The Roman and Sasanian Empires had been engaged in a prolonged rivalry for centuries (from approximately 224 CE to 628 CE). However, the two powers shared a mutual conviction when it came to violently suppressing the Manichaean religion. What political, theological, and social concerns could have possibly led to such extreme responses? Well, there is no simple answer to the question. Founded in the 3rd century by the prophet Mani, Manichaeism spread quickly as it cut across many religions and ethnicities. At its peak, the religion had millions of followers spread out across the Roman Empire, North Africa, and Asia.   How Mani Died Yuan Chinese silk painting Mani’s Birth. Source: Wikipedia   Both the Roman and Sasanian Empires launched fierce campaigns against Manichaeism to prevent it from gaining popularity in their territories. The Sasanian persecution of its followers, for example, was swift and led to Mani’s death in prison around 274 CE. This was after Bahram I reversed his predecessor’s policy of religious tolerance.   His predecessors such as Shapur I (240 CE to 270 CE) and his immediate successor Hormizd I (270 CE to 271 CE) had given Mani permission to travel and preach his religion as he pleased. Shapur I, in particular, liked to hear many viewpoints. As such, he saw Mani as a wise man and not a threat to the government.   A 14th-century illustration of the execution of Mani. Source: Wikipedia   The freedom was, however, short-lived as the religion increasingly faced resistance from leaders of other sects. The influential Zoroastrian priest, Kartir, was especially hostile to Manichaeism and sought to destroy it in order to make Zoroastrianism the main religion in the kingdom.   Over time, Kartir was able to convince subsequent Sasanian kings that Mani’s teachings posed a real threat to the empire as they influenced established belief systems. When Bahram I ascended the throne in 271 CE, Kartir pressured the new king to take action against Mani. The Manichaeism leader was soon arrested and put in prison. He died in 274 CE while still in prison. His followers would eventually liken his death to that of Jesus.   The Roman Empire Resisted the Religion Gold medallion of Diocletian with Jupiter Conservator on the reverse, Roman, 294 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   On the Roman side, Manichaeism reached the Roman Empire in the mid-3rd century CE. At the time, the empire was already grappling with its own internal problems brought on by constant wars. The issues included major socioeconomic and political problems. As such, new religions were viewed with suspicion. The fact that Manichaeism had begun in Persia, Rome’s old enemy, also raised alarm. As a result, Emperor Diocletian who ruled from 284 to 305 CE launched the first official attack against Manichaeism. His punishment was harsh. Manichaean leaders were to be burned alive along with their holy books. Anyone who refused to give up the faith would also be killed and their property transferred to the Roman treasury.   The Roman Empire officially began to persecute Manichaeans following Emperor Diocletian’s De Maleficiis Manichaeorum edict in 297 CE. Many historians believe that the empires were afraid of the universal messages and dualistic theologies spread by Manichaean preachers. They feared that the new belief system would corrupt local beliefs and cultures, and compel the masses to put religion above their allegiance to the empires.   Why the Manichaean Religion Spread So Fast The Behistun Inscription contains many references to Ahura Mazda. Source: Wikipedia   Mani, the founder of the Manichaean religion, was a skilled theologian who combined the teachings of popular preexisting religions such as Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Buddhism into his religion. The strategy led to an increase in followers due to the similarity of concepts.   Zoroastrians, for example, taught that the good god, Ahura Mazda, made the world. Evil apparently emerged later through the Ahriman, the evil antagonist. Manichaeans had an almost similar concept.    How Christians Resisted the Religion Augustine of Hippo illustration. Source: Wikipedia   After Christianity became the favored religion in Rome under Constantine around 313 CE (Edict of Milan), the Romans began treating Manichaeism as a twisted version of their own faith – essentially a Christian heresy. Soon, many Christian writers started to attack it through books and theological arguments. Among the most outspoken of the anti-Manichaeism crusaders of the time was Saint Augustine of Hippo. He had been a Manichaean follower for nine years before converting to Christianity.    In works like Against the Fundamental Epistle of Manichaeus, he attacked the religion’s core idea and argued that if the physical world was indeed evil, people would be compelled to commit sin as the world was inherently evil. He maintained that humans had free will to choose between good and evil and were not predisposed to either.   In 389 CE, the Christian Emperor Theodosius I banned Manichaean meetings and teachings and took away their right to own property.

On the Spot: Alan Knight James Hoare Wed, 12/10/2025 - 08:09

Throughout history, warlords have often straddled the line between legend and reality, their actions and personas sometimes more fantastical than factual. These leaders, both men and women, have ruled with iron fists and eccentric behaviors, leaving legacies that seem stranger than fiction. This article delves into the lives of 15 of the most unusual and ...

The marble head of a kore, a type of free-standing statue from the Greek Archaic period (800-480 B.C.) depicting a young female figure, has been discovered in the ancient Etruscan city of Vulci, central Italy. The head of the female statue is one of only a handful of known large-scale Greek Archaic statues ever discovered outside of Greece. The kore head was found in an excavation of the area of a monumental temple discovered in 2021 as part of the ongoing Vulci Cityscape project. The sculpture depicts a young woman with almond-shaped eyes and a serene smile known as an “archaic smile” intended to convey a sense of ideal harmony and well-being rather than happiness. Her hair is elaborately curled and braided. It is attributed to an Attic workshop of the early 5th century B.C. “The discovery of the late Archaic marble head of Kore at Vulci is an event of extraordinary significance both for its artistic value and for the implications it carries. It was not simply a prestigious votive gift that was found, but a concrete testimony to the spiritual and therefore politico-civil ties that united Etruria and the Greek world. This is an archaeological discovery that can change our perception of the world as would happen with a new scientific law. It reshapes our representation of reality cognitively, symbolically and also politically,” said Minister Alessandro Giuli. “It is no coincidence that this happens in Vulci, a city open to contact through its port, recently acquired by the Ministry of Culture, and through the hinterland where already from the Orientalizing period, from the end of the 8th century B.C., all the objects, but above all the rituals, now reconstructible thanks to new diagnostic tools for archaeology, confirm to us a dynamism, a cultural permeability that still today must represent and represent our models.” The head is currently at the Central Institute for Restoration (ICR) in Rome, where it is being cleaned and conserved. It will be thoroughly analyzed to investigate the traces of original polychromy that survive on the marble surface, what materials and techniques were used to create the piece.

1688 - King James II flees London 1768 - The first of 100 weekly "numbers" of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, which are bound into three volumes in 1771, is published in Edinburgh, Scotland 1913 - Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore becomes the first non-European to be presented with the Nobel Prize for Literature for "Gitanjali" 1939 - KNVB celebrates 50th anniversary 1954 - Linus Pauling wins Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its applications 1963 - Karl Ziegler and Giulio Natta receive the 1963 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on the technology of high polymers 1971 - West German Chancellor Willy Brandt receives the Nobel Peace Prize 1994 - 60th Heisman Trophy Award: Rashaan Salaam, Colorado (RB) More Historical Events »