Among surviving examples of ancient Egyptian literature, the poem The Tale of Sinuhe stands out for its suspense, action, and complexity. In addition, many copies of the poem survive, attesting to its popularity in the ancient world. So what happens in this epic poem, and what does it tell us about ancient Egypt?   What Is The Tale of Sinuhe? Photograph of Edmund Purdom as Sinuhe for the film Sinuhe the Egyptian, by Frank Powolny, 1954. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While ancient Egypt had a sophisticated culture spanning millennia, little of its rich literary tradition survives today, often only in fragments. But around two dozen copies of The Tale of Sinuhe survive, produced over about 750 years, suggesting that the Egyptians were still reading the poem several hundred years after it was composed.   Written in verse, The Tale of Sinuhe is an autobiographical work that follows the life of Sinuhe, who is said to have served at the court of the Pharaoh Amenemhat I (died c. 1962 BCE), the founder of the 12th dynasty. The earliest surviving copies of the poem date to the reign of Amenemhat III (died c. 1814 BCE), the sixth pharaoh of that dynasty.   Following the classic three-act structure, the story relates how Sinuhe was forced to flee Egypt. He established a successful life abroad but sorely missed his home. After a time, the pharaoh asks him to return and take up a place at court. This allows Sinuhe to fulfil his dream of being buried according to traditional customs in his homeland. The story inspired both an acclaimed novel by Finnish writer Mika Waltari and a 1954 epic movie directed by Michael Curtiz.   Act 1: Escape From Egypt Relief of Amenemhat I, Egyptian, 12th Dynasty, c. 1971-1926 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   At the beginning of the first act, we are put in the sandals of Sinuhe, a high official in the court of Amenemhat I during the 30th year of his reign. Sinuhe was returning from battle with his armies when he learned that the pharaoh had been killed in a coup. His reaction to the news was to flee Egypt, going eastward.   Sinuhe crossed the Red Sea on a cargo boat without a rudder. Once in Asia, he hid in the bushes so nobody would recognize him. While Sinuhe is afraid, it is unclear whether he feared retaliation from the rebels or being accused of complicity in the attack against Amenemhat. Whatever the reason, he crossed the wall that marked the easternmost boundary of Egypt at night, evading the armed guards.   He then crossed mountains and deserts, travelling farther away from his homeland, until he succumbed to exhaustion and dehydration. Nearly dead, a Syrian took pity on him and gave him water and milk and nursed him back to health. Sinuhe then spent a year and a half in Byblos and other towns, until a local ruler named Amunenshi learned of his reputation and invited him to join his court. Although this was certainly a downgrade from being part of the pharaoh’s court, he gladly took the job.   The Pharaoh was considered the representative of the divine on earth, responsible for maintaining Ma’at, or divine order. The unending line of pharaohs was considered essential to Egypt’s prosperity. Learn more about the Egyptian Pharaohs.   Act 2: Life in Asia Leaders of the Aamu of Shu, facsimile of a painting from the 12th dynasty Tomb of Khnumhotep, by Norman de Garis Davies, 1931. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Amunenshi greatly respected the pharaoh and took pride in having Sinuhe in his household. He gave Sinuhe important responsibilities, including overseeing the education of his children. He also gave Sinuhe his daughter in marriage and let him choose a plot of land to build his household. According to Sinuhe, the land he received was fertile with figs, grapes, honey, “wine more abundant than water,” barley, wheat, and cattle.   Despite his foreign origins, Sinuhe became very powerful in his own right. He and his sons became clan leaders and respected members of the Syrian elite. All travellers, Egyptian and other foreigners, were welcome in his home. However, anyone who tried to make trouble in the land was hunted down. Amunenshi continued to send Sinuhe on missions. He proved himself in combat and as a commander in Syria and the surrounding regions.   Sinuhe fled Egypt via the Levant, traveling through Palestine and Lebanon before settling in southern Syria in an area the Egyptians called Upper Retjenu.   Once, Sinuhe was challenged to combat by the leader of another tribe. His wealth and role at Amunenshi’s court were bound to cause jealousy among other clansmen. The combat was set for sunrise. Sinuhe managed to dodge or deflect his opponent’s dagger blows and blade strikes. Sinuhe fought with bow and arrow, soon felling his enemy with an arrow lodged in his throat. He then pillaged his opponent’s village, becoming even richer and more prestigious.   Act 3: Thebes Calling Relief depicting King Senusret I embraced by Ptah, Egyptian, 12th Dynasty, c. 1971-1926 BCE. Source: Egyptian Museum, Cairo   When Sinuhe was at the peak of his career in Asia and had everything a man could want, he still felt empty inside. Aware that he was growing old, he knew that if he stayed in Syria, he would be buried according to the local custom, draped in a sheepskin, instead of properly mummified according to Egyptian tradition. Sinuhe knew that without the proper funerary rites, he would not live eternally in the Duat, the Egyptian afterlife. He frequently discussed his homesickness with Amunenshi, but the ruler insisted that Sinuhe stay at his side.   However, Sinuhe’s success in Asia was so great that even the new Egyptian pharaoh, Senusret I, had heard of him. He sent a servant to tell Sinuhe that he was safe from accusation and prosecution and could return to the Egyptian court at Thebes. The pharaoh promised that Sinuhe would have a job and would be awarded a tomb and a proper Egyptian burial.   Sinuhe was humbled to receive this message. He returned home and served the pharaoh for the rest of his life.   Did you know that both Amenemhat I and his son Senusret I had pyramids? But the pyramids of the Middle Kingdom were made from less durable materials and did not survive as well as those of the Old Kingdom. Learn more.   Did Sinuhe Really Exist? Limestone Ostracon with a fragment of The Tale of Sinuhe, Egyptian, 19th Dynasty, c. 1295-1186 BCE. Source: British Museum, London   Egyptologists question whether this is a historical account or a work of fiction. It does start with a well-attested historical fact, the assassination of Amenemhat I. Therefore, it is possible that Sinuhe was a celebrity of sorts who gained fame during his lifetime.   While possible, there is no other proof that he lived at this time. No tomb of Sinuhe has ever been found, and there are no corroborating references to Sinuhe outside of the poem. There are also no sources mentioning Amunenshi; however, this was probably an Egyptianized version of his Syrian name that would have been spelled differently in local documents.   Consequently, the current consensus is that the tale is a work of historical fiction, with a genuine historical setting but a fictional protagonist. This was not uncommon in Egyptian literature, especially during the Middle Kingdom. Other popular themes were mythical and supernatural topics, as exemplified in the story of The Shipwrecked Sailor.   The “Shipwrecked Sailor” is the story of the sole survivor of a shipwreck who meets an enormous snake on a deserted island. The last of its kind, the snake tells the sailor many secrets, which the sailor takes back to Egypt and tells the pharaoh.   What Can the Tale of Sinuhe Teach Us? Scene from the Tomb of Sennedjem, Egyptian, 19th Dynasty, c. 1295-1186 BCE. Source: Nile Magazine   The poem reveals information about the political organization of small communities in Asia during the early part of the 2nd millennium BCE. They were ruled by local leaders, who intermarried in political alliances and maintained their position through strength. Leaders needed to own cattle, win combats, successfully raid other villages, and equitably distribute the spoils of war among their people. There was a hierarchy among the rulers, as shown by Sinuhe’s submission to Amunenshi, a more powerful regional chief.   The poem also reveals the chaos that could ensue when the line of pharaohs was broken, as it was temporarily with the assassination of Amenemhat I. He was later succeeded by his son and co-ruler Sensuret I. Sinuhe immediately felt his position threatened and took the dramatic decision to go into voluntary exile from his homeland for decades.   The story underscores the importance of funerary rites and the afterlife in ancient Egypt. Nothing was more important to Sinuhe than following the proper procedures to ensure his passage into the afterlife. It was not just a matter of dying in his homeland but also of receiving the proper funerary rites to live eternally in the Egyptian afterlife.   Do you know the story of Osiris? He was killed by his brother Set and reanimated by his sister Isis, who then created the Duat, the Egyptian underworld, for him to live in, creating the afterlife for all Egyptians.  

  After saving the nation in the War of 1812 and enjoying the relative prosperity of the following Era of Good Feelings, Americans began to face internal tensions again during the early 1830s under Southern populist president Andrew Jackson. The Northeast was industrializing, while the South remained mostly agrarian and reliant on slave labor. Southern states began fearing loss of political power. This was acutely felt regarding tariffs—taxes on imports—because the South more heavily relied on imported goods than the pro-manufacturing North. The South, bound by federal law, was upset at having to charge these tariffs on imports. What would happen if a southern state decided to reject federal law and not collect Congressionally-mandated tariffs?   Setting the Stage: The Articles of Confederation An image of a 1777 printing of the Articles of Confederation, which was ratified in 1781 as the United States’ first governing charter. Source: Library of Congress   The United States was created on July 4, 1776 with the signing of the Declaration of Independence. This famous document, however, provided no framework of government and simply proclaimed that the US was an independent nation from Great Britain. The work of government was established five years later with the ratification of the Articles of Confederation, which was created during the American Revolutionary War while true independence was still in jeopardy. During its writing in 1777, it was likely that Britain would still squash the independence movement with military force.   Fearful of allowing a tyrannical leader similar to King George III of Britain to rise, the Articles did not allow for a chief executive of the United States. A small Congress existed, but virtually all representatives—one from each state—had to approve a bill for it to become law. This Congress had almost no money to work with, as states could not be compelled to provide tax revenue to the tiny central government. For better or worse, almost all governing power rested within each individual state. Within five years, the new nation was on the verge of collapse as states could not work together or manage internal crises.   Setting the Stage: The Constitution of 1787 An image of the framers of the Constitution of 1787 meeting in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania that summer to create a new national charter. Source: National Park Service   After Shays’ Rebellion almost tore the nation apart, George Washington and many other Founding Fathers agreed that the Articles of Confederation needed to be reformed to provide more power to the central government. Delegates from the states met in Philadelphia during the following summer to revise the Articles, working in Independence Hall, where the Declaration of Independence had been signed eleven years earlier. Quickly, they decided to scrap the Articles of Confederation altogether and craft a new constitution. This was a radical undertaking, and convention chair George Washington demanded complete secrecy to avoid public pressure.   By autumn, the new Constitution of 1787 had been unveiled to the public, and many were displeased and suspicious. The Constitution created the position of chief executive, known as the president, and gave additional power in a new bicameral Congress to states with larger populations. This Congress and president could pass federal laws that applied to all states much more easily than under the Articles, which raised concerns that smaller states could be forced to adopt federal laws with which they disagreed. Could a Congress dominated by more populous northern states inflict unpopular laws on southern states?   The South and Tariffs An image of a tariff stamp, which was used to indicate that a tax had been paid to import that product. Source: Mises Institute   In addition to Indian affairs, another hot political topic circa 1830 was tariffs, or taxes on imports. During this era, tariffs were the largest source of tax revenue for the federal government, which would not be able to levy income taxes until the passage of the 16th Amendment in 1913. Tariffs were controversial in the 1820s, as they are still today. States with varying economies and industries were affected differently by tariffs, creating a growing political divide during that decade. States with industries benefited from tariffs limiting the import of competing foreign goods.   The South had little industry and was mostly agrarian. Thus, it saw little benefit from tariffs. On the contrary, the South had to pay higher prices for imported goods due to the tariffs. Since the South had little industry, it relied proportionally more on imported goods from Europe than did the North. Many Southerners disliked the “American System” economic plan proposed by US Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky, which they saw as using tariffs to enrich the North and West at the expense of their own region.   The Tariff of Abominations (Tariff of 1828) A map showing strong southern resistance to the Tariff of 1828, also known as the Tariff of Abominations. Source: Council on Foreign Relations (CFR)   The tariff issue came to a head in 1828 with Congress’ passage of a high tariff known as the Tariff of Abominations. Tariffs were supported by incumbent president John Quincy Adams, a Northerner whose base of support lay in manufacturing states in New England. While the high tariff on imported goods from Europe would benefit New England factories, it would hurt other industries. The South was outraged because the lower demand for European cloth in the North meant that Europe had less demand for cotton, the South’s major export.   Vice President John C. Calhoun, a Southerner, publicly criticized the tariff. In a political oddity, Adams’ vice president, Calhoun, was chosen as the running mate of Adams’ opponent, Andrew Jackson, making him the only vice president to serve under two separate presidents. Calhoun’s public dislike of the 1828 tariff meant opponents of the tariff had a new presidential candidate to vote for: Southerner Andrew Jackson. As a North Carolinian by birth and a former US Senator from Tennessee, Jackson was thought to be a firm supporter of Southern causes.   The Rise of Jacksonian Democracy A painting of US President Andrew Jackson (1829-1837), whose brand of populist politics created an era known as “Jacksonian Democracy.” Source: Society for US Intellectual History   Early US presidents had considerably less power than modern chief executives… until the rise of Southern populist figure Andrew Jackson, a hero from the War of 1812. Jackson disliked the elites in Congress and the federal courts; he believed that more political power should rest with the will of the voters. Jackson’s distrust of Congress was likely intensified by the House of Representatives choosing his rival, John Quincy Adams, as president in the 1824 election despite Jackson winning more popular votes and electoral votes. Four years later, Jackson returned to run for president again, bolstered by lower- and middle-class men demanding populist reforms.   Jackson won the presidential election of 1828 in a landslide. He quickly exercised unprecedented power for a chief executive and accused his predecessors of running a lax and wasteful bureaucracy. In regard to Indian policies, Jackson quickly showed himself to be a supporter of states’ rights and refused to honor federal government agreements to protect Native Americans in the South. Many Southerners felt that Jackson, an enslaver, was an overall proponent of states’ rights and could be counted on to quash Congress’ actions that were unpopular with them. Would Jackson’s support for the South be put to the test?   Would a Southerner Like Jackson Betray the South? A historical marker in North Carolina giving some information about the early career of future US President Andrew Jackson. Source: State of North Carolina   As the first US president from the South, Jackson’s loyalties were tested. He was not sympathetic to Congress or the courts, but would his own position as chief executive of the United States prevent him from caving to Southern demands? He disagreed that Native American tribes should be treated as sovereign states, which was the policy of his presidential predecessors. In 1830, he urged the creation of what would become the Indian Removal Act, which he signed into law on May 28. This led to the infamous Trail of Tears, in which Native Americans in the South were forcibly relocated to Oklahoma Territory eight years later.   Those looking for a signal of Jackson’s support for the South may have found it in the president’s controversial response to the US Supreme Court decision in Worcester v. Georgia (1832). The Court ruled in favor of the Cherokee Nation, finding that the state of Georgia was wrong to annex the Cherokee lands, which were part of a sovereign state with a constitutional government (Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 1831). Jackson ignored the Supreme Court decision and did not force Georgia to stop its annexation of Cherokee territory, becoming the first US president to ignore a direct Supreme Court ruling.   1832-33: Jackson vs. South Carolina A pamphlet detailing the governor of South Carolina’s opposition to the Tariff of 1828 and exploring nullification. Source: Library of Congress   Perhaps emboldened by Jackson’s refusal to enforce Worcester v. Georgia, plus the presence of anti-tariff vice president John C. Calhoun, the South was particularly incensed in 1832 when Congress passed tariff reform that was seen as insufficient. South Carolina had been dropping hints that it might nullify (refuse to enact) federal tariffs ever since the passage of the Tariff of Abominations four years prior and was upset that Congress did not seem to take its anger seriously. When Jackson was re-elected that fall, South Carolina announced it would not collect the tariffs beginning on February 1, 1833.   An 1832 pamphlet praising US President Andrew Jackson as a hero and criticizing the “nullifiers” who were violating federal law. Source: Ashland University   South Carolina’s Ordinance of Nullification was a serious threat to the power and authority of the central government. If a state was allowed to nullify a federal law with which it disagreed, what would hold the union together? Any state could theoretically nullify any federal law or executive order, making the central government moot. To ward off threats of force, the Ordinance of Nullification also stated that South Carolina would secede from the union if Congress put forth any punitive actions. All eyes turned to President Andrew Jackson, whose authority as chief executive was being directly challenged.   Decision Time: Central Government Power Asserted Andrew Jackson’s response to the Nullification Crisis was issued on December 11, 1832, and rejected South Carolina’s efforts. Source: Library of Congress   Jackson’s southern sympathies were not strong enough to sway his role as chief executive and commander-in-chief. The president swiftly responded to South Carolina’s Ordinance of Nullification by ordering preparation for war. A militia was prepared to invade the state if necessary and prevent secession—and collect the tariffs—by force of arms. Publicly, Jackson denounced South Carolina’s attempt at nullification and asked Congress to give him the okay to use his presidential powers to preserve the union.   On March 2, 1833, Congress approved the Force Bill of 1833, which allowed the Jackson administration to use force to collect the tariffs. Violence was ultimately averted thanks to some diplomacy by Senator Henry Clay, who passed the Compromise Tariff of 1833 on the same day. Tariffs would be reduced to an acceptable 20 percent, which was agreeable to Senator Clay, Vice President Calhoun, and President Jackson, as well as the government of South Carolina. This is sometimes known as the Compromise of 1833, and it preserved the union without the need to implement the Force Bill. Jackson received praise for thwarting nullification and asserting central government power.   Looming Struggle: The Civil War A January 1861 document revealing that the same anti-establishment feelings that led to the Nullification Crisis were strong in the South thirty years later. Source: Virginia Humanities   Despite Jackson’s decisive political victory over South Carolina, southern disdain for northern politics continued. A divisive new political issue arose beginning in the 1840s: slavery. While slavery had always been contentious, with northern states being predominantly free states and southern states predominantly slave states, public criticism of slavery as an institution intensified after the 1830s. The Second Great Awakening religious movement moved debates over slavery from the halls of Congress to the streets of the nation. Again, the South felt threatened.   In 1861, almost thirty years after the Nullification Crisis, South Carolina again took political action against the Union. This time, it moved straight to secession and formally seceded from the United States. A few months later, soldiers affiliated with the new Confederate States of America fired on and captured the United States military fort located at Fort Sumter, South Carolina. This action began the deadly American Civil War, which raged for four years. This time, the Union was preserved by force of arms at the cost of over one million casualties. By 1865, the federal government had shown that states could not nullify or secede, putting the issue to rest.   Nullification Issues Today: Immigration and Crime A map of the US southern border with Mexico, where high rates of illegal immigration in recent years has led to conflict between some of these states and the central government. Source: NPR   Although states have not attempted nullification or secession since 1865, they have not accepted unpopular federal laws or executive orders quietly. The Civil Rights Movement, especially, saw southern states publicly criticize the actions of Congress, the Supreme Court, and the president. Fortunately, decisive action by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1957 showed that states would be made to comply with Supreme Court rulings. This answered the question of whether presidents would use force against state attempts to nullify Supreme Court decisions.   Today, states still publicly criticize federal policies, particularly concerning issues like immigration and criminal justice. Immigration policy is a federal issue, meaning states cannot create their own policies. This has led to states protesting immigration laws and threatening to enact their own enforcements, with conservative southern states desiring stricter restrictions on immigration. Some conservative states also disagree with federal policies on illegal drugs and other aspects of criminal justice, viewing them as too lenient. This is somewhat different from the Nullification Crisis, however, as the states are attempting to be more strict on an existing policy rather than less strict. Hopefully, the Supreme Court, rather than military force, will decide these debates.

  It comes as no surprise that the earliest human civilizations made and enjoyed the first sports balls. Even today, when people walk down the street, they often casually kick a stone or pine cone and follow it up for a while. Chasing the ball seems to be an integral part of the human psyche. Through early artwork, archaeological finds, and ancient documents, researchers recognize the important roles that sports balls have played in history.   The Americas: Olmec People Become First to Design and Kick the Ball Castilla elastic. Source: Terance Kaluthanthiri, Pixels   Twelve rubber balls from 1600 BCE were found in a present-day Veracruz, Mexico bog, which was once a very early Olmec sacrificial area. It is possible that archaeologists will uncover even earlier sporting sites in the future.   The Olmec civilization, or “people from rubber trees,” is believed to be the first to develop rubber balls in the Southern Mexico area of Mesoamerica. This historic area includes the current countries of northern Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala, Belize, and central to southern Mexico. The Olmec culture, which influenced later societies such as the Maya and Aztec, originated with the Pre-Olmec civilization of about 2500 BCE. These people are recognized for their monuments, including stone-head carvings of lauded human rulers made out of huge boulders, and other elaborate artwork in jade and ceramics.   Painted scenes of Maya players of the Mesoamerican ballgame. Guatemala, 700-800 CE. Source: St. Louis Art Museum, Missouri   To make their rubber sporting items, the Olmec people extracted a milky white natural substance called latex from the Castilla elastica tree. They dried and formed it into thin rectangular strips, which were wrapped over each other to increase the size of the ball. Finally, the ball was covered with a thin layer of latex to hold the strips together and enhance the bounce qualities.   The Olmec’s ball playing was used for both entertainment and religious purposes. The game, where the ball was contacted and transported by the sportsman’s hip, often characterized the fight of good versus evil. In a war ceremony game, for example, the event’s losers were sometimes sacrificed. Balls of all sizes were also made as offerings to the gods and sometimes buried in consecrated areas.   The Olmec’s sport was simply called “ball game,” although other cultures knew it by other names, such as “pitz” for Mayan players. This game was sometimes held to reduce local wars. Rather than fighting in battles, local kings confronted one another in a ball game. Noblemen also competed to resolve personal disagreements.   Olmec Ball Playing Influences Neighboring Cultures Xochiacalco ball court (700-900 CE) in Mexico. Source: Public Domain   Over time, the Mesoamerica ball games spread throughout many neighboring regions, each with its own scoring and playing rules. Archaeologists have discovered more than 2,000 ball courts throughout Mexico as well as Guatemala, Belize, western Honduras, and El Salvador. These numerous sports arenas were simple rectangles set between two stone walls, but they served a number of different societal functions. In the game Ulama, a variation played by Aztecs, teams bounced the ball through stone hoops, which were long used as part of their culture. The circular hoop symbolized wholeness and health, as well as personal, communal, national, and universal peace.   Ball Players, by G. Catlin. Source: British Library   Another common game similar to lacrosse, which also originated in Mesoamerica, was played by several Native American tribes like the Cherokee. Two teams of players, each carrying two sticks, or kabocca, shot the woven leather ball, or towa, into the opposition’s goal to score. Hands could never be used, only the kabocca. These stickball games frequently lasted several days from sunup until sundown on the plains between villages, with as many as one thousand competitors. The goals, which could be huge boulders or trees, were located 500 yards to several miles from each other. The flexible rules were only announced the day before the event.   The Mediterranean: Greeks Designed a Very Early Game of Football Greek ball sports. Source: British Museum, London   The early Greeks, in about 900 BCE, enjoyed several different ball games. Episkyros, for example, was played with two opposing teams, each with 12 to 14 players. The ball, rounder and smaller than the one used today in soccer, was made from pieces of leather sewn together with animal entrails. The outside was brightly painted.   Episkyros is often called the “first game of football” because of its many similarities to the one played today in the US. It was also very similar to rugby. The field was marked with lines to determine the correct positioning of play. Full contact with hands was allowed. The aim was to continually toss the ball over the heads of the opposition and move forward. A team scored when it forced its opponents behind their end line.   Episkyros was entertaining but also very dangerous, especially in Sparta. Because of full bodily contact and use of great strength and skill, players frequently struggled off the court with broken bones.   The Greek Game Is Picked up by Rome Greek ballplayer. Source: Louvre Museum, Paris   The game harpastum (another name for “handball”) was the Roman variation of episkyros. It was enjoyed for approximately 750 years during the Roman Empire in the 5th Century BCE and often called “the small ball game.” Once again, the teams numbered between 12 and 14. Instead of kicking and throwing a ball the size of one used in soccer, the harpastum players tossed several different balls about the size and strength of a present-day softball. These consisted of attached leather strips filled with a variety of materials. The smallest ball was stuffed with feathers. The largest one contained an air-filled bladder.   It is believed that harpastum was even more brutal than its Greek equivalent because the match included wrestling, where players deliberately held on to one another to deter scoring. Historians believe that Rome brought their sports ball games with them when expanding into the British Isles. Thus, once again, the sporting arenas expanded.   East Asia: Chinese Cuju Gets the Ball Rolling Cuju playing in China. Source: FIFA Museum   China’s earliest ball game, cuju, dates back to the 3rd century BCE. Cuju or tsu-chu, with the literal meaning of “kick ball,” was played commonly during the late Han Dynasty (202 BCE to 220 CE). It became an interesting mix of what was to become American football, basketball, and volleyball. Similar to other types of early sporting activity, cuju was not originally played for competition and entertainment. The athletic event actually began as a military drill for fitness training. Confucian scholars stressed that sport was important to strengthen the soldiers’ fighting power.   During the Tang Dynasty (618 to 907 CE), cuju was transformed into a professional sport to enhance economic development. It became popular with all classes from nobility to labor. In the game, two teams of six competed against each other and attempted to kick a ball through a circular goal at the center of the field. Rules did not allow players to use their hands to propel the ball, which had to remain in the air at all times. Although cuju was a very popular game for several hundred years, the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE) emperor eventually banned the game because of its growing corruption.   Cuju Gaming Spreads Outward to Japan The Kemari Festival, Tazan Shrine, Sakuri, Japan. Source: Creative Commons   Cuju’s popularity expanded to other East Asian countries, such as Korea and Japan. Researchers believe that kemari, the Japanese ball sport from 600 CE, was an offshoot of this Chinese ball game.  Kemari was played with an eight-inch round deerskin-covered ball stuffed with sawdust or barley grains. Over the years, it was followed first by the nobles and samurai and then the general public.   Unlike cuju, kemari was never used for military purposes. With no winners or losers, it was instead played to reinforce camaraderie and cooperation among the players and provide entertainment for viewers of all backgrounds. The object was to continually pass the ball as long as possible to fellow players without having it touch the ground.   A formal game of kemari consisted of six to eight players, typically four primary players and four “assistants.” At the beginning, the first player kicked the ball to the second and so forth down the line. Only a foot could propel the ball, although a player’s body was able to stop its movement or direct it toward someone else. How long could the players keep the ball aloft? That was the only question of importance.   One story relates how an emperor and his kemari team kept the ball in the air for over one thousand kicks. Poets watching the event claimed the ball “seemed suspended, hanging in the sky.” Interest in this enjoyable game declined as sumo wrestling grew in popularity. However, every spring and summer, the Tanzan Shrine in Sakurai stages the game as it was played over a thousand years ago to celebrate and commemorate this early history. Numerous local community members and tourists attend the yearly events to recall this rich history.   Modern soccer balls. Source: Andre Pombal, Pexels   Because of the importance of ball play and events over the past thousands of years worldwide, it appears that such competition and entertainment will continue to play an essential role in future societies. Today, millions and millions of sports enthusiasts and players continue to love the way these balls keep on rolling.

  Nevada, the 36th state admitted into the Union, has a rich and unique history. Behind the glitz and glamor of the neon-lit resorts and casinos of the cities, Nevada is filled with abandoned mines, ghost towns, and a legacy of struggle. There is far more to the state’s past than first meets the eye.   Nevada Before Nevada Faded over millennia, the petroglyphs near Lake Winnemucca are the oldest in the United States. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Although the inaugural date for the state of Nevada is October 31, 1864, this does not mean the land did not have a history beforehand. The history of human habitation in this area stretches back many thousands of years. In fact, Nevada is the home to the oldest known rock art in the United States. These petroglyphs are located near Lake Winnemucca and are estimated to be between 10,500 and 14,800 years old. The archaeological record suggests that settlements in the area date back even further to around 20,000 years ago.   Relatively little is known about the people who inhabited the region so long ago. Around 700 years ago, the ancestors of the Shoshone and the Northern and Southern Paiute People entered the region. Several hundred years later, their descendants would be the ones to meet European settlers for the first time, ushering in a new era for the land and its people.   Red Rock Canyon, Nevada. Source: goodfon.com   The Spanish were the first Europeans to make contact with the Indigenous people but held little regard for any sense of Indigenous land rights. By 1790, most of North and South America had been claimed or annexed by the Spanish Empire, from the southern tip of South America all the way to the edges of what is now Alaska. The Spanish named the area Nevada, an adjective in Spanish meaning “snowy” or “snow-covered,” in reference to the snow-covered mountains in winter.   War with the nascent United States would challenge claims on the North American continent, and the two nations would come to blows as the United States expanded westward. From 1846 to 1848, the Mexican-American War was fought, which ended in disaster for Mexico. The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo ended the conflict, and Mexico was forced to cede vast amounts of territory. Among these lands was Nevada, the first part of the Utah Territory, and then, as a separate entity, Nevada Territory, in March 1861.   Statehood in the Civil War The location of Nevada in the United States. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Although Mexico and the Spanish Empire before it had claimed what is now Nevada, neither of these nations made any serious attempts at settling the area. In the early 19th century, American settlers had already reached the territory, but their presence was not permanent.   The first permanent non-Indigenous settlers were Mormons, who, in 1851, set up waystations on their route to the California gold fields. The first population boom occurred in 1859 after the discovery of silver deposits. The Comstock Lode ushered in a new era for the area as pioneers flocked to the west, making their homes in Carson City, which had been established one year earlier.   With the boom in population, the foundation was laid for Nevada to become a state. The following years, however, plunged the nation into conflict as the South seceded and the North fought bitterly to save the Union in the American Civil War.   It is a common misconception that the Union sought statehood for Nevada to access its wealth, which would help the Union cause. When Nevada achieved statehood in late 1864, the truth was that the war was already winding down, and the Union was well on its way to victory over the Confederacy.   Carson City in the early 1860s. Source: aroundcarson.com   Nevada and its electoral votes were considered valuable for the re-election of Abraham Lincoln, who faced significant opposition. A three-way race for the presidency was on the cards for 1864, as the Republican Party had split into two factions. Lincoln led the moderate faction called the National Union, which believed the Confederate States should be readmitted into the Union with a reasonable set of conditions. Facing him was General John C Fremont, who had formed the Radical Democracy Party and wanted harsher penalties for the Confederate States.   The Democrats were represented by General George B. McClellan, who wanted to exonerate the Confederate states completely. Fremont and the Radical Democracy Party withdrew from the race before voting. Nevada was perceived to be heavily pro-Unionist and strongly Republican, and by thus achieving statehood would likely throw significant weight behind Lincoln. On October 31, 1864, Nevada became the 36th state and contributed to Lincoln’s re-election several days later. The admission also meant that Lincoln had another state that would back his anti-slavery amendments.   In the following years, the state territory would expand at the expense of its neighbors. The southernmost point of Nevada was taken from Arizona, but since Arizonans had had significant Confederate sympathy during the war, their protests carried little weight.   Economic Struggle Miners in Mohawk Mine in Goldfield, Nevada, c. 1900-1905. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the 1870s, the boom times for Nevada were tempered by federal decisions that reduced the value of silver. The United States had yet to formally declare its move to the gold standard, but the process had already begun, and Nevada’s silver miners found themselves with significantly reduced profits. Many Nevadans tried their hand at ranching, but inconsistent fortunes did not bode well for this industry either.   Nevada’s population declined, but the bad times for the state would not last forever. At the turn of the century, new strikes of silver were discovered in Tonopah in the south, while gold was discovered nearby in aptly named Goldfield, and copper was found in Ely to the north. These discoveries reversed Nevada’s fortunes, and the state’s economy began to recover.   Technological advancements led to a great demand for minerals in the 20th century, and, coupled with the huge demand generated by the First World War, Nevada’s mining industry surged.   With the newfound economic prosperity, railroads were built, and irrigation infrastructure was laid. Transport costs were greatly reduced as a result, and ranching became a viable industry.   However, economic prosperity did not last. Like the rest of the country, Nevada was plunged into economic disaster during the Great Depression, an era that initiated hard times and was felt globally.   Downstream Face of Boulder Dam (Hoover Dam). Source: rawpixel.com   The legalization of gambling and the initiation of the Hoover Dam project would help limit the damage to Nevada’s economy and aid in industrial development. Gambling turned the city of Reno into a tourist hotspot but also attracted crime syndicates who wished to capitalize on opportunities linked to the trade. These syndicates were also linked to the prostitution trade (which is currently legal in licensed brothels in ten of Nevada’s 16 counties). As such, a well-developed criminal underworld thrived.   Meanwhile, government expenditure in Nevada was the highest per capita of any state during the Great Depression. As a result, Nevadans generally suffered less than their out-of-state compatriots.   Rapid Urban Expansion: Las Vegas & Nuclear Testing Las Vegas. Source: needpix.com   The economic fortunes tied to Nevada’s southern region in the early 20th century resulted in a significant increase in population. As a result, the city of Las Vegas was founded in 1905. Within the city limits is an old Mormon fort built in the area as a halfway point between Salt Lake City and Los Angeles.   Like in Reno, crime syndicates opened their operations in Las Vegas, and the city thrived as entrepreneurs were drawn to the city to grasp opportunities for commercial expansion. In March 1936, the Hoover Dam was completed, and Las Vegas became its first customer.   The dam’s construction formed Lake Mead, and combined with the pull of gambling and the state’s liberal laws on marriage and divorce, Las Vegas became a major destination for tourists.   Panorama of Lake Mead. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The criminal element, however, made Las Vegas a dangerous place. Mafia bosses competed with each other and eventually drew the attention of police authorities who spent decades trying to stamp out the criminal operations.   Meanwhile, from the 1940s onward, another industry brought prosperity to Nevada. The Department of Defense saw Nevada as a perfect place to train in harsh conditions and, most importantly, to test nuclear weapons. The opportunities surrounding the opening of military bases also led to higher employment rates, helping Nevada flourish.   In the 1950s, the state became a tourist hotspot for those wishing to see the explosions and mushroom clouds of nuclear weapons testing! The Nevada Test Site, 65 miles north of Las Vegas, was the site of many hundreds of tests. In the 1950s, many of these tests were conducted above ground and were visible from many parts of the city, drawing huge crowds of onlookers and journalists who came to witness the events.   In 1967, Nevada passed the Corporate Gaming Act, which removed financial background checks for applicants seeking gambling licenses. This attracted corporations and entrepreneurs to the state, who invested in casinos, slowly replacing mafia control with legitimate investment. From the 1990s, this trend saw Nevada cities, particularly Las Vegas, change, with hotels, casinos, and resorts being built that offered far more family-oriented experiences.   Nevada Today Reno, Nevada, 2020. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While Nevada’s fortunes steeply climbed in the latter half of the 20th century, the 21st century has brought new challenges that could completely reverse this trend. The legalization of gambling in other states and the advent of online gambling have threatened Nevada’s dominance of the gambling industry, hurting tourism in the process—an industry also greatly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.   Before the surge in unemployment caused by the pandemic, Nevada had an unemployment rate of 4%, which was exactly on par with the national average. In 2020, the national average skyrocketed to 15% before returning to 4% within two years. At the same time, Nevada was hit incredibly hard, and the state unemployment rate rose to 31% in April 2020 before recovering. The state unemployment rate as of September 2024 remains at 5.5%, the highest in the United States.   Coupled with an increasingly unaffordable housing market and high rent, prospects for young Nevadans are not as high as they had been for their parents and grandparents.   Nevertheless, the Silver State still echoes the deeds of the pioneers and entrepreneurs who built it. It is a place of beauty and opportunity with a unique character among the 50 states. As the times change, much of the state’s history has yet to be written.

Strabo: The First Geographer James Hoare Wed, 12/03/2025 - 09:04