Public DomainThe First Thanksgiving 1621 by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris (1899). For many Americans today, Thanksgiving is a beloved annual holiday centered around family, gratitude, and a delicious feast of turkey, mashed potatoes, cranberry sauce, and pumpkin pie. But the popular story of its origins — a simple, humble, harmonious meal between Pilgrims and their Native American neighbors — is layered with centuries of myth and a far more complicated history. The 1621 event, a three-day harvest celebration, was not called “Thanksgiving” at the time that it happened, and it was born from a fragile, short-lived political alliance, not a genuine friendship. The food, the clothing, and the very nature of the relationship between the Wampanoag and the English at the event are often misunderstood. This celebration has since been reframed into a national symbol that holds different, and often painful, meanings for many people to this day. Below, you’ll find some of the most frequently asked questions about the first Thanksgiving, as well as the answers that may come as a shock. When Was The First Thanksgiving? The event now referred to as the “first Thanksgiving” was a three-day harvest celebration that took place during the autumn of 1621. It was held by the English Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony and members of the Wampanoag Nation. The gathering was to celebrate the Pilgrims’ first successful corn harvest in the “New World,” which was largely made possible thanks to the agricultural guidance of the Wampanoag. The celebration occurred sometime between late September and mid-November. Who Was At The First Thanksgiving? The 1621 harvest feast was attended by 52 English colonists and at least 90 Wampanoag men. The Wampanoag delegation was led by their sachem (chief), Massasoit, and included other Native American figures like Squanto. The English attendees included their governor, William Bradford, and Captain Myles Standish. Public DomainLanding of the Pilgrims by Charles Lucy. This gathering of roughly 140 people was not a small, quiet dinner but a large, communal, and diplomatic event that seemed to affirm the alliance between the two groups — at least for the time being. Why Did The Wampanoag Attend? The Wampanoag attended the first Thanksgiving primarily because they heard the sound of gunfire from the colonists’ celebration and came to investigate, unsure whether it signaled danger or festivities. Once they understood the situation, they stayed for the feast, which became a diplomatic gathering meant to reinforce their recent peace treaty. It was largely a strategic move on the Wampanoag’s part. The nation had been devastated by European diseases in recent years, losing up to 90 percent of their population, and faced threats from rival tribes at the same time. The colonists offered potential military support and trading opportunities. Was It Really Called “Thanksgiving”? No, the 1621 celebration was not called “Thanksgiving” by its participants. The Pilgrims typically used the term “thanksgiving” to describe religious days of prayer and fasting, which were usually far more solemn occasions. Wikimedia CommonsMassasoit smoking a traditional pipe with Governor John Carver in Plymouth. The 1621 gathering was more accurately a harvest festival or celebration. While there was likely some prayer involved during the meals, the event was also focused on feasting, recreation, and socializing. Edward Winslow, one of the colonists who documented the event, described it simply as a time when they “rejoiced together” after gathering their harvest. The term “first Thanksgiving” was only applied to this feast much later, in the 19th century, after a letter describing the event was rediscovered. Did They Eat Turkey? Turkey may have been served at the first Thanksgiving, but if it was, it probably wasn’t the centerpiece of the meal like it is today. Edward Winslow’s account mentions that colonists went “fowling” and brought back birds for the feast. Wild turkey was abundant in the region and could have been among the fowl served. However, the menu likely featured a much wider variety of wildfowl, including ducks, geese, and swans. The Wampanoag brought five deer to the feast, so venison was definitely a major protein source at the meal, possibly more central than poultry. If turkey was present, it would have been wild turkey, which tastes quite different from domesticated birds and has darker, gamier meat. The modern emphasis on turkey as the quintessential Thanksgiving food developed much later on in American history. What Food Was On The Menu? The 1621 feast featured a bounty of local food. The Wampanoag provided five deer, making venison a major part of the meal. Other documented foods included wildfowl (such as ducks, geese, and possibly turkeys) and corn in its grain form. Frederic Lewis/Archive Photos/Getty ImagesAn illustration of the first Thanksgiving. Based on the location and season, historians believe that the menu also included seafood like mussels, lobsters, oysters, bass, and eels. The people in attendance also would have eaten local produce like squash, nuts, and berries. What Popular Thanksgiving Foods Were Not At The Feast? Many now-iconic Thanksgiving foods were absent from the 1621 celebration, and in some cases, they hadn’t even been invented yet. Mashed potatoes couldn’t have been served because white potatoes hadn’t yet become common in North America. Cranberry sauce wasn’t available since the colonists lacked sufficient sugar supplies to make sweetened preserves. Unsurprisingly, sweet potato casserole with marshmallows is a much more modern creation — while sweet potatoes existed, modern marshmallows weren’t invented until centuries later. Pumpkin pie was likewise impossible without flour for crusts, butter, or proper ovens for baking; if pumpkin appeared at all during the feast, it was likely boiled or stewed. Stuffing as we know it, green bean casserole, and dinner rolls were all absent too. The Pilgrims had no cows yet, so butter, milk, and cheese weren’t available to make the richer foods the holiday is known for today. Did The Pilgrims Wear Black Clothes With White Collars And Buckles On Their Hats? This is a popular myth, but no. The Pilgrims typically wore colorful clothing in shades like red, green, violet, and gray, made from wool and linen. Black dye was expensive, so it was usually only available to wealthier individuals. The Pilgrims’ everyday attire was actually quite practical and varied in color. The iconic image of black-clad Pilgrims with buckled hats and shoes largely comes from Victorian-era artistic interpretations, not historical accuracy. Buckles on hats weren’t fashionable yet in the 1620s — that style became popular later on in the 17th century. The somber black-and-white stereotype likely arose from later Puritan aesthetics and 19th-century romanticization of colonial history. Who Was Squanto? Squanto, whose full name was Tisquantum, was a member of the Patuxet tribe, a branch of the Wampanoag Confederacy, who served as an interpreter and intermediary at the 1621 harvest celebration. Wikimedia CommonsAn illustration of Squanto from a 1922 children’s book. He had been kidnapped by English explorers in his youth and taken to Europe, where he was sold into slavery in Spain. He escaped, possibly with the help of Catholic friars, made his way to England, and learned the English language while living in the country for several years. When he finally returned to his homeland around 1619, he discovered his village had been wiped out by European disease. He then lived with the nearby Wampanoag. Squanto also became invaluable to the Plymouth colonists, teaching them how to fertilize corn, where to fish, and how to avoid poisonous plants. He died in 1622 from what William Bradford called “Indian fever.” How Long Did The Celebration Last? The 1621 harvest celebration lasted for three days. Unlike modern Thanksgiving, it was not a single meal, but a multi-day event that included feasting, drinking, and recreational activities. Edward Winslow’s account mentions that the Wampanoag guests “entertained and feasted” with the colonists, and that the colonists “exercised our arms” (likely a military drill or a demonstration of marksmanship), while the Wampanoag engaged in their own games and athletic displays. Was The Relationship Between The Pilgrims And Wampanoag Peaceful? Initially, relations were relatively peaceful due to mutual strategic interests, but tensions were known to have existed from the start. The peace treaty of 1621 served both groups: The Wampanoag had been devastated by disease and needed allies against rival tribes, while the colonists desperately needed Indigenous resources to survive. Of course, it wasn’t an equal relationship. Wikimedia CommonsNative Americans attacking a log cabin during King Philip’s War. The colonists occupied land that had belonged to the Patuxet people before disease killed them. Cultural misunderstandings were frequent, and the English often showed disrespect for Indigenous customs. As more English settlers arrived, competition for land and resources in the area intensified greatly. The peaceful period was brief and fragile, largely dependent on the leadership of individuals like Massasoit and strained by the colonists’ expanding territorial ambitions. What Happened To The Alliance? The alliance deteriorated rapidly after the deaths of key leaders and peacekeepers and as colonial expansion accelerated. Massasoit maintained peace until his death in 1661, but relations grew increasingly strained as English settlers continually encroached on Indigenous lands and resources. Massasoit’s son Metacomet (called “King Philip” by the English) became the leader of the Wampanoag and watched angrily as colonial authorities seized more and more land. These tensions ultimately exploded into King Philip’s War (1675-1676), one of the bloodiest conflicts in American history relative to the population at the time. The war devastated New England, killing thousands of Native Americans and destroying numerous English towns. The colonists ultimately prevailed, and Metacomet was killed and beheaded. The war effectively ended Indigenous power in southern New England, with many survivors killed, enslaved, or forced to flee. When Did Thanksgiving Become A National Holiday? Thanksgiving became a national holiday in 1863 when President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed it so, following a persistent campaign by magazine editor Sarah Josepha Hale. Hale had written letters to Lincoln and other political leaders for years, arguing that a national Thanksgiving would help unite the country. Lincoln, amid the Civil War, saw the value in a unifying national holiday and declared the last Thursday in November as a national day of thanksgiving. However, the date remained fluid until 1941, when Congress established Thanksgiving as a federal holiday on the fourth Thursday of November. National ArchivesPresident Franklin D. Roosevelt helped establish the date of our modern Thanksgiving celebration. Initially, President Franklin D. Roosevelt hoped to move the holiday to November 23rd to assist businesses that wanted more days to promote their Christmas presents for sale, but many Americans were opposed to the earlier date. The 1941 legislation, ensuring Thanksgiving would fall on the fourth Thursday of the month, resolved the “Franksgiving” debate for good. Which President Refused To Celebrate Thanksgiving? Thomas Jefferson was famously opposed to proclaiming a national day of thanksgiving as president in 1801. In 1779, however, while Governor of Virginia, Jefferson had declared a day of “Thanksgiving and Prayer,” so his stance was not “anti-Thanksgiving,” but instead had to do with the fact that he didn’t think Thanksgiving should be the responsibility of the federal government. Jefferson was a staunch believer in the separation of church and state and viewed such national proclamations as a sort of religious intrusion. He believed that prayer and religious fasting were matters for individuals and religious organizations, not the federal government. As president, he refused to issue any thanksgiving proclamations, a policy that set him apart from his predecessors, George Washington and John Adams, and also his successor, James Madison. What Is The “National Day Of Mourning”? The National Day of Mourning is an annual demonstration, inspired by a 1970 protest at Plymouth Rock, which is meant to challenge the romanticized Thanksgiving story and to remember Indigenous ancestors. It was also inspired by a Wampanoag man named Wamsutta (Frank B.) James, who had been prevented from delivering a speech at a Thanksgiving anniversary celebration that would’ve acknowledged uncomfortable truths about what followed the 1621 feast — including land theft, genocidal atrocities, and widespread cultural destruction. The event serves as a solemn reminder that Thanksgiving represents a catastrophic loss for Indigenous peoples: most of their lands, lives, and cultures. Participants today often gather at Cole’s Hill in Plymouth, Massachusetts, for a day of mourning and remembrance of Native ancestors and a protest against the ongoing racism toward Indigenous Americans. While the event is not about erasing the first Thanksgiving, it does promote acknowledging the full, complex history — including Indigenous perspectives on colonization’s devastating impacts that continue to this day. After this look at the first Thanksgiving, learn all about Samoset, the Native American who first greeted the Pilgrims. Or, see how 15 other countries around the world celebrate Thanksgiving. The post 15 Surprising Facts About The First Thanksgiving Between The Pilgrims And The Wampanoag Tribe appeared first on All That's Interesting.

Every fourth Thursday in November, millions of Americans gather around tables laden with turkey, stuffing, cranberry sauce, and pumpkin pie. These Thanksgiving foods have become so synonymous with the holiday that it’s hard to imagine the annual feast without them. Click here to view slideshow Yet the meal we recognize today bears only a passing resemblance to that shared by the Wampanoag people and English colonists in 1621. Most of the Thanksgiving foods we associate with the holiday didn't debut at that three-day celebration in Plymouth. Instead, they developed gradually over the centuries, influenced by regional preferences, agricultural changes, cookbook authors, marketing campaigns, and the contributions of diverse immigrant communities. And so, what began as a local harvest celebration eventually became a national holiday with an increasingly standardized menu. Above, look through photos of vintage Thanksgiving celebrations. And below, learn more about the origins of your favorite Thanksgiving foods. The First Thanksgiving In 1621: A Large Harvest Celebration The gathering that would later be referred to as "the first Thanksgiving" was, in reality, a harvest festival that shared little with our contemporary celebration beyond its spirit of gratitude. When approximately 50 English colonists and 90 Wampanoag people gathered in Plymouth in autumn 1621, they weren't following a prescribed menu or establishing an annual tradition. They were simply sharing a meal after a successful harvest, drawing from whatever foods were abundant and available in their coastal New England environment. The centerpiece of that meal was almost certainly not turkey, or at least not turkey alone. Wild fowl featured prominently, as colonist Edward Winslow noted in a letter that December that Governor William Bradford had asked men to hunt birds for the occasion: "[O]ur harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men on fowling, that so we might after a more special manner rejoice together, after we had gathered the fruit of our labors." While wild turkey may have been among the birds, the colonists likely brought back mostly ducks, geese, and swans. Waterfowl would have been plentiful along the coast and easier to hunt than wild turkey. Winslow also wrote that the Wampanoag contributed five deer to the feast, meaning venison likely dominated the table as much as any bird. The meal would have been heavy on protein and notably lacking in many Thanksgiving foods we consider essential today. For instance, there were likely no mashed potatoes, as potatoes hadn't yet become a staple crop in North America. And while cranberries grew in the region, the colonists had little sugar, and thus no way to make a sweet sauce out of the fruit. And without wheat or butter, pumpkin pie couldn't have appeared in the form we know today. Library of CongressJean Leon Gerome Ferris' depiction of the first Thanksgiving, painted circa 1912. However, the Pilgrims and Wampanoag people did probably dine on pumpkins and squashes that were roasted whole in embers or stewed. What they did eat reflected the bounty of the season and the collaborative nature of the harvest. Corn appeared in various forms — possibly as cornbread or porridge. Seafood was also a major part of the meal. As Winslow wrote: "[O]ur bay is full of lobsters all the summer, and affordeth variety of other fish; in September we can take a hogshead of eels in a night, with small labor, and can dig them out of their beds, all the winter we have mussels... at our doors: oysters we have none near, but we can have them brought by the Indians when we will." Native fruits and nuts, including walnuts, chestnuts, and perhaps dried berries, rounded out the meal. The Thanksgiving food was likely seasoned with herbs but lacked the black pepper and cinnamon we've come to associate with holiday cooking. For nearly two centuries after that 1621 gathering, Thanksgiving remained a sporadic, regionally varied affair. Communities held harvest celebrations, but they occurred at different times and featured whatever local tradition and availability dictated. Southern tables might have featured ham or seafood, while frontier families made do with wild game. There was no single "Thanksgiving meal" because there was no single, unified Thanksgiving holiday. The transformation into the celebration as we know it today began in earnest in the mid-19th century and was driven largely by Sarah Josepha Hale, the editor of the influential Godey's Lady's Book. How Thanksgiving Foods Transformed Over The Centuries Hale campaigned for years for Thanksgiving to become a national holiday, writing editorials and letters to governors and presidents, requesting that the last Thursday in November be set aside to "offer to God our tribute of joy and gratitude for the blessings of the year," according to the Old Farmer's Almanac. Public DomainA Winslow Homer engraving depicting Thanksgiving dinner that was printed in Harper's Weekly in November 1858. She also published recipes and menu suggestions that helped standardize Thanksgiving foods across the country. When President Abraham Lincoln finally proclaimed Thanksgiving a national holiday in 1863, Hale's vision of the ideal feast had already taken root in the American imagination. Turkey's rise to dominance on the Thanksgiving table came from several factors. The bird was large enough to feed a gathering, distinctly North American, and — unlike chickens or cows — not useful for eggs or milk, making it practical to slaughter for a feast. By the late 19th century, turkey farms were emerging, and the bird was becoming more affordable and accessible, all while cookbook authors and women's magazines reinforced turkey as a centerpiece of the Thanksgiving meal. The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw other modern staples solidify their place on the menu. Cranberry sauce evolved from a regional preserve into a national standard, especially after the 1912 invention of canned cranberries made them available year-round and coast-to-coast. Sweet potatoes, often served with marshmallows in a combination that emerged in the 1920s, became particularly popular in the South and eventually spread nationwide. Green bean casserole, meanwhile, didn't exist until 1955, when a Campbell's Soup Company employee created it as a way to promote cream of mushroom soup. Stuffing evolved from simple bread-and-herb mixtures to countless variations incorporating oysters, sausage, cornbread, chestnuts, and other regional ingredients. And mashed potatoes became standard as potatoes themselves became an American staple crop. Pumpkin pie finally achieved the form we recognize thanks to industrialization providing affordable sugar and spices. Canned condensed milk (introduced in the 1850s) and canned pumpkin (commercially available by the 1920s) made its preparation far easier. Of course, people across the United States and Canada have continued to innovate Thanksgiving foods based on their own family traditions or dietary restrictions, introducing alternatives like tofurkey. Even then, the idea of a Thanksgiving dinner is instantly recognizable — and a far cry from the more sporadic harvest celebrations that preceded the holiday's formal induction. Still, whether we serve grandma's secret stuffing recipe or experiment with new fusion dishes, we're participating in the same ongoing evolution that transformed deer and eel into turkey and green bean casserole, showing how Thanksgiving food traditions have changed over time. After reading about the mouth-watering history of Thanksgiving foods, look through our vintage photographs from the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. Then, check out some of the weirdest Thanksgiving ads from years past. The post How Today’s Most Popular Thanksgiving Foods Made It To The Dinner Table appeared first on All That's Interesting.

In 1895, the world witnessed its first true celebrity trial, a sensational legal drama that challenged the creaking moral core of the British Empire. Oscar Wilde, the toast of London’s West End and the era’s greatest wit, found himself at the centre of a scandal that laid bare the hypocrisy of Victorian society. Charged with “Gross Indecency,” Wilde’s private desires were brutally dragged into the unforgiving light of the Old Bailey. In History Hit’s new documentary, A Very Victorian Scandal: The Trials of Oscar Wilde, Dr Anthony Delaney investigates the trajectory of the famous playwright. Delaney argues that these three trials were about far more than a single fate: they were a reckoning for Victorian society, where public virtues hid private vices and the press fuelled a voracious demand for scandal. Anthony explores key locations – from the luxurious Savoy Hotel, where Wilde’s recklessness peaked, to the grim walls of Bow Street Police Station – uncovering how Wilde’s persecution fundamentally changed the social landscape and achieved his status as a modern icon of rebellion and resilience. Sign up to watch Art for art’s sake: the rise of a sensation Late Victorian London was an imperial capital of immense outward confidence, and Oscar Wilde forged his reputation in this arena of ambition. The roots of his confidence lay in his brilliance: excelling at Oxford University, he embraced Aestheticism, a cultural movement that championed the supremacy of beauty over morality: “art for art’s sake”. Wilde didn’t just advocate these ideals; he lived them. He meticulously curated his entire existence into an art form, from his signature fur coat and silk cravat to his razor-sharp wit. He summarised his approach with his now-famous quote: “I treated art like the supreme reality, and life as a mere mode of fiction.” By the early 1890s, Wilde’s career was soaring. His only novel, ‘The Picture of Dorian Gray’, became a commercial success despite its scandalous themes, and his West End plays like The Importance of Being Earnest satirised polite society, making him a sensation. His celebrity status was cemented in America, where he instantly captured the nation’s attention, famously declaring at customs: “I have nothing to declare but my genius.” Oscar Wilde (left) and ‘Bosie’ (right)Image Credit: History Hit The perfect storm: secrecy, vice, and the press Despite the outward image of Victorian domesticity he maintained with his wife, Constance, and their two children, Oscar Wilde conducted many intimate relationships with other men, viewing these connections through the elevated lens of Greek philosophy. Wilde’s private life began to unravel after he met Lord Alfred Douglas (‘Bosie’), a young, impulsive Oxford undergraduate. Bosie became an obsession, leading Wilde further into London’s underbelly – a world of covert meetings in bustling areas like Piccadilly Circus, where the anonymity of the expanding city allowed same-sex liaisons to flourish. Wilde confessed he deliberately “went to the depths in search for new sensation.” However, the outward face of Victorian respectability masked deep anxieties about sexuality. As Professor Kate Williams explains, while society was outwardly moral, it hid a “really complex, seething world of sexualities, of crime and secret places.” Homosexuality, though common, was only tolerated if it was kept absolutely discreet. Public attitudes were being rapidly shaped by a new, sensationalist popular press, explains historian Bob Nicholson. Literacy rates were soaring, and cheaper newspapers needed to attract millions of new readers. The successful papers knew their audiences didn’t want long reports on Parliament; they wanted “sensation and celebrity.” Dr Anthony Delaney and Professor Kate Williams upstairs at The Savoy Hotel, LondonImage Credit: History Hit The law is weaponised Adding to the perfect storm was a tightening of the law. The Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885 included the notorious Labouchere Amendment. Before 1885, prosecuting homosexual acts was notoriously difficult, requiring proof of penetration. The Labouchere Amendment changed everything: it criminalised any type of lewd activity, or “Gross Indecency,” between men. The ability to prove “fondling or fumbling” could now lead to imprisonment. This new, sweeping law became a devastating weapon against discretion. Wilde’s celebrity made him the perfect target for a powerful adversary: Bosie’s furious father, the Marquess of Queensberry. In 1895, as Wilde prepared for his greatest success, The Importance of Being Earnest, Queensberry relentlessly pursued him. The Marquess left a notorious calling card for Wilde at the Albemarle Club he frequented, scribbling the accusation: “For Oscar Wilde, posing Somdemite.” Wilde, compelled by honour and driven by Bosie, made a fatal miscalculation: he decided to prosecute Queensberry for libel. One joke too many The libel trial began in April 1895. Wilde, buoyed by his wit and social standing, believed he could win by outmanoeuvring Queensberry’s defence lawyer with his intellect. However, unbeknownst to him, Queensberry’s team had gathered witnesses – young working-class men who claimed they’d had liaisons with the playwright. Although Wilde was the plaintiff, he was cross-examined as if he were the defendant. He was relentlessly interrogated, and attempted to turn the whole proceedings into a joke, giving flippant answers and defiant theatrics. Crucially, when asked if he had kissed a man called Granger, Wilde replied “Oh dear no, he was a peculiarly plain boy”. At this, Queensbury’s team zeroed in. The legal tables turned with devastating speed.  As Wilde’s grandson, historian Merlin Holland, notes “One joke too many and he’s talked himself into prison”. As Anthony succinctly puts it, “From celebrated playwright to condemned man, Wilde walked into the courtroom a plaintiff, and left a fugitive”.  The reckoning: a society on trial Following his disastrous libel trial, Wilde was swiftly arrested for ‘gross indecency’. In the documentary, Anthony details the further trials Wilde faced, which ultimately led to his imprisonment. The case quickly became bigger than Wilde himself, morphing into a public reckoning for the entire era. Professor Kate Williams argues that the trial epitomised all the late Victorian insecurities: “Oscar Wilde is a mirror held up to Victorian society, and what it shows is hypocrisy in all varieties.”  The established aristocratic male identity was already under attack from labour strikes, colonial self-determination, and women demanding the vote. By condemning Wilde, society sought a scapegoat, believing that if they could just demonise and throw him out, the prevailing moral order would be safe.  Anthony goes on to investigate the final trials that sealed Oscar’s fate and explores Wilde’s own profound reflections on his situation. Historian Merlin Holland, who is also Oscar Wilde’s grandson.Image Credit: History Hit The legacy of resilience The trials of Oscar Wilde were the culmination of a perfect storm, explains Anthony, “fuelled by press sensationalism, political anxiety, and buckling Victorian morality.” His conviction fundamentally changed the social landscape, making same-sex attraction a target of intense intolerance and fuelling a hostile environment for decades. Nevertheless, Wilde’s defiance and maintenance of his integrity throughout his ordeal cemented his status as a modern icon. His grandson, Merlin Holland, explains that Wilde’s legacy endures today because he represents four essential qualities that inspire younger generations: Rebellion, Integrity, Individuality, and Sensuality. Join Dr. Anthony Delaney as he investigates exactly what happened in each of the sensational 1895 trials of Oscar Wilde in A Very Victorian Scandal: The Trials of Oscar Wilde. Sign up to watch

Ethics are moral principles that govern a person’s behavior in a society. In very simple terms, they constitute the rights and wrongs that guide people’s conduct. The Indian ethics are generally connected to the principle of anekantavada or many-sidedness, emphasizing that there is “no absolute truth” and no neatly defined binaries of right and wrong. They are based on factors such as the person practicing them, the situation, and the time at which they are practised. Indian ethics focus on accepting and encouraging diverse thoughts and beliefs, hence propagating “unity in diversity” and “diversity in unity.”Apeksha Srivastava explains. A manuscript from the Mewar Rāmāyaṇa. This shows Rāma slaying Rāvaṇa. “It is surely extremely strange that whenever, either in Greek, or in Chinese, or in Persian, or in Arab writings, we meet with any attempts at describing the distinguishing features in the national character of the Indians, regard for truth and justice should always be mentioned first.” — F. Max Müller, Sanskritist and philologist (1882) The Rig Veda and UpanishadsComposed between 1500–1000 BCE, the Rig Veda mentions the concept of Ritam (cosmic order) through which the physical and the social worlds are sustained. Ritam can be understood as the sense of righteousness. It later developed into the concept of Satyam (truth), with strong ethical implications. Dharma, the building block of Indian ethics, has been translated from the Rig Veda to refer to words such as justice, duty, righteousness, and order, among others. It is important to note that dharma is a multifaceted concept and does not denote a single idea or meaning. Composed between 800 and 500 BCE, the Upanishads reveal further developments in Indian ethical thought. For example, Aham Brahma asmi (1.4.10; Brihadaranyaka Upanishad) translates to “I am Brahman (the Absolute)” and can be understood as: A person is a part of God (and not separate from this universal consciousness). It is essential to grow cognizant of this identity. Further, the Upanishads highlight that every person has a distinct nature (svabhava), function, truth, and path (svadharma), echoing the concept of anekantavada. The Puranas also propagate notions like all creation is interconnected and that one can be happy when all are happy. Beyond BinariesThe Ramayana and Mahabharata stories underline the idea that ethics are complex. Several dilemmas shape the events of these epics and put forth the question: How to decide what is dharma in different situations? The central message of the Bhagavad Gita, part of the Mahabharata, is Nishkama Karma, meaning desireless action. It propagates the concept that people should work without any expectation of results. What matters ultimately is the inner growth of the individual, which can be achieved when one’s actions align with one’s dharma. Nishkama Karma forms the basis of Karma Yoga, a spiritual practice of selfless action that can lead a person to liberation (moksha). Lord Krishna emphasized that dharmacannot be practiced in passivity; several situations arise when a person needs to take a particular side in life. Some examples showcasing the sophisticated nature of dharma include the following:Dronacharya: In the Mahabharata, Drona was a master of advanced military arts, including divine weapons. The Pandavas decided to use Drona’s only weakness, his son Ashwatthama, to save many lives in the war. The Pandava Bhima killed an elephant named Ashwatthama and spread the news of his death. Drona asked the Pandava Yudhishthira (known for always speaking the truth), who clearly said that Ashwatthama was killed. It is said that Krishna suppressed the word ‘elephant’ by blowing the conch. The news of the death of his son eventually led to the slaying of Drona. This story emphasizes that if an untruth saves lives, then perhaps ethics is not about always telling the truth. Vibhishana and Kumbhakarana: Ravana’s brothers Vibhishana and Kumbhakarana in the Ramayana skillfully demonstrated that there is no single path to dharma and no single way of solving an ethical dilemma. Kumbhakarna adhered to the dharma of loyalty to his kin. At the same time, Vibhishana chose to follow the dharma of saving the people from the evil of his brother Ravana by opposing his kin and supporting Rama.  Buddhism’s Eightfold PathBuddhism originated in the Indian subcontinent and mentions a noble eightfold path encompassing the ‘right’ vision, intention/aspiration, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration. Once Buddha preached, “... whenever someone abuses us, we can either choose to accept or decline that anger. Our response will decide who owns and keeps the bad and negative feelings.” This story beautifully encourages the practice of the right speech, action, and mindfulness. Buddhism also talks about having compassion for others. Aligning with this idea, Buddhist economics studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods/services by changing the focus from self-interest to no-self (generosity), with ‘right’ livelihood and sustainability. While traditional economics emphasizes maximizing profits, Buddhist economics aims to minimize suffering (losses) for all.  Morals in JainismJainism also originated in the Indian subcontinent and mentions the Triratna (three jewels) as the ‘right’ faith, knowledge, and walk. Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truth), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (Non-possession) are its five ethical codes. Detachment (non-attachment or non-possession) is one of its main morals. It can serve as the means to attain the realization of one’s self. Jainism’s concept of violence, acceptable only when absolutely necessary for self-defense, appears to echo with Lord Krishna’s advice from the Mahabharata that dharma cannot be practiced in passivity (at least, in certain situations according to Jainism).  The Timeless ClassicComposed around the 5th century CE by Thiruvallur and consisting of 1,330 short couplets, the Kural is a classic Tamil language text. It is considered a great work on morality, known for its secular nature. Some examples from this work include (a) In prosperity, bend low [be humble], (and) in adversity, stand straight [be strong], and (b) Always aim high—failure then is as good as success. This text provides worldly wisdom and guidance to make ethical decisions. Some Case Studies on Different Aspects of DharmaDin-i-Ilahi: The Divine Faith was propounded by the Mughal emperor Akbar (1582), who wanted to unite his people so that all of humankind could worship God according to their faith. Its writer, Abu’l-Fazl, expressed, “every sect can assert its doctrine without apprehension, and everyone can worship God after his own fashion.” Discriminations among the different religions of the realm were prohibited. Here, religious harmony emerges as a critical component of dharma.The Story of Panna Dhai: I remember a story my mother told me during childhood. It is the tale of Panna Dhai, a 16th-century maid to Rani Karnavati, who helped her in political matters and the upbringing of the prince, Udai Singh II, along with her own son, Chandan. During the attack on Chittor, Panna sent Udai out to a river while putting her son in Udai’s place on the bed. When Bhanvir, the enemy, came and asked for Udai, Panna pointed at the bed occupied by her son and watched as Banvir murdered him. An epitome of courage and sacrifice, Panna adhered to the dharma of loyalty to her kingdom, where she lived. Saving the prince was more important to her than her child. This incident reflects anekantavada (“no absolute truth”) and dharma that depends on the person, situation, and time of practice. Panna chose her duty as a nursemaid over being a mother. Had she not done so, India might not have known the ancient hero Maharana Pratap, who was later born as the eldest son of Udai Singh II.The Bishnoi Sacrifice: In the year 1730 at Khejadli (Rajasthan), 363 Bishnoi women, children, and men, led by Amrita Devi, sacrificed their lives to protect Khejadli trees while chanting their Guru’s teaching: “If a tree is saved even at the cost of one’s head, it is worth it.” It led the Maharaja of Jodhpur to prohibit tree cutting and animal hunting in all Bishnoi villages, attaching a sense of sacredness to these forms of nature. Such traditions from India are based on the dharmaof non-hurting and simple living.Beyond One’s Life: Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920) was a mathematics teacher, social reformer, and freedom fighter. He encouraged people to fight for India’s freedom so future generations could enjoy the fruit. It can be equated with thedharma of having no relaxation (in one’s efforts) so that one does not incur the curse of one’s children and descendants. Guest is God: Indians have believed since ancient times in the spiritual tradition of guests being considered divine. Adhering to this principle as their dharma, many Taj Hotel employees died saving the lives of the hotel guests during the 26/11 Mumbai terrorist attacks. Although many knew all the back exits that could have safely led them out of the hotel, they stayed back to save the guests selflessly.In conclusion, India’s ethics system is based on diverse philosophies, religious teachings, and cultural traditions spanning thousands of years. It is important to note that the information provided in this article is not exhaustive in nature. The complexity associated with ethics reflects India’s pluralistic society, offering insights into living a meaningful life. Understanding the anekantavada aspect of these ethics not only highlights India’s glorious past but also inspires discussions about morality in a rapidly changing world. Apeksha Srivastava is pursuing her Ph.D. at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India. She was a visiting researcher at the University of Colorado, Colorado Springs (USA) from April to July 2024.  ReferencesDanino, M. (2020). System of ethics in India: Lecture and discussions. Perspectives on Indian Civilization course at IIT Gandhinagar.Nadkarni, M.V. (2011). Ethics in Hinduism (Book – Ethics For Our Times: Essays in Gandhian Perspective). Oxford Scholarship Online.Ganguli, K.M. (1883–1896). The fifteenth day at Kurukshetra – The fall of the preceptor, Drona (Mahabharata). Retrieved from wisdomlib.org.Mahatthanadull, S. (2018). The noble eightfold path: The Buddhist middle way for mankind. International Buddhist Studies College, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University.BBC. (2009). The three jewels of Jainism. BBC Religions.Tiruvaḷḷuvar (around the 5th century CE). Tirukkural. Retrieved from wisdomlib.org.Rajasthan Heritage Protection & Promotion Authority. (n.d.). Panna Dhai panorama, Kameri, Rajsamand. Rajasthan Government.Spiegel, A. (2011, December 23). Heroes of Mumbai’s Taj Hotel: Why they risked their lives. NPR.

  In the Arthurian legends, King Arthur has many enemies. However, the one enemy who is actually able to bring down his kingdom is his own nephew, Mordred. He started a civil war against Arthur, which climaxed in the bloody Battle of Camlann. His character is very intriguing since there is ostensibly some conflict between the way he is presented in Welsh tradition and the way he is presented in non-Welsh romances. In this article, we will examine what the sources claim about him and how his character evolved over the centuries.   The Earliest Traces of Mordred Annales Cambriae in Harleian MS 3859, folio 190r, showing the earliest reference to Mordred (Medraut) in the lower right corner, c. 10th century. Source: British Library   The very earliest trace of this Arthurian character comes from the Annales Cambriae. This is a 10th-century Latin chronicle from Wales. It refers to only two Arthurian events. One is the Battle of Badon, Arthur’s greatest and final victory against the Saxons. The other is the Battle of Camlann. The text reads:   “The strife of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut fell; and there was plague in Britain and Ireland.”   As we can see from this, Arthur and Mordred, whose name here is spelled “Medraut,” are both linked to this battle. They are both described as “falling” at this battle, which is usually taken to mean that they died. It is frequently pointed out that the text does not actually say whether Arthur and Medraut were on the same side or on different sides. Nevertheless, we can discern that this must have been a civil war since the Annales Cambriae places it just 21 years after the Battle of Badon. Gildas, the 6th-century monk, explained that only civil wars had occurred during the 43 years since Badon.   Mordred in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Account The Death of Arthur and Mordred, by N. C. Wyeth, 1922. Source: Wikimedia Commons   After this, the next earliest description of Mordred comes from Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae, written in c. 1137. In this account, which is the earliest full account of Arthur’s career, Mordred’s name is written “Modredus.” He is described as Arthur’s nephew, the son of his sister Anna, and her husband, Lot of Lothian. He does not have a prominent role in the narrative until right at the end of Arthur’s career. During one particular expedition to Gaul, Arthur leaves his kingdom in the hands of Mordred.   However, after defeating the Romans during a battle on the continent, Arthur receives news that Mordred has rejected his position of regent and has actually declared himself king. Arthur rushes back to Britain and battles against Mordred’s forces. After several battles, the two armies make their final stand at a valley called Camlann. Here, Arthur manages to defeat Mordred’s army, but he himself suffers a mortal wound and the destruction of most of his own forces.   How Mordred’s Character Evolved Image of Sir Mordred from The Book of Romance, by Henry Justice Ford, 1902. Source: University of Rochester   Geoffrey’s Historia Regum Britanniae was massively influential. Many Arthurian accounts that came after it followed its basic narrative, with Mordred emerging as Arthur’s final opponent. Mordred’s position as Arthur’s treacherous kinsman remained virtually unchanged throughout the medieval Arthurian legends. However, Mordred’s character did change in several important ways.   One of the biggest changes was introduced in the Vulgate Cycle. Within this corpus of Arthurian literature, there is a story in which Arthur himself fathers Mordred through accidentally committing incest with his sister. It has been suggested that this change was invented to make Mordred’s final betrayal appear more tragic.   A detail which emerged in the Post-Vulgate Cycle, and which was cemented in tradition by Thomas Malory, is that Arthur attempted to kill all the babies born around the time of Mordred’s birth. He did this because Merlin prophesied that a child born then would eventually cause his downfall. Mordred, however, was saved from this massacre and eventually grew up to do what Merlin had prophesied.   Mordred in Welsh Tradition Culhwch and Olwen, in Jesus College MS 111, folio 202v, showing “Gwalchmei mab Gwyar” in the center, c. 1382-1425. Source: Bodleian Library, Oxford   The Arthurian legends are Welsh stories at their core. As we saw earlier, Mordred’s first appearance is in the Annales Cambriae, which is a document from Wales. It is, therefore, not surprising that this figure appears in medieval Welsh tradition. He appears in Welsh translations of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s account, several triads from the Welsh Triads, and a number of medieval poems.   In the Welsh prose tale Culhwch and Olwen, from c. 1100, there is a reference to Arthur’s nephew Gwalchmai. He is equivalent to Sir Gawain, the brother of Mordred in non-Welsh texts. His mother is named Gwyar and is called Arthur’s sister. Hence, although Mordred himself is not mentioned in this text, it shows that Mordred’s supposed brother was indeed remembered as Arthur’s nephew by his sister.   It is somewhat later, in the Welsh translations of Geoffrey’s work, that Mordred explicitly appears as Arthur’s nephew as well. In these translations, such as Brut Tysilio, Mordred’s name is spelled “Medrawd.”   White Book of Rhydderch, in Peniarth MS 4, folio 55r, showing the triad which mentions Medrawd ravaging Arthur’s court, c. 1325-1375. Source: National Library of Wales   The Welsh translations frequently alter Geoffrey’s spellings or sometimes change names entirely to bring them more in line with standard Welsh tradition. For instance, Arthur’s sister, the mother of Gwalchmai, is called Gwyar, not Anna. Mordred’s father, Lot of Lothian, is called Llew ap Cynfarch. He is known from a variety of Welsh texts. The form “Lot” appears to come from an alternative shortening of “Lleuddun,” the full form of this figure’s name.   The Welsh Triads also speak of Medrawd in several places. One triad refers to the time when Medrawd ravaged Arthur’s royal court, leaving neither food nor drink there. It also explains that he dragged Arthur’s wife, Gwenhwyfar, from her throne and struck her. A variant version from a different triad mentions that Arthur struck Medrawd. Another triad, which displays strong influence from Geoffrey of Monmouth, recounts an overview of the same basic story told in the Historia Regum Britanniae.   Was Mordred Originally a Hero? A depiction of Gruffydd ap Cynan, one of the patrons whose poets compared him to Medrawd, by T. Prytherch, 1900. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As we can see from the evidence above, Welsh tradition contains several references that show clear hostility between Arthur and Medrawd, or Mordred. This includes references that display no influence whatsoever from Geoffrey’s Historia Regum Britanniae. Therefore, an interesting enigma emerges when we also consider mentions of Medrawd that appear to be favorable.   One example of this is a triad that describes Medrawd in glowing terms as one of the Three Royal Knights of Arthur’s Court.   A Welsh poet writing in c. 1137 praised his patron as having Medrawd’s nature, apparently a reference to courage in battle. That poet’s son went on to compose a poem in which he referred to his patron as having Medrawd’s good nature. For these reasons, it has been argued that Mordred was originally viewed as a hero in Welsh tradition. According to this theory, it was only due to Geoffrey of Monmouth’s work that he became known as a traitor.   King Solomon, by Simeon Solomon, 1874. Source: National Gallery of Art, Washington DC   However, does this theory really stand up to scrutiny? Notably, all but one of the mentions of Mordred from Welsh tradition come from after Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote the Historia Regum Britanniae. The only one that may not is the reference from c. 1137. In any case, Geoffrey’s work was highly influential both inside and outside of Wales. Hence, the poets who made positive comparisons to Mordred did so, knowing that he had become well-known as a traitor. This is the case regardless of whether he was known as a traitor before Geoffrey wrote or not. Therefore, those poets evidently did not see anything wrong with positively comparing their patron to someone who was, at the time they were writing, known as a traitor.   The simple explanation is evidence that these positive comparisons and mentions were made about Mordred from before he became a traitor. After all, the fact that Arthur was portrayed as leaving Britain in Mordred’s care while he was away from Britain indicates that he was one of Arthur’s best knights.   This would be similar to how the Biblical gospels favorably compare Jesus to Solomon, even though Solomon famously became wicked at the end of his life.   What We Know About Mordred, Arthur’s Treacherous Nephew White Book of Rhydderch, in Peniarth MS 4 folio 55r, showing Mordred (Medrawt) in the center, c. 1325-1375. Source: National Library of Wales   In conclusion, we can see that Mordred is an important figure from the legends of King Arthur. He is one of the very earliest characters from the legends, being mentioned in the Annales Cambriae of the 10th century. He could well have been a historical figure. Although that early source does not reveal who he was, later records consistently make him Arthur’s kinsman. He is portrayed as Arthur’s nephew in the earliest records, while later versions make him Arthur’s son. In either case, the legends portray him as causing the downfall of Arthur’s kingdom by starting a civil war, which climaxed in the Battle of Camlann.   Welsh tradition, including in references that are clearly independent of Geoffrey of Monmouth, speaks of the hostility and conflict between Arthur and Mordred. We see this primarily in the Welsh Triads. While there are some positive references to Mordred in those triads, as well as in Welsh tradition, there is no solid basis for concluding that there was some alternative tradition in which he was never a traitor.