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  Any trip through Armenia and Georgia will offer you many opportunities to sample delicious wines from the various vineyards and some questionable wines from home-brewing cellars. But while taking a tour, it is interesting to discover a little more about the history of wine production in both countries and try to uncover which country produced wine first.   The History of Wine Production in Armenia  Wine Tasting the Areni Region in Armenia, photograph Ashley White, 2022   Armenia boasts one of the oldest winemaking traditions in the world, with a history that intertwines deeply with the development of viticulture. The history of Armenian wine production can be traced back thousands of years, highlighting the region’s pivotal role in the early development of winemaking.   Ancient Beginnings   Archaeological evidence points to Armenia as one of the earliest sites of grape cultivation and wine production. The discovery of the Areni-1 cave complex, located in the Vayots Dzor region, provides compelling evidence of ancient winemaking.   In 2007, a team of archaeologists uncovered a 6,100-year-old winery in this cave. The site included fermentation vats, a wine press, storage jars, and even a cup and drinking bowl, all indicating the production and consumption of wine. It is possible to visit this site, a top recommendation for any wine enthusiast so they can see, first hand, where one of the oldest wineries in the world was. It happens to be in the modern-day wine region of Armenia, and there are many beautiful wineries to stop off at nearby and sample some of the delicious wines they have on offer.   Viticulture and Winemaking in Antiquity   Viticulture in Armenia dates back to around 8000 BCE and the Armenian Highlands are believed to be one of the origins of the vitis vinifera grapevine, the primary species used in winemaking. Many wine producers around the Areni-1 cave continue to use subspecies of this grapevine to produce their wines today. The region’s favorable climate and terrain provided ideal conditions for grape growing. Ancient manuscripts and artifacts suggest that wine was an integral part of Armenian culture, used in rituals, celebrations, and daily life.   Inside the Noravank Monastery, Armenia, photograph by Ashley White, 2022   Middle Ages and the Silk Road   During the Middle Ages, Armenian wine continued to thrive, benefiting from Armenia’s strategic location on the Silk Road. This trade route facilitated the exchange of goods and culture between East and West, and Armenian wine was traded and appreciated far and wide. Monasteries played a crucial role in preserving and advancing viticultural knowledge and winemaking techniques. Monastic winemakers maintained vineyards and produced high-quality wines, some of which were used for religious purposes.   It is therefore vital that anyone visiting Armenia should visit the monasteries too, in order to get a complete picture of the cultural and religious significance of wine. One of the most magnificent wine-producing monasteries in the Areni region is the Noravank Monastery, and well worth a visit!   Ottoman Period and Modern Challenges   The Ottoman Period posed significant challenges for Armenian winemaking. Despite restrictions and hardships, Armenian winemakers persisted, often producing wine in secret. The genocide and subsequent diaspora of Armenians in the early 20th century had a profound impact on the country’s wine industry, leading to a significant decline.   Soviet Era   During the Soviet Era, Armenia’s wine production was largely geared toward quantity over quality, with a focus on brandy production. However, the country still produced notable wines, and Armenian brandy gained international acclaim. State-run wineries dominated the industry, and traditional winemaking practices were often sidelined in favor of mass production.   Brandy remains an important part of Armenian culture, photograph by Ashley White, 2022   Post-Soviet Revival   Since gaining independence in 1991, Armenia has experienced a renaissance in wine production. The revival has been fueled by a combination of the returning diaspora, foreign investment, and a renewed interest in traditional winemaking methods. Modern Armenian winemakers have embraced both ancient techniques and contemporary innovations, focusing on quality and the unique characteristics of indigenous grape varieties such as Areni, Voskehat, and Khndoghni.   Local wine producers in the Areni Region, photograph by Ashley White, 2022   Contemporary Armenian wine   Armenia’s winemaking tradition is one of the oldest in the world, with roots that stretch back over six millennia. Despite numerous challenges throughout its history, Armenian wine production has endured and evolved, emerging today as a symbol of the country’s resilience and cultural heritage. The revival of Armenian wine not only celebrates the ancient past but also looks forward to a promising future in the global wine industry.   The History of Wine Production in Georgia Saperavi wine, Shumi Winery, photograph by Ashley White, 2022   Georgia, often referred to as the “cradle of wine,” boasts a rich and ancient history of wine production that spans thousands of years. The country’s winemaking tradition is deeply ingrained in its culture, and archaeological evidence supports its claim as one of the earliest regions to domesticate grapevines and produce wine.   Ancient Beginnings   The history of Georgian wine production dates back to around 6000-5000 BCE. Archaeological discoveries have uncovered evidence of early winemaking in the form of qvevri (large clay vessels used for fermenting and storing wine) found in the village of Shulaveri. These qvevri contained grape seeds and residue, indicating the early practice of winemaking.   The Qvevri Tradition   One of the most distinctive features of Georgian winemaking is the use of the qvevri. This ancient method involves fermenting and aging wine in large, egg-shaped clay vessels buried underground. This technique, which has been passed down through generations, imparts unique characteristics to the wine and is recognized by UNESCO as part of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. The qvevri method allows for natural fermentation and has become a symbol of the Georgian winemaking tradition which is still used today. When visiting Georgia, a trip to Kakheti is vital if you want to see this ancient method firsthand.   Qvevri Store in the Shumi Winery, Kakheti, Georgia, photograph by Ashley White, 2022   Viticulture in Antiquity   By the Bronze Age, viticulture had become well-established in Georgia. The country’s favorable climate and diverse terrain, from the coastal regions to the mountainous areas, provided ideal conditions for grape growing. Ancient texts and artifacts suggest that wine was an integral part of Georgian society, used in religious ceremonies, social gatherings, and daily life.   Medieval Period   During the Medieval Period, winemaking continued to flourish in Georgia. Monasteries played a crucial role in preserving and advancing viticultural knowledge. Monastic vineyards produced high-quality wines, which were often used for religious purposes and in royal courts. Medieval Georgian literature and poetry frequently referenced wine, highlighting its cultural significance. One of the monasteries still producing wine in the Kakheti region is the Alaverdi monastery. Here you can witness the wine being produced by monks and buy some of their delicious wines.   Ottoman and Persian Influence   Despite invasions and occupations by the Ottoman and Persian empires, Georgian wine-making traditions persisted. Although these periods posed significant challenges, including restrictions on alcohol production, Georgians maintained their winemaking heritage through clandestine production and the preservation of traditional practices. This is possibly the reason why many people still produce their own wine today. You can, still to this day, buy liters of homemade wine on the side of the road if you dare!   Soviet Era   Under Soviet rule, Georgian wine production was industrialized and focused on quantity over quality, much like in Armenia. State-run wineries dominated the industry, and traditional methods were often sidelined. However, Georgian wine remained popular in the Soviet Union, and the country was a major supplier of wine to other Soviet states.   Mass production began during the Soviet era in Georgia, Tsinandali Palace wine cellar, photograph by Ashley White, 2022   Post-Soviet Revival   Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Georgia experienced a renaissance in winemaking. The revival was marked by a return to traditional methods, including the widespread use of qvevri, and a renewed focus on quality. Small, family-owned wineries began to emerge, and Georgian winemakers started to gain international recognition for their unique and high-quality wines.   Contemporary Georgian Wine   Today, Georgia’s wine industry is thriving. The country is home to over 500 indigenous grape varieties, with Saperavi (red) and Rkatsiteli (white) being among the most prominent. Georgian wines are celebrated for their diversity and distinctiveness, with both traditional qvevri wines and modern styles being produced. Wine tourism has also grown significantly, attracting visitors eager to explore the rich history and culture of Georgian winemaking.   So, Who Produced Wine First? Saperavi wine tasting in Kakheti, Georgia, photograph by Ashley White, 2022   The question of which country made wine first, Georgia or Armenia, is a subject of ongoing debate among archaeologists and historians. Both countries have strong claims based on archaeological evidence and historical records.   Georgia’s Claim   As previously mentioned, Georgia is often referred to as the “cradle of wine.” The country has archaeological evidence suggesting that wine production dates back to around 6000-5000 BCE. Discoveries in the village of Shulaveri include qvevri which contained grape seeds and residues, indicating early winemaking. The use of qvevri has been passed down through millennia and is a significant part of the country’s winemaking tradition.   Armenia’s Claim   Armenia also has a compelling claim to being one of the first winemaking regions. The Areni-1 cave complex, discovered in the Vayots Dzor region, contains evidence of a 6,100-year-old winery, which includes fermentation vats, a wine press, storage jars, and even a drinking bowl. This discovery is one of the oldest known wineries in the world and suggests that Armenians were making wine around the same time or even earlier than the evidence found in Georgia.   Part of the Areni 1 cave, Armenia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Current Understanding   Georgia: The evidence of winemaking in Georgia dates to around 6000-5000 BCE with the discovery of ancient qvevri. Armenia: The Areni-1 cave complex, dating to approximately 6100 BCE, contains some of the earliest definitive evidence of a complete wine-making setup.   While the exact timeline remains a topic of debate, it is generally accepted that both Georgia and Armenia are among the earliest regions to develop winemaking, with each having significant archaeological evidence to support their claims. The precise determination of “who made wine first” might not be conclusively resolved, but it is clear that both cultures have ancient and rich winemaking traditions that are among the oldest in the world, and therefore it is important for any wine lover to go back to the source and enjoy a glass of wine in either of these beautiful countries.

  During Genghis Khan’s rise to power and subsequent conquests, he gathered many men to his side who became his trusted confidants and most able commanders. Four of them came to be known as his notorious “Four Dogs of War.” In this article, we shall explore the extraordinary stories of these legendary Mongol warriors—Jelme, Jebe, Qubilai, and Sübe’edei—their legacies, and the legends that have filtered down to the modern day.   Four Dogs, Raised on Man’s Flesh The equestrian statue of Genghis Khan near Ulaanbaatar in Mongolia, the largest equestrian statue in the world. Source: Wikimedia Commons   “Temujin raised four dogs on man’s flesh and keeps them shackled in chains.” So said Jamuqa, former blood brother turned enemy of Genghis Khan during the Battle of Chakirmaut in 1204 CE in the historical epic, The Secret History of the Mongols. Jamuqa continues his description in a notoriously poetic passage:   “Those four dogs have Bronze as their foreheads, Borers as their tongues, Chisels as their snouts, Steel as their hearts, Swords as their whips. They drink the dew and ride the wind. At the scenes of slaughter, they swallow human flesh; On the day of dealing death, they devour the flesh of men.”   It is possible the quote was fabricated, however, it still creates a vivid image of the brutal and terrifying reputation the four generals have in the popular imagination. However, a different aspect to them, and the meaning of their title, appears in a later passage.   Genghis Khan, Yuan Dynasty Portrait, 14th century. Source: National Palace Museum, Taipei   After finally uniting the Mongol tribes, Genghis held a Kurultai, essentially a grand assembly of his new peoples, in 1206 CE. There he gave a speech singling out the Four Dogs for their loyalty, steadfastness, and ability:   “When I sent you, the four dogs of mine, Qubilai, Jelme, Jebe and Sübe’edei, towards a purpose I had planned, By the time I said to get there, The boulder you ground to grit. Before I said to attack there; The cliff you crushed apart, Shattering through the smooth stone, Diving through the deep water.”   Both passages are a perfect dichotomy. The Dogs of War appeared to their enemies as war machines and monsters made human. To their compatriots, however, they are heroes who helped found the Mongol nation and brought it eternal glory. We shall look at the lives of all four men, to understand why Genghis favored them, and why his enemies feared them. What are the pedigrees, one might ask, of the Dogs of War?   1. Jelme: The Loyal Companion A manuscript showing Genghis rewarding the Four Dogs and other followers at the Kurultai of 1206 CE. Source: BnF   The first of the dogs to join Genghis was Jelme. In fact, he was tied to Genghis from birth. According to the Secret History, when Genghis was born, Jelme’s father pledged his son in service to the newborn Genghis in adulthood and so it came to be in around 1180 CE. Though technically a servant to Genghis, Jelme’s position was not a lowly one. At a time when Genghis, still known as Temujin, had few followers and little prestige, Jelme was a welcome and respected member of his following.   Jelme was a capable retainer and advisor for Temujin and helped him win his earliest victories that saw him first proclaimed “Genghis,” or “Great Khan,” by his increasingly large following in the mid-1180s CE. Genghis would not forget Jelme, praising his faithfulness when Genghis had “no friend but a shadow” and promoting Jelme to be one of his most senior leaders, ruling his other followers. Jelme stuck by Genghis through thick and thin. He remained with Genghis during the “lost years” of the 1190s CE, when Genghis was attacked and exiled by Jamuqa, fleeing to China. However, Genghis would return with Jelme and the other Dogs of War by his side.   The apogee of Jelme’s loyalty came during the battle of Köyiten at the turn of the 13th century. During the battle, Genghis’s horse was shot from under him, and he was injured in the neck. Jelme diligently remained by his side and nursed his lord back to health, at one point even stealing some mare’s milk from the enemy camp for Genghis. The archer who wounded him shall be discussed later.   Gate to the Genghis Khan Equestrian Statue, Tsonjin Boldog. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Jelme was an invaluable officer in Genghis Khan’s military machine, however, he doesn’t appear to have often held independent command. Rather, it seems he stayed close by to Genghis, perhaps still serving as his steward and personal advisor. After Genghis finally united the Mongol Steppe tribes, he again sang the praises of Jelme who had been tied to him since birth and he proclaimed him one of his most senior men in his new kingdom. Even as the Mongols conquered new lands, Jelme seems to have remained by the side of his khan as a loyal advisor and perhaps friend.   The historian Rashid Al Adin mentions Jelme dying “during the time of Genghis Khan” which could have been any time between 1207 and the 1220s, though scholars tend to assume earlier dates. Jelme was not necessarily a great general, but he was by no means less important to Genghis. Truly, his faithful service to the young man surviving on the Steppe through to his most glorious epoch is a near-unmatched story of loyalty and ability.   2. Qubilai: Master of Discipline Persian manuscript of Mongol horse archers, 13th century. Source: Columbia University   Qubilai (also spelled Kublai) has been somewhat obscured in history by his later and far more famous namesake, Kublai Khan, Genghis’s grandson and founder of the Yuan Dynasty. However, Qubilai the Dog of War deserves recognition. According to the Secret History, he and his brothers were some of the first people to join Genghis after his first success against the Merkits. During this early period, when Genghis was still building up his forces, Qubilai was made a guard of the Khan’s household.   Like Jelme, Qubilai remained a loyal companion to Genghis, despite being a noble member of his own tribe, most likely following him through the lost years and on his return. Qubilai was often deployed alongside his fellow Dog of War Jebe, leading scouting and reconnaissance missions during the unification of Mongolia. One episode saw them charged with taking the loot during Genghis’s defeat of the Tatar tribes, allowing the rest of the army to pursue and capture their fleeing foes.   This strategy was a crucial part of Genghis’s success. Previous Steppe conflicts often saw victorious armies halt to plunder what they could from the losers, allowing them to escape as the soldiers took what they could for themselves. However, by ensuring all the plunder was managed by a subordinate, Genghis’s army could pursue their enemies and have all plunder divided equally among all his soldiers, making no special dispensation for nobles or higher ranks. This was vital to ensuring the loyalty and service of his men who would willingly fight for him, knowing they would get a fair share of the glory, rather than just getting what they could while the traditional aristocrats received more of the glory and plunder.   Mongols at war, 14th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Qubilai appears to have excelled in this managerial and discipline enforcement role. So much so that, according to the Secret History, Genghis tasked him to “preside over all the affairs of the army” and be chief disciplinarian of the unified Mongol forces. This was a prestigious and vital position. Much of the success of Genghis and his descendants was thanks to the strict military discipline and strategic flexibility derived from a clear chain of command.   Qubilai clearly excelled in instilling this discipline and keeping the armies of Genghis well-managed and supplied. Part of this duty still included the taking of loot from defeated foes and raided cities, a portion of which was kept in trust for the widows and orphans of fallen soldiers, further instilling loyalty among the army and allowing them to campaign for longer periods without fear of their family’s well-being.   After the full unification of Mongolia, Qubilai is only recorded going on one further mission. This was to subjugate the nearby Qa’arlut Nation, whose ruler submitted to Genghis, who in turn praised this submission and married this ruler to one of his daughters. This was another example of Genghis’s new way of conducting warfare: providing enemies who submitted bloodlessly with fair and respectable treatment. Aside from this, it seems Qubilai, like Jelme, stayed close to Genghis’s side. However, his instillation of discipline and masterminding of the armies would be of huge benefit to other generals, including the last two Dogs of War.   3. Jebe: The Arrow French depiction of the Jebe and Sübe’edei’s combined victory at the battle of the Kalka River, 19th century. Source: British Library   After the Battle of Köyiten, the Secret History records that Genghis interrogated some defectors from the defeated enemy about who the archer was that had shot his horse and almost killed him. A man named Jirqo’adai told Genghis plainly that he was the archer in question. He then offered to let Genghis kill him there and then or spare him and he would become the Khan’s most loyal vassal, willing to take on any task. Genghis was so impressed by Jirqo’adai’s bravery and straight shooting, in every sense, that he made him a general and renamed him “Jebe,” meaning “arrow.” And so, the man who almost killed him became the arrow to Genghis’s bow.   The story may or may not be wholly accurate but it gives a good characterization of who the warrior Jebe was and the tactical ruthlessness he would soon unleash. As previously noted, Jebe partnered with Qubilai on scouting and reconnaissance missions during the unification of Mongolia. While Qubilai took charge of discipline and logistics, however, Jebe was chosen by Genghis to be a field commander, a role he would excel in.   Many historians rank Jebe as one of the finest cavalry generals in history, and his achievements during the Mongol conquests show why. He commanded a wing of the army that invaded Jin China in 1211, often using the speed and maneuverability of his forces to lure his enemy into disadvantageous positions. Then in 1218, he defeated an old enemy of Genghis, Kushlug of the Qara Khitai, with just two Tumens—20,000 men. During the invasion of the Khwarazm Empire, he and Sübe’edei served as commanders of the advance guard, ruthlessly pursuing the Shah of Khwarazm as he fled the avenging Mongol forces. Jebe’s greatest glory, however, was yet to come.   Mongol Warrior statue, Singapore Museum. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In 1220, Jebe and Sübe’edei organized the Great Raid. Starting from eastern Iran, the two Dogs of War journeyed into the unknown with just 20,000 men. They pushed through the Caucasus Mountains, destroying a Georgian army many times their size, and carried on north and east in a great circle around the Caspian Sea. They then surprised the Kipchaks, allies of Genghis’s old enemy, the Merkits. The Kipchaks joined forces with those of several Rus’ princes, including the prince of Kyiv and other famous cities, to defeat the Mongol menace. Jebe and Sübe’edei led their enemies on a nine-day false retreat before turning on them and destroying them at the legendary Battle of the Kalka River.   Yet after this astonishing triumph, Jebe all but disappears from the historical record. No contemporary sources mention his later whereabouts after the completion of the Great Raid. It is speculated, but not certain, that he died shortly after the raid or perhaps during the final stages. In any case, Genghis’s arrow and the most unlikely of the Dogs of War came to a sudden end after proving to be such a terrifying military adversary for his foes. This leaves us with the final, and easily most notorious of the Dogs of War: Sübe’edei.   4. Sübe’edei: The Legend A Medieval German depiction of Sübe’edei’s victory over the Hungarians at Mohi in 1241 CE, 13th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Sübe’edei (or Subudai) is without doubt the most infamous and well-known of the Dogs of War, and with good reason. He has gone down as one of the most brilliant and ruthless generals in history, winning astonishing victories and instilling terror in his foes all in the service of Genghis and his descendants. Yet despite his reputation, or perhaps because of it, there are many misconceptions about his career and life—misconceptions that have also bled into the wider view of the Dogs of War, Genghis, and his Mongol Empire.   It is commonly believed that Sübe’edei was Jelme’s younger brother. However, newer sources and understandings of the Secret History have shown they were cousins or some close male relative to each other but did not have the same father. Regardless, Sübe’edei followed his relative Jelme and his master Genghis but only gained station around the turn of the 13th century, when he and his brother defeated a group of bandits. Sübe’edei’s star rose quickly due to his bravery and talent for warfare. He was most likely the youngest and least senior of the Four Dogs, but his abilities shone through enough that he went from relative obscurity to a prestigious and vaunted position in a relatively short space of time.   There is little that hasn’t already been said about Sübe’edei’s astonishing military accomplishments. His first independent command was in conquering the remains of the Merkit tribe that had fled Genghis’s rise and allied with the Kipchaks west of Mongolia. He then formed a brilliant partnership with Jebe, firstly campaigning in China, then in Central Asia pursuing the Khwarazm Shah, and then embarking on the Great Raid during the 1210s-1220s CE.   Subutai, Chinese drawing, 16th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Genghis Khan died in around 1227 CE and by that time, Sübe’edei was the last living Dog of War—yet his military marvels in service to Genghis’s heir, Ogedei, would continue. Firstly, in China, he continued the innovations of mobility, military discipline, and flexibility instilled by Genghis, Qubilai, and Jebe by attacking multiple armies operating in concert. His most legendary campaign, however, came in the late 1230s CE, when he, alongside Genghis’s grandson Batu, invaded Russia and Central Europe.   Though Batu was nominally in command, Sübe’edei was the true mastermind. His forces swept through Ukraine and Russia, finally destroying the Kipchaks and their Rus’ allies before the independent principalities could form a united defense. Sübe’edei continued pursuing fleeing Kipchaks into Hungary and Poland, engineering several stunning victories, the complete destruction of the Hungarian army, as well as plundering much of Eastern Europe.   Sübe’edei would return to Mongolia after the death of Ogedei. Though aged over 70, he was still able to organize a final campaign against the Song Dynasty in around 1243 CE. Not long afterward though, the last of Genghis’s almighty generals and faithful Dogs of War passed away peacefully, in his home in Mongolia.   Sübe’edei’s long and well-documented military career made him the most famous of the Mongol generals in the West, outside of Genghis himself, but it has also colored perceptions. With so much of the historical record focused on Sübe’edei’s military exploits, warfare and conquest dominate our understanding of him and the other Dogs of War.   Understanding the Four Dogs The advances of Genghis Khan and his generals and the territorial expansion of the Mongol Empire. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Jelme, Qubilai, Jebe, and Sübe’edei were extraordinary men. A title like the “Dogs of War” may lend itself to presumptions of conquest and military ferocity. Yet investigating the lives of the men themselves, much of their story revolves around their loyalty and support of Genghis in creating the new Mongol nation.   Both interpretations have merit—dogs can be savage beasts or loyal companions—and the dichotomy was undoubtedly intentional on the part of the Secret History’s compilers. However, returning to our two original passages, the description given by Jamuqa is one of the most well-known and recited in popular discussions of Genghis and his Four Dogs. It fits the popular image of the notorious conqueror perfectly. Meanwhile, the later passage with Genghis as the charismatic leader praising and rewarding his loyal and able lieutenants is often forgotten.   There is an undercurrent of brutality and violence that pervades popular discussions of the Mongol Empire, even in positive accounts. For example, a popular modern nickname for Sübe’edei is the “Demon Dog” of Genghis Khan. However, during his lifetime, Sübe’edei held the epithet “Ba’atur,” meaning hero, a title given only to those of great valiance and standing.   The bloody reputation of the Mongols is not without merit, but other conquerors are often celebrated for their military prowess, not dreaded. Few would describe the Marshals of Napoleon as demons. Modern historians are challenging this tendency and some of it is due in part to sources and stories only recently becoming widely available. Yet, at the risk of over-romanticizing him, Genghis truly should be known for feats other than his conquests, as should the stories of the men who followed him.   Chinggis Khan advising his sons on his deathbed, 15th-century miniature from Marco Polo’s Livre des Merveilles, 1410-12. Source: BnF   Bloody and ruthless warriors they may have been, but all four men showed incredible faith and loyalty to Genghis. Traditional Steppe allegiances were forged through blood and clan ties, and followers would abandon leaders who seemed unable to bring success, but Genghis and the Four Dogs thought differently. All four served Genghis loyally despite being from different tribes and families. Jelme and Qubilai both followed Genghis in his lost years and refused to abandon him. Additionally, all four men took part in the Baljuna Covenant in 1203 CE, when Genghis’s followers reaffirmed their loyalty to him after he was betrayed by his ally Togrul.   While they are now remembered for their violence, the Four Dogs perhaps should be better known for their loyalty to Genghis and each other. They typified the new ideas and way of thinking that saw Genghis turn the people of the Mongol Steppe into a nation that took on the world. In many ways, Jelme, Qubilai, Jebe, and Sübe’edei exemplify the loyalty, discipline, honor, and brilliance that helped a man with humble origins overcome all odds to create one of the most renowned empires in history.

  The Komnenos Dynasty came from obscure origins to revive the Byzantine Empire after a disastrous period of weak emperors and military setbacks. Alexios Komnenos took power in 1081 CE and began an astonishing reversal of the empire’s dire fortunes, continued by his descendants during what became known as the Komnenian Restoration. In 1095 CE, Alexios sent a request for military support to the Pope. This was the catalyst for the Crusades that would have an unprecedented impact on the Byzantine Empire and the rest of the world.   The Rise of the Komnenos Dynasty The Castle of Kastamonu, Fiefdom of the Komnenids. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The origins of the Komnenos family are frustratingly obscure. The first recorded member is Manuel Erotikos Komnenos. Manuel’s parentage is unknown, although he was likely of minor noble descent. He appears in a record of 978 CE leading a loyalist army to victory against a rebellion. For his loyalty and success, he received a fief on the Black Sea coast of Anatolia. There Manuel built a castle, known today as Kastamonu.   Manuel had two sons, Isaac, and John, who became accomplished military men, and Isaac was a popular general on the empire’s eastern border. In the cloak-and-dagger world of imperial Byzantium, military command was held by members of elite families of provincial nobility. Meanwhile, in Constantinople, the Church and civilian administrators held sway. These two factions were kept in balance by the powerful emperors of the Macedonian Dynasty.   However, the last Macedonian ruler died in 1055 CE and the imperial throne then went to a civilian aristocrat, Michael. Within two years, Michael had alienated the military elite, who rebelled with Isaac as their leader. In 1057 CE, Isaac forced Michael to abdicate and took the throne himself. Ironically, Isaac in turn alienated the civilian bureaucracy, which forced him to abdicate in 1059 CE.   However, this was just the beginning of the Komnenos story. For the next 20 years, (while the empire suffered crises of government, faith, and military) Isaac’s nephew, Alexios, went into the family business of military command. Alexios, born the same year his uncle had become emperor, gained his first military command at just 19 years old. Just five years later in 1081 CE, he also took the throne in a military-backed coup. Thus, the reign of the Komnenos, and the restoration of the Byzantine Empire, truly began.    Alexios and Saving the Empire Alexios I Komnenos receiving a blessing from Christ, 12th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Byzantine Empire was in a truly dire state when Alexios took power. The last two decades had seen further disharmony among the civilian and military elites that had weakened the imperial state, while an inflation crisis had devastated the economy. Minor revolts and heretical rebellions also kept popping up throughout the empire.   However, a greater problem by far were the military disasters the empire’s army had suffered. In the west, the arrival of the Normans in Italy had pushed the Byzantines out of the peninsula. Even worse, ambitious Norman lords had begun raiding and invading Greece and threatening the Byzantine heartlands. To the east, the situation was yet more dire. The invading Seljuk Turks had won a massive victory over the Byzantine army at Manzikert in 1071 CE that had devastated the Byzantine army.   In the decade since Manzikert, the Seljuks had conquered almost all of Anatolia save for some small holdings on the west coast. Even the traditional Komnenid holdings of Kastamonu had been lost.   A Seljuk prince on horseback, 12th-13th century. Source: The MET, New York   Alexios’s reign began inauspiciously with a defeat struck by the Normans, led by Robert Guiscard at Dyrrachium in the year of his coronation. However, the young emperor turned to the other weapons in the Byzantine arsenal — diplomacy and bribery. He managed to convince the Holy Roman Emperor Henry to attack the Norman lands in Italy. This forced Robert back to Italy and allowed Alexios to push the Normans out of Byzantine territory entirely.   Alexios followed this success with swift internal changes. He reformed the Byzantine currency to restimulate the economy and began rebuilding and restructuring the military following Manzikert and Dyrrachium. With his western and northern fronts stabilized, a growing economy, and a pacified political scene, Alexios was able to turn his attention to the Seljuks in Anatolia. He made some progress in recapturing parts of the coast, but his army still lacked the numbers to make serious headway. This is why, in 1095 CE, he decided to write a letter to the Pope requesting military aid.   The First Crusade A depiction of the Siege of Jerusalem from a 15th-century Manuscript. Source: University of North Florida   No discussion about Alexios’s reign can be had without discussing the Crusades and their impact on the history of the Byzantine Empire and the world as a whole. Alexios clearly had no idea what his missive to the Pope would create, but this does not mean it was some desperate last-gasp gamble. Politically (if not religiously, following the Great Schism in 1054 CE) Rome and Constantinople were on good terms, thanks in large part to Alexios’s diplomatic efforts. Furthermore, there was a precedent for “Latin” (that is Catholic West European) soldiers serving the Byzantines. In fact, Count Robert of Flanders had already served Alexios with immense success against the Seljuks.   Arguably Alexios’s request to the Pope was quite sensible. Due to the shortcomings in his own forces, he requested military support from an ally. What Alexios did not predict was the notorious Pope Urban II using his request for his own means. Namely, to whip up the squabbling warriors and religiously zealous peasants of Europe and direct their violence away from Europe and toward the supposed infidels of the Islamic world.   Alexios had expected the Pope to arrange for a detachment of knights and mercenaries. He did not expect first a swarm of peasants—the People’s Crusade, which tore through his empire on their way to destruction in Anatolia—nor the wave of religiously fanatical knights of the First Crusade who followed.   Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, from Livre des Passages d’Outre-mer, 1474. Source: Gallica National Library   Though it was assumed he would, Alexios decided against taking direct command of this seemingly military migration. Instead, he gave them what supplies and transportation he could arrange and obtained promises that any territory captured would be returned to the Byzantines. This worked for a time when the Crusaders captured Nicaea and carried on toward the Levant. However, after the capture of Antioch in 1098 CE, a series of miscommunications between the Crusaders and Alexios occurred. This led to the Crusader leaders rescinding their oaths and carving out their own independent kingdoms — the notorious Crusader States of the Holy Land.   John II Komnenos Mosaic of John II from the Hagia Sophia, c. 1118 CE. Wikimedia Commons   Despite the unfortunate setback of accidentally unleashing a wave of war-mongering religious fanatics onto his doorstep, Alexios’s reign into the 12th century was a continual success. He took more territory in Anatolia and repaired relations with the Crusaders, though they maintained their independence. Internally meanwhile, his monetary and civil reforms bore fruit, with the ambitions of the imperial Bureaucracy and military aristocracy kept in check. In his impressive 37-year reign, he took the empire from near collapse to being stable, functional, and back on the offensive.   All that said, things were still fragile. When Alexios died in 1118 CE, his wife and daughter attempted a coup against his son John II, while external enemies including the Pechenegs and Hungarians began probing raids into the empire. A less capable ruler might have collapsed under the pressure but not John. He swiftly dealt with the attempted coup before moving to continue what his father had started.   The Pechenegs defeating the Rus, from the Skyllitzes Matritensis, 11th-13th centuries. Source: Wikimedia Commons   John was known as “the Beautiful” for the splendor of his reign rather than his looks, and it was a truly splendid reign. He continued strengthening the economy and maintained good relations with the Pope, the Holy Roman Empire, and the Crusader States, even inviting Crusaders and other Latins into his court. This was part of John’s meritocratic policy promoting men of ignoble or foreign birth but great ability to senior positions in his court and armies. This gave him capable subordinates directly loyal to him and limited the influence of the ambitious great noble houses.   John was his father’s equal in drive and brilliance. In military terms though, many argue he exceeded his father by quite some margin. He utterly destroyed the Pechenegs at the battle of Beroia and fully repulsed Hungary by 1129 CE. His one blemish was an inconclusive naval war in Crete against the new merchant power of Venice. Against the Seljuks in Anatolia, however, John would see his greatest successes.   John II and Restoring the Empire John II leading the siege of Shaizar, 14th century. Source: BnF   After defeating Hungary, John swiftly went on the offensive in Anatolia, but the Seljuks were stubborn opponents, and he could not be away from Constantinople for fear of leaving conspiring nobles unsupervised. So John kept his campaigns brief but productive. He would make small but notable gains, ideally capturing strongholds to secure his conquests, before returning to Constantinople. A ruler can never be everywhere they are needed at once, so John made sure to not be too far away from anywhere for too long.   These small but regular siege-based gains also reduced pitched battles and the risk of another Manzikert-like disaster. Furthermore, John was simply a master of siege warfare, often taking seemingly impenetrable castles easily and building on his successes quickly. In this way, John recaptured territory from the fractured Seljuk kingdoms of the Rhum Sultanate and the Danishmendids during the mid-1120s to 1130s CE.   He retook western Anatolia, the southern coast, and even parts of northern Syria where he also made Cilician Armenia, several Crusader states, and even some independent Islamic emirates into vassals. His greatest triumph was the siege of Shaizar in 1138 CE, which took place in cooperation with the Crusader States of Antioch and Edessa. While the Crusader commanders stayed in their tents playing dice, John personally led an assault and capture of the city.   Marble carving of John II in Imperial regalia, 12th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   John died suddenly, from septicemia after cutting himself during a hunt, in 1143 CE. He was aged just 56 and planning another campaign against the Rhum Sultanate. His final act was to appoint his youngest son Manuel, born in 1118 CE, to succeed him. Contemporary sources suggest Manuel showed greater military skills and likeability than his older brother, Isaac. John’s meritocratic policy continued until the very end.   Despite the many successes of John’s 25-year reign, there was still much work to be done. Fortunately, Manuel was made of the same stuff as his father and grandfather.   Manuel Komnenos, the Great Manuel receiving Baldwin III of Jerusalem, from a later Medieval manuscript. Source: British Library   Manuel—known as the Great—was a man of ambition. Growing up with his father’s Crusader advisors, he became very pro-Latin. His court adopted the notions of Chivalry and even held jousting tournaments. His pro-West policies left him on good terms with Pope Eugene III, which helped him prepare for the first major event of his reign, the Second Crusade in 1147 CE.   Manuel, unlike his grandfather, was well prepared for the sudden arrival of two Crusader armies looking to retake the Crusader state of Edessa. He swiftly and peacefully (aside from some minor skirmishes) moved the Crusaders through his empire, securing an alliance with Holy Roman Emperor Conrad III into the bargain.   Manuel I Komnenos and his second wife Maria of Antioch, 12th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Though the Crusade failed, Manuel’s allegiance with Conrad encouraged him to attack the Normans in Southern Italy, who were once again menacing Greece. The Normans backed down but his meddling in Italy led to a falling out with Conrad’s successor, Frederick Barbarossa, and a protracted on-again-off-again conflict with Venice. Despite this, Manuel saw other successes during the 1150s and 60s CE.   In the West, he won victories over Hungary and Serbia and brought the entire Dalmatian coast into the Byzantine Empire. He was also recognized as suzerain of all the Crusader states, including Jerusalem, by 1159 CE and made further conquests in Anatolia. He even made the Rhum Sultanate his vassal in 1162 CE.   Yet, the good times would not last. First came a failed expedition to Egypt with the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1169 CE. The biggest failure though, was in Anatolia. In 1176 CE, during a punitive expedition against a rebellious Rhum Sultanate, Manuel’s army was ambushed at the battle of Myriokephalon. Though not as devastating as Manzikert, the defeat forced Manuel on the defensive. While campaigning to protect the gains of his forebears, Manuel died of a fever in 1180 CE.   In his 37-year reign, Manuel invested much to make the Byzantine Empire the most prosperous and influential it had been for centuries. Once again, a Komnenid Emperor passed on, leaving the empire in an empowered but still precarious position. All that was needed was another strong heir to keep up the good work. This time, however, there was none.   The Downfall of the Dynasty Portraits of the final four Komnenid Emperors and the two that followed, Isaac and Alexios III Angelos, from a 15th-century manuscript. Source: Estense Digital Library   Manuel’s only son, Alexios II, was eleven when his father died. Until he came of age, power rested with a regent, and all at once the Byzantines returned to their ancient pastime of squabbling for power. Alexios’s regent was his mother Maria, but she was a Latin, from the Crusader state of Antioch.   While the Komnenids were pro-Western, the common citizens and other noble families were less so. The idea of a foreign princess ruling the empire was not popular. Nor did Maria help herself with some of her questionable policies. The most egregious was her imperial favoring of Italian merchants, including those from the empire’s erstwhile rival, Venice. Resentment boiled over into open defiance and Maria did not have the military or political support to maintain control.   Lion of Saint Mark, Doge’s Palace, Venice. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In stepped the ambitious Andronikos Komnenos. The son of Alexios I’s youngest son, Isaac, Andronikos had been exiled by Manuel for his many scandals and schemes. In the civil disorder of Maria’s reign, he returned to Constantinople in 1183 CE to a hero’s welcome from its citizens.   Andronikos swiftly deposed Maria and her dwindling supporters, then made himself co-emperor with Alexios II before quietly having both mother and son killed. His ascension sparked a riot in the city against the resented Italian merchants and other Latins in the city. Almost 80,000 people, it is claimed, were killed, but sadly this was just the beginning of the violence. Andronikos rolled back many of the pro-Western policies and earlier reforms of the other Komnenids. He also came down hard on the military aristocracy which had enjoyed the favor of a near century of successive military campaigning. In a state of increasing paranoia, Andronikos had all dissenters or perceived threats executed.   The empire endured two years of Andronikos’s tyranny. However, in 1185 CE the Normans invaded Greece, allegedly to avenge the massacre of the Latins, and Andronikos found none of his armies nor generals were willing to defend him. As the invaders marched towards the capital, a noble named Isaac Angelos, distantly related to the Komnenids, finally stood up to Andronikos and deposed him. The last Komnenos Emperor was then seized by a mob and brutally lynched.   The Final Legacy of the Komnenos Dynasty The Byzantine Empire in 1170, at the height of the Komnenian restoration. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The reign of the Komnenids came to a squalid end barely a century after it began. Once again, urban nobles and military aristocrats squabbled for power as the borders of the empire crumbled under the threat of invasion. Yet it would be far too cynical to claim that the Komnenos emperors had achieved nothing. In three generations, Alexios, John II, and Manuel had transformed the Byzantine Empire from a state of ruin back into a superpower.   All three emperors undoubtedly rank among the greatest emperors in Byzantine history. While they may not have ultimately succeeded in restoring the empire to its original borders, they managed to pull it from a death spiral, revive it civilly and militarily, and restore much-lost glory. They bought Constantinople a century of much-needed stability and success. The great tragedy was that this stability was tied to their own abilities as emperors and could not survive less able successors.   It is hard to say whether the Komnenids only delayed the inevitable collapse of the empire, or if they could have succeeded given different circumstances. One can only speculate what could have been had John II survived for one more campaign or had Manuel lived long enough for Alexios II to reach adulthood. Yet we must also acknowledge the tragic reality of the events set in motion during the Komnenian restoration.   Assault of the Crusaders on Constantinople 1204 by David Aubert, 15th Century. Source: akg-images   In 1204 CE, after Isaac Angelos was deposed by his own brother, his son Alexios employed the army of the Fourth Crusade, financed by Venetian merchants, to take Constantinople from his uncle. Then, when Alexios was killed in a riot before he could provide payment, the Crusaders promptly sacked the city, with much of the treasure returning to Venice. The empire was then divided between the Crusaders and Venice, with a few Byzantine noble families creating splinter kingdoms in the empire’s extremities, one of which—the Empire of Trebizond—was ruled by an offshoot of the Komnenos family.   Though the Byzantine Empire would eventually return, it would never be the same again. This is perhaps the most tragic irony of the Komnenos legacy. The very movement Alexios I unwittingly engendered to try and save the empire, all those years before, would lead to its darkest hour.