coastal towns thrived from the abundance of resources. As a maritime culture, the Chumash had extensive trade partners, with trade facilitated by shell bead money and trail systems. Skilled craftsmen constructed planked oceangoing canoes, called tomols, for fishing and trading, as well as delicate beadwork, bows, bowls, and baskets.   Photograph of a Chumash basket, 2008. Source: United States National Park Service   Hunting, gathering, and fishing were fundamental to the Chumash of the mainland coast, using extensive knowledge of various plants and animals. Their spiritual belief system is central to their everyday life and is deeply intertwined with nature, with the belief that the Sun and Earth are in balance. Oral storytelling, an elaborate tradition of the Chumash people, is central to cultural transmission, allowing future generations to retain cultural knowledge.   Members of the ‘antap society, who held high-ranking status in a tribe, directed the spiritual life of a group. Shamans within the ‘antap were responsible for ceremonies, including solstice observances and cave paintings. The ‘alchuklash, astronomers and priests of the ‘antap, possessed knowledge of the celestial cycles and calendars. In particular, the summer and winter solstices held significance, with accounts of rituals, leaving behind rock art with symbolic remnants of ceremonies.   The Vibrant Pictographs of the Chumash Painted Cave Photograph of Chumash paint, dye, and tools, 2008. Source: United States National Park Service   The paintings, tracing the contours of the sandstone walls, remain vivid in bold hues of red, black, and white. Archaeologists have determined that the artists concocted the pigments used to paint the cave with a variety of minerals. They mixed the bold red pigments using red ochre, or hematite, while the white used either gypsum or diatomaceous earth. To produce the bold black pigment, the artists would have used charcoal or manganese oxide. After grinding the pigments, the Chumash painter would mix them with a binder containing animal fat, sap, water, blood, or saliva, then use their fingers or a brush made from an animal tail to stain the cave walls.   On the walls are pictographs—illustrations made on rock—that depict human-like figures, animals, and abstract geometric shapes. Despite their age, the circles, spirals, figures, and celestial symbols remain vibrant in color. Anthropologists estimate the rock art to date back to the 1600s at the latest, with layers of the painting dating earlier than others.   The Distinct Styles of ‘Alaxulux’en Photograph of Chumash Painted Cave by Eve Harms, 2022. Source: Flickr   Researchers studied pigments from the paintings to identify four distinct styles in the cave. The first and oldest layer was painted using only charcoal, consisting of narrow lines and cross-hatching. These lines are faint, particularly due to the overlapping red lines of the second identified style, which were created with ground ochre.   The most complex and widespread of the four, style three represents anthropomorphic figures, animals, and geometric shapes. The third layer of the rock art consists of black and white centipede-like striped shapes and red figures with arms extending outwards. Rather than standing alone, the last style appears to add to the previous styles, supporting that people sought to maintain and improve upon the earlier rock art.   The Ceremonial Art of Shamans Photograph of red Chumash pictographs on rock, 2009. Source: United States National Park Service   As a result of the effects of colonization, the Chumash tradition of storytelling has been largely erased, including passing down the meanings behind pictographs. While many attempts have been made to interpret cave paintings, it is important to note that our modern interpretations are largely biased, and we should approach such artwork with the understanding that we will never fully perceive the intended meaning.   An earlier, now outdated theory from the late 1800s saw the circular designs of Chumash rock art as bundles of tied blanket bundles. During the same period, elder Ernestine’s great uncle Pedro Ygnacio described what he had learned from his elders. Pedro saw the paintings as representations of tomols that took the souls of the dead to the afterworld shimilaqsha and the centipede-like figures as illustrations of the cause of death.   Another belief is that the rock art was often created in response to crises, painted by shamans to appease the universe during difficult or unexplainable events. This approach is supported by the apparent increase in ceremonies in the inland following the arrival of the Spanish. Further ethnographic evidence suggests that the images were created as part of rituals to request fruitful harvests, rainfall, and fertility, as well as to ward away storms.   Photograph of a Chumash ‘ap, or house, 2008. Source: United States National Park Service   Many interpretations, reflecting on Chumash culture and traditional practices, indicate that members of the ‘antap society were the creators of the paintings. Taught by her grandparents, Chumash healer Cecilia Garcia expressed that the pictographs were primarily used as healing images. Patients would travel to caves close to streams, where the ‘antap painted pictographs to relax patients as part of the healing process or to show patients parts of the human body.   Mind-Altering Properties of the Datura Plant and the Red Harvester Ant Datura wrightii, the Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona, USA, 2010. Source: National Parks Service   Momoy, a hallucinogenic plant called datura, was named after an older woman who personifies the plant in the Chumash culture. The ‘antap prepared momoy for ceremonial and medicinal purposes, including the initiation of young boys into adulthood. Chumash shamans took momoy to create a state of altered consciousness, leading the user to see the present or future more clearly through vision quests.   Red harvester ants, used by many indigenous groups in southern and south-central California for their hallucinogenic properties, were similarly ingested in the Chumash culture. Considered safer than momoy, the ants, known as shutulhul, were administered to induce sacred dreams or hallucinations for initiation ceremonies and traditional remedies.   Red ant hill, Devil’s Bridge Trail in Sedona, Arizona, 2012. Source: Flickr   While many have advocated for the theory linking the influence of hallucinogens like datura to the creation of rock art, there has been a lack of concrete evidence to support this. That was until archaeologists discovered wads of chewed datura in the ceiling crevices of a rock site called Pinwheel Cave in the Chumash borderlands of interior south-central California. Researchers believe the pinwheel-shaped painting represents a datura flower and suggest that an insect-like figure nearby could be a hawk moth, known to pollinate datura plants. Rather than a singular shaman, researchers theorized that the cave was used communally, as evidenced by the tools and artifacts discovered below the painting.   The Solar Eclipse of the Chumash Painted Cave Photograph of a total solar eclipse in Makanda, Illinois, by Tharindu Nallaperuma, 2017. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Chumash identified many of the constellations in the night sky, using their knowledge of astronomy to track both time and seasons. Oral traditions and myths frequently featured celestial bodies, such as the legend of the Milky Way, Alchupo’osh, which saw the galaxy as a pathway to the afterworld. It is thought that the paintings in Chumash Painted Cave may have represented celestial beings, including the Sun, Moon, and Stars. Members of the ‘antap society would have painted such beings to maintain balance in the supernatural forces.   Using Oppolzer’s Canon of Eclipses, astronomer Katherine Bracher determined that a total eclipse would have occurred at the site on November 24th of 1677. Bracher identified a particular scene in the cave, featuring a black circular shape, as representing the solar eclipse. Below the black disk are two red circles, believed to symbolize Mars and the star Antares, which would have formed a visible triangular grouping with the eclipsed Sun. Black pigment carefully scraped from the disk was dated to the time of the eclipse, supporting the theory.   Preserving a Cultural and Historical Landmark Photograph of the cave entrance at Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park in Santa Barbara, by Eve Harms, 2022. Source: Flickr   In 1908, officials constructed a protective iron gate to protect the priceless artwork from external threats. Beside the iron gate, the sandstone exhibits hundreds of dates and names thoughtlessly carved by visitors. A similar story can be told for the interior, as the cave walls exhibit acts of vandalism from as early as the missionization period. At present, the painted cave is threatened by wind erosion, steadily causing the ceiling to collapse. A gap within the paintings can be observed upon entering the cave site, which, in time, will expand.   In reference to the efforts made to revitalize many of the traditions and languages that were impacted by past travesties, elder Ernestine Ygnacio-De Soto described the Chumash culture as “sleeping,” rather than being lost. Today, ‘alaxulux’en remains a site of cultural and historical significance, inspiring the protection of the site for future generations. The paintings are deeply respected and symbolize the journey in which the Chumash have come, representing the resilience of a culture that has survived centuries of turmoil.

  Whether spoken or written, languages serve an essential purpose. Language enabled the formation of laws, religion, science, and even identity. The jump from spoken to written form only cemented civilization in many spots. From several civilizations came languages like Greek or Sanskrit, whose influence is still felt today.   Sanskrit: Perfection From India Sanskrit and Other Ancient Languages. Source: Wikimedia   Sanskrit, when translated, means “perfection” in ancient Indic languages. Sanskrit, one of the globe’s oldest languages, emerged in northern India probably around 1500 BCE. Classical Sanskrit was standardized in the 4th century BCE, leading to daily use. Sanskrit’s path to the rest of South Asia came via trade, scholars, or military campaigns.    Sanskrit’s influence became enormous, changing the languages of Nepal, Sri Lanka, Tibet, and more. It would become the sacred language for Hindu and Buddhist scripts.    Besides Sanskrit’s intellectual and philosophical depth, its Devanagari script served as the basis for 120 additional languages.   Egyptian: The Language of the Pharaohs Table of Hieroglyphics Found in 1837. Source: Yale Center for British Art   Among the languages listed in this article, Egyptian ranks among the world’s oldest. Though Egypt is best known for its hieroglyphics. Used for 3,000 years, hieroglyphics recorded aspects of ancient life in decrees, daily activities, religious texts, government forms, and even political records. Unfortunately, only elite scribes learned the complex writing. This select class helped preserve Egypt’s cultural heritage.    Egyptian came from the Afro-Asiatic language family, a cousin to languages like Berber. Its rich consonants and vowels influenced later languages such as Hebrew and Arabic. Hieroglyphics played a part too, its ideograms and phonetic icons inspiring other pre-alphabet scripts. Hieroglyphic placement in tombs or temples influenced architecture. Their placement led people, like arrows or signs in a modern building, guiding visitors.   Sumerian: The First of Them All Cuneiform Religious Tablet. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Besides being considered the oldest recorded language, Sumerian is also a “language isolate.” Or simply, not related to any language family. Created around 3100 BCE in Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), the written form is cuneiform. A series of wedge-shaped marks carved into clay, the Sumerians used this writing system for tracking, farming, or commerce. Like the Egyptians, the Sumerians expanded their language to include everything, like religious texts or taxes. Sumerians also wrote the Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the world’s oldest stories.   Like Latin or Greek, Sumerian greatly influenced future languages. Besides representing the earliest use of writing, languages such as Akkadian and Babylonian drew from it. These civilizations tweaked Sumerian for their own ends. Now, writing meant that a culture’s history could be accurately recorded (and later studied!). Sumerian, like Latin, had a similar fate.    By 2000 BCE, the Sumerians’ use of the language as an everyday language ended. Yet like Latin, Sumerian remained important for religious, legal, and scholarly texts for centuries. Later, many of the tablets found were written in Hittite and Sumerian, making translation easier.   Greek: Shaping Western Thought A 3rd Century Letter in Greek. Source: The Met   Homer, the Iliad, and Sparta. All words that evoke ancient Greece in the reader’s mind’s eye. Yet not so many know that Ancient Greek shaped language history, especially in the West. Greek touched on many subjects, including philosophy, science, politics, and writing systems. Plus, trade and conquest spread Greek across the Mediterranean region, especially in Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia, during the Hellenistic Era (circa 323 BCE).   Famous thinkers like Plato or Aristotle debated math and science. Later, scientific or medical terms used included biology, psychology, and chronology. Greek became the language of the New Testament and Christian theology. Literature like Greek tragedies became the Western standard for storytelling, drama, and history.   The Greek alphabet served as the basis for the Latin alphabet and Cyrillic script. Greek served as a strong inspiration due to its nuanced vocabulary and inflected verb endings.   Latin: The Language That Built the West First page of William Harvey’s De Motu Cordis, an 18th-century Latin anatomical treatise. Source: University of Liverpool   Latin, a significant remnant of Imperial Rome, created a legacy that helped shape the West. As Rome grew, Latin followed the legions and settlers across Europe. Besides a military role, Latin’s use included administration, engineering, governance, law, and more.   With Rome’s fall, Latin became the base for Europe’s Romance languages (French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, and Romanian). All inherited Roman grammar and vocabulary. Latin texts saved classical knowledge during the Middle Ages, copied or preserved in monasteries or universities. Europe’s great Renaissance would be powered by preserved Latin texts, sparking intense creativity.    Today, Latin still shines, being the standard for law, medicine, and science. Being a dead language means there’s no change. Plus, Latin’s use of prefixes, suffixes, and roots yields precise definitions, making it perfect for these subjects.

  For centuries, merchants, generals, and statesmen contemplated how to connect the eastern and western parts of the Eurasian landmass. This dream led to the creation of the first Silk Road system in the late second century BCE to mid-third century CE. This system proved to be quite stable and lucrative, buoyed by Han China, Parthian Persia, and Rome. But long before this land-based bridge was built, the ancient Egyptians developed a much more efficient bridge that connected Eurasia, primarily by the sea. In the late second millennium BCE, the Egyptians built the first of several versions of a canal that connected the Red Sea to the Nile River. An examination of the classical historians and archaeological sources shows that the Egyptians primarily built the canal for trade purposes and that numerous versions of the canal were built, sometimes by non-Egyptians.   The Modern Suez Canal Map of the route of the modern Suez Canal. Source: Wikimedia Commons   To understand the magnitude and importance of the ancient Red Sea Canal, it is important to briefly look at the modern Suez Canal. Completed in 1869, the Suez Canal is a modern marvel, cutting a 120-mile-long path through the 78-mile Isthmus of Suez. Unlike the ancient versions of the canal, the Suez Canal connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea directly. The Suez Canal was originally built and controlled by the French, but the British took control of it in 1882. A brief war was fought over it in 1956, with the British, French, and Israelis on one side and the Egyptians on the other. Today, the Suez Canal is a vital connection in global shipping, bypassing thousands of miles of the sea journey between Asia and Europe.   The purpose of the ancient Red Sea canals was essentially the same as the modern Suez Canal: to facilitate trade. There were also the added incentives of legitimatizing the rule of foreign-born kings and moving troops and diplomats from the Near East to the Mediterranean.   The Primary Sources Marble Bust of Herodotus, Roman (copy of Greek original), c. 2nd century CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Nothing remains today of the ancient Red Sea Canal, also known as the “Canal of the Pharaohs.” However, there are a number of primary sources that attest to its existence. Among the most detailed are the accounts of classical historians and geographers, such as the 5th-century BCE Greek historian Herodotus. The 1st-century BCE Greek-Roman historian Diodorus and the 1st-century BCE-CE Greek-Roman geographer Strabo also wrote accounts of the canal. Overall, the authors corroborate each others’ accounts, but each also adds unique details that, although sometimes chronologically dubious, are quite helpful.   Classical sources are augmented by ancient Egyptian texts. Most of the Egyptian texts do not mention the Red Sea Canal specifically, although they do help to place the concept of pharaonic era canals into perspective. Finally, some archaeological artifacts can be compared with the written sources.   An Early Canal Project in the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055-1650 BCE) Statue of Senusret III, Middle Kingdom Egyptian, c. 1874-1855 BCE. Source: British Museum   In Strabo’s passage about the Red Sea Canal, he states that “the canal was first cut by Sesostris before the Trojan War.” Sesostris was the name Greek and Roman historians generally applied to any of the three Middle Kingdom kings named Senusret. Many scholars place the historical Trojan War at around 1200 BCE, so the chronology is correct there, but can the claim be further corroborated? The Sesostris in this account, and most classical accounts for that matter, was probably Senusret III (ruled c. 1870-1831 BCE).   Because the classical historians could not read the ancient Egyptian language, they relied on Egyptian priests as their primary sources for Egyptian history. Senusret III was widely viewed by Egyptians of the Ptolemaic and Roman eras as one of the greatest pharaohs of their early history. His military campaigns into Nubia became legendary, as were his pyramid and a canal he built around the First Cataract.   The First Cataract at modern Aswan, Egypt. Source: Copyright Jared Krebsbach   The First Cataract of the Nile River was an important geographic location in ancient Egypt. First, it marked the cultural and political boundary between Egypt and Nubia. Second, although it marked the divide between Egypt and Nubia, the Egyptians wanted it navigable when they were the stronger of the two peoples. The Egyptians exploited Nubia for its gold, electrum, and other exotic goods from the African interior. Most of those commodities were hauled north by boats. So, as much as the First Cataract served as a vital barrier, it also needed to be free for trade. To accomplish this, the Egyptians built a modest canal around the cataract. The canal is mentioned in one of the historical annals of Senusret III. It was listed as about 221 feet long, 29 feet wide, and 22 feet deep.   “Year 8 under the majesty of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Khekure, living forever. His majesty commanded to make the canal anew, the name of this canal being: ‘Beautiful-Are-the-Ways-of-Khekure-[Living]-Forever,’ when his majesty proceeded up-river to overthrow Kush, the wretched. Length of this canal, 150 cubits; width, 20; depth, 15.”   Canals in the New Kingdom (c. 1550-1069 BCE) Map detailing the route of the ancient Red Sea Canal. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The First Cataract Canal was later re-dug by the New Kingdom pharaohs, Thutmose I (ruled c. 1504-1492 BCE) and Thutmose III (ruled c. 1479-1425 BCE). But even more important was the mention of a series of canals during the reign of Merenptah (ruled c. 1213-1203 BC). An inscription on the walls of the Karnak Temple dated to the reign of Merenptah relates how two interconnected canals played a role in the defense of the land from the Libyans. A damaged part of the inscription mentions the “Sheken canal” and the “Eti canal.” The Papyrus Harris, which was written during the rule of Ramesses III (reigned 1184-1153 BCE), mentions a “canal administration,” suggesting that by the late New Kingdom, the Egyptian canal system had become quite intricate. With that said, a canal that connected the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea was never explicitly noted before the Late Period.   The True Red Sea Canal in the Late Period (664-332 BCE) Statue of Psamtek I, father of Nekau II, Saite Egyptian, c. 664-610 BCE (reign of Psamtek I). Source: Louvre Museum   It is possible, and arguably probable, that the Egyptians built a series of canals that linked the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. While it is, for the most part, conjectural, there is evidence that several canals were built during the Late Period. According to Herodotus, the 26th dynasty king, Nekau II (ruled 610-595 BCE), commissioned the construction of a canal that connected the two seas. Part of the account reads:   “It was Necos who began the construction of the canal to the Arabian gulf, a work afterwards completed by Darius the Persian. The length of the canal is four days’ journey by boat, and its breadth sufficient to allow two triremes to be rowed abreast. The water is supplied from the Nile, and the canal leaves the river at a point a little south of Bubastis and runs past the Arabian town of Patumus, and then on to the Arabian gulf. The first part of its course is along the Arabian side of the Egyptian plain, a little to the northward of the chain of hills by Memphis, where the stone-quarries are; it skirts the base of these hills from west to east, and then enters a narrow gorge, after which it trends in a southerly direction until it enters the Arabian gulf. The shortest distance from the Mediterranean, or Northern Sea, to the Southern Sea—or Indian Ocean—namely, from Mt. Casius between Egypt and Syria to the Arabian gulf, is just a thousand stades. This is the most direct route—by the canal, which does not keep at all a straight course, the journey is much longer.”   Fragment of a limestone corner block depicting a Persian King (most likely Darius I), Persepolis, c. 6th-5th century BCE. Source: British Museum   This was later corroborated by Diodorus to some extent, but he added that the Persian king Darius I (reigned 522-486 BCE) took over the project. Interestingly, Diodorus wrote that “Darius the Persian made progress with the work for a time but finally left it unfinished.” The reason given was that he was informed such a project would cause massive flooding of the Delta. Despite this account, other sources suggest the Persian king did complete the canal.   A collection of stelae dated to the reign of Darius I, known collectively as the “Red Sea Stelae,” appear to corroborate Herodotus’s account. The best preserved are three badly damaged ones that were discovered near Tell l-Maskhoutah, Egypt, in 1889 by Wladimir Golénscheff. The stelae were then transported to the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, in 1907, where they were translated and examined by Egyptologists and other Near Eastern scholars. The stelae are clearly dated to the reign of Darius, but there is some debate about exactly when they were completed and if Darius was in Egypt when the canal was opened. The syntax of the actual text and the spelling of Darius’s name closely match that of a colossal statue of the king that was discovered in Susa in 1972. Although relatively short, the texts on the stelae offer more insight into details about the canal.   Fragment of a Red Sea Canal Stela (Chalouf Stela), Egyptian, c. 521-486 BCE. Source: Louvre Museum   The best preserved of the three stelae is a granite stela discovered near Shaluf, known as the Shaluf stela. One side is written in Egyptian but is so damaged that a translation is nearly impossible. The most important aspect of this stela is the trilingual cuneiform text on the opposite side of the Egyptian text. The non-Egyptian texts are written in six lines in Old Persian, four lines in Elamite, and three lines in Akkadian. The non-Egyptian texts read the following:   “Saith Darius the King: I am a Persian; from Persia I seized Egypt; I ordered this canal to be dug, from the river by name Nile, which flows in Egypt, to the sea which goes from Persia.  Afterwards this canal was dug thus as I commanded, and ships went from Egypt through this canal to Persia thus as was my desire.”   The Red Sea Canal stelae appear to corroborate the classical accounts, and vice versa, with Darius claiming he completed the canal. Based on where the stelae were discovered, it would appear that the canal followed the route Herodotus noted. It went from the Red Sea to the Bitter Lakes before turning west to meet the Pelusiac Branch of the Nile River. The purpose was clearly to move troops and trade from the east to the west.   Ptolemy II and the Final Version of the Ancient Red Sea Canal The modern harbor of Alexandria, Egypt. Source: Copyright Jared Krebsach   The classical sources corroborate the archaeological evidence to a certain degree. Although both Diodorus and Strabo wrote that the canal was completed, they credited the Ptolemaic-Egyptian king, Ptolemy II (ruled 284-246 BCE), with the feat. Strabo, perhaps based on Herodotus, wrote that Psamtek I (reigned 664-610 BCE) began construction of the canal, which was followed up by Darius I. Ultimately, one or more of the Ptolemaic kings then finished the project.   “The Ptolemaïc kings, however, cut through it and made the strait a closed passage, so that when they wished they could sail out without hindrance into the outer sea and sail in again.”   Statue of Ptolemy II, Hellenistic-Ptolemaic-Egyptian, c. 260-246 BCE. Source: Louvre Museum   Diodorus offered a slightly more detailed account of the completion of the canal, crediting Ptolemy II. He also assigned the canal’s terminal or starting point, depending on the direction of the journey, as the Red Sea city of Arsinoe.   “At a later time the second Ptolemy completed it and in the most suitable spot constructed an ingenious kind of lock. This he opened, whenever he wished to pass through, and quickly closed again, a contrivance which usage proved to be highly successful. The river which flows through this canal is named Ptolemy, after the builder of it, and has at its mouth the city called Arsinoë.”   Statue of a Ptolemaic queen, possibly Arsinoe I, Ptolemy II’s wife, Hellenistic-Ptolemaic-Egyptian, c. 270-250 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   When all the classical accounts, Egyptian and Persian texts, and archaeological evidence are considered together, it appears that the Red Sea Canal was the culmination of centuries of experiments. The Egyptians began building canals in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, and by the New Kingdom, they had become experts in the technology. They possibly built the first version of the Red Sea Canal in the New Kingdom.   There is better evidence that the Egyptians completed the canal in the Late Period, and then foreign rulers probably re-cut the earlier version. Ptolemy II was known for making Alexandria the center of the world, completing projects started by his father, and drawing scholars to the city. Therefore, it is likely that Ptolemy II thought it was vital to connect Egypt to the west and east via the Red Sea Canal.

  Hiram Ulysses Grant, better known to the world as Ulysses S. Grant, served many roles throughout his 63 years of life. Grant was a decorated military man, a dedicated father and husband, and president of the United States. His actions in life led to him earning a permanent place in foundational US history. However, Grant was a multifaceted man of many reputations and, occasionally, paradoxes. Who was the true man behind the legend of the history books, and what shaped him into that person?   1. Grant Was a Gifted Writer Grant working on his memoirs. Source: National Park Service   When Ulysses S. Grant put pen to paper, he tended to make an impact. After a bank scam left him broke in the early 1880s, Grant wrote a series of essays about his life adventures and time in the Civil War that were published in magazines. He then worked with friend Mark Twain to publish his memoirs. Some alleged that Grant didn’t write the autobiography himself but that Twain did it. However, the original handwritten copy in Grant’s script proved this false, though Twain supported his friend with proofreading services. Twain also assisted Grant with securing a contract to maximize his royalties with a publishing company.   Grant’s writing desk that he used at his St. Louis home before the Civil War. Source: Missouri Historical Society / Wikimedia Commons   Grant finished his two-volume memoir just days before he passed away. The book was an instant bestseller, and Charles Webster Publishing cut Grant’s wife Julia the biggest royalty check that had ever been written at that time: $200,000. Grant’s book, Personal Memoirs, is still in print today and is considered a classic piece of American literature.   2. Ulysses S. Grant Wasn’t His Real Name Grant depicted in scenes of his military career from West Point to Appomattox. Source: Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons   Grant was born Hiram Ulysses Grant in 1822. Since childhood, he hated his initials, which spelled H-U-G. When he joined West Point Military Academy in 1839, he enrolled as Ulysses Hiram Grant to avoid his given initials. His benefactor, who sponsored his appointment, then made a paperwork error, listing the young man’s middle name as Simpson, confusing his mother’s maiden name for his middle name. Grant didn’t mind and retained his new name, conveniently giving the patriotic young man the initials U.S. Grant. His fellow West Pointers called him “Uncle Sam,” a nickname that was later shortened to “Sam.” Grant’s initials would spawn other new nicknames throughout his career, including “Unconditional Surrender Grant” during the Civil War. One of his less flattering nicknames during that time was “The Butcher.”   3. He Never Held Elected Office Before the Presidency Portrait of Grant taken by Matthew Benjamin Brady around 1870. Source: Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons   Unlike most presidents in United States history, Grant never held an elected office before ascending to the presidency in 1868. Despite this, he was a shoo-in for the job. Grant hadn’t expressed interest in running but was courted by the radical Republican movement, people who were frustrated with current president Andrew Johnson’s progress in Southern Reconstruction. Grant was incredibly popular with the public, especially in the North, and won the Electoral College vote with a 3 to 1 margin over his opponent, New York Governor Horatio Seymour.   4. In His Day, He Was the Youngest President Ever Elected A postwar photo of Grant. Source: Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons   While John F. Kennedy currently holds the record as the youngest-ever elected US president (43 years old), Grant held the title for a time until Kennedy was elected and took office in 1961. Grant was 46 years old when he took office in 1869. However, Theodore Roosevelt, who was not elected but succeeded the assassinated William McKinley, holds the title of youngest-ever serving president, ascending to the role at age 42. Roosevelt resumed his duties as president when he was elected in 1904 at the age of 46.   5. Grant’s Reputation as a Drunk Haunted His Career A chromolithograph of the general from 1866. Source: Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons   After serving in the Mexican-American War, Grant remained an officer in the US Army. His work took him across the country to posts on the western frontier and in the Northwest. Grant was very close with his wife and was missing out on watching his young children grow up. The loneliness he felt led to increasing consumption of alcohol to quell his depression. As a result, he sometimes shirked his duties and ended up resigning from the army in 1854.   These experiences resulted in Grant being labeled a drunk or alcoholic by some contemporaries and historians. In fact, Grant biographer Ron Chernow is frequently blamed for over-emphasizing this idea. However, in recent years, his reputation as an alcoholic has been challenged, and his name has been cleared by researchers. While there is no denying that Grant drank alcohol and was an occasional binge drinker, he was by no means an alcoholic.   6. A Love of Cigars Did Him In The Ulysses S Grant Memorial in Washington D.C. Source: DBKing / Wikimedia Commons   Grant earned a reputation as a prolific cigar smoker, with some sources quoting a twenty-stogie-a-day habit. However, while Grant did smoke heavily during the Civil War, consuming twenty cigars on at least one day, historians believe that his daily consumption was not regularly at this level. The young man first tried smoking at West Point, found that it irritated his lungs, and quit. However, during the Mexican-American War, he returned to the habit, and it stuck. He is reputed to have been an appreciator of fine tobacco and was fond of the Mexican cigars he encountered during wartime. Civil War staffer Ely Parker recalled that “smoking seemed to be a necessity…” for Grant and that he smoked “the hardest when deep in thought.” Unfortunately, Grant’s tobacco habit contributed to his demise when he developed throat cancer as a result of his smoking habit. His cancer killed him on July 23, 1885, when he was 63 years old.   7. He Had a Complicated Relationship With Slavery Grant’s father, Jesse, spent time living with John Brown, a zealous abolitionist. Source: Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons   Grant grew up in a home where his father was a staunch abolitionist, a man who had spent time living with John Brown as a youth. However, his in-laws owned an expansive plantation with 30 slaves. His wife owned four slaves when they married, and there is evidence that Gant himself briefly owned a man named William Jones, whom he freed before the start of the Civil War. It is unknown whether or not Grant purchased Jones or was given his service as a “gift” from his in-laws. This led to Grant’s designation as the last president to own slaves at any point in his life.   Grant on horseback in an 1890 illustration. Source: Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons   Grant was said to suffer some embarrassment at his extended family’s relationship with slavery. While living with his father-in-law on his plantation after his first stint in the military, Grant worked on the farm alongside enslaved people and was said to be “too gentle” to “manage [slaves],” according to neighbors. Unlike his commander-in-chief, Abraham Lincoln, whose main goal at the start of the Civil War was simply to preserve the Union, regardless of the state of slavery (“If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it…”), Grant wrote, “…the North and South could never live at peace with each other except as one nation, and that without slavery.”   8. He Suffered From Malaria A red blood cell infected with malaria, giving it a knobby appearance. Source: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease / Wikimedia Commons   Malaria, a mosquito-borne protozoal disease, wreaked havoc during the Civil War era, with more than one million cases in the Union Army. The relationship between mosquitoes and malaria was not discovered until 1897, but 19th-century doctors did know that quinine had an effect on the disease, improving symptoms. However, while Grant suffered from malaria episodes during the Civil War, he likely contracted it earlier, possibly during his time as a soldier in the Mexican-American War or even as a child. He suffered frequent attacks of the disease while he was living with his wife in late-1850s St. Louis after his resignation from the army. In fact, his suffering is believed to have been to blame for some of his actions in which he was accused of drunkenness. His erratic behavior and physical sickness from the disease, including during the siege of Vicksburg, was inaccurately attributed to drinking.   While Malaria is no longer the scourge it was during Grant’s time, it remains one of the world’s most common diseases in modernity, with nearly 290 million people infected worldwide annually.

When you picture the greatest temples of the ancient world, your mind likely jumps to the Parthenon in Athens. But presenter Tristan Hughes argues that one of the best-preserved, most stunning structures on Earth isn’t in Greece at all – it’s in Italy, at the site of Paestum. Founded by Greek colonists 2,500 years ago, Paestum is a living testament to a vibrant, untold chapter of the ancient Mediterranean. Originally named Poseidonia, after the Greek god of the sea, the city was one of over 50 Greek settlements established along the Italian coastline – a region that became known as Magna Grecia (‘Greater Greece’). The settlers brought their rich culture, thriving on the fertile agricultural soils and lucrative trade routes, leaving an indelible mark in southern Italy well before the rise of Rome. In History Hit’s new documentary, Paestum: A Tale of Three Cities, Tristan explores the magnificent ruins, revealing how three incredible civilisations – the Greeks, the native Italian Lucanians, and the mighty Romans – collided in this single, extraordinary location.  Sign up to watch Here, we focus on the city’s foundational Greek age, deciphering the art and architecture the Greeks left behind. The colossal temples: a pinnacle of Greek grandeur Paestum boasts three of the best-preserved, colossal ancient Greek temples in the world, monuments that rival anything found in Greece itself. Tristan focuses on the Temple of Neptune, which he rates as one of the best-preserved ancient Greek temples in the world. Standing over 10 metres tall and built decades before the famous Parthenon, it is the pinnacle of the Greek Doric style, instantly commanding awe with its long, fluted columns. Inside the Temple of Neptune, Paestum, Southern Italy. This documentary takes you inside the temple’s sacred heart and challenges assumptions about its dedication. While early archaeologists assumed the most monumental temple belonged to Poseidon, Director Dr Tiziana D’Angelo explains that evidence now points towards the goddess Hera or perhaps Apollo. The temples also reveal a surprising truth of ancient ritual: most of the sacred ceremonies took place outside by the altar, rather than within the god’s house. Paestum, Southern ItalyImage Credit: History Hit The treasure of the Tomb of the Diver The artistic legacy of Greek Paestum is revealed in one of its greatest treasures: the Tomb of the Diver. Discovered in 1968, this is one of the only surviving examples of a complete Greek wall painting from the early 5th century BC anywhere in the world. In the documentary, Tristan and Tiziana discuss the symbolic meaning of this breathtaking fresco, which contains a central figure, diving into water – is it a metaphor for the passage from life to the afterlife, or a realistic scene of daily life? The other frescoes depict scenes of classical Greek life, including symposiums (Greek drinking parties) – scenes instantly recognisable to Greeks across the Mediterranean. This astonishing find proves that the Greek cultural zenith was not confined to Athens, but flourished with equal brilliance here in Southern Italy. The Tomb of the Diver, Paestum, Southern ItalyImage Credit: History Hit The collision of cultures The documentary continues its journey by exploring the subsequent periods that defined the city, showcasing dramatic shifts in power and culture: The Lucanians – warriors and cultural fusion: Two centuries after its foundation, native Italian tribes, the Lucanians, took over the city. While some bitter Greek sources labeled them “barbarians,” you’ll see the reality was far more complex: far from destroying Greek culture, the Lucanians deeply admired it. They transformed the city’s art to feature vivid scenes of warriors and military prowess, creating a profound cultural fusion that incorporated Greek styles. The Roman conquest: Control shifted again in 275 BC. The Lucanians – having unwisely allied with the Greek warlord Pyrrhus against Rome – lost their protector and the city was conquered. The Romans were swift to establish authority, building the Forum as a new political and urban centre. Yet, while replacing many Greek structures, the Romans allowed the magnificent temples to stand, underscoring their enduring respect for Paestum’s Greek origins and ensuring the city’s foundational culture survived. Tristan and Dr Tiziana D’Angelo stand beside a Lucanian artwork depicting chariot racing.Image Credit: History Hit As Tristan points out, Paestum fundamentally challenges the perception that ancient Italy was exclusively Roman, demonstrating instead that Rome existed alongside a vast array of extraordinary civilizations. As the site epitomises the dramatic collision of Greek, Lucanian, and Roman cultures, it reveals the rich, often overshadowed, histories of people who left behind some of the most beautiful wonders of the ancient world. Join Tristan Hughes as he explores these layers of history, uncovering how three civilisations converged at this single, extraordinary site. Watch Paestum: A Tale of Three Cities to discover the art, politics, and power of the Mediterranean’s hidden gem. Sign up to watch