The Glencoe coin hoard, linked to the brutal 1692 massacre of the Glencoe MacDonald clan and maybe even buried by one of its victims, is going on permanent display at the Glencoe Folk Museum in the Scottish Highlands near where it was found. The hoard was discovered in 2023 during an excavation of a summerhouse in a glen near the Pass of Glencoe that was used as a hunting lodge or feasting hall by chief Alasdair Ruadh “MacIain” MacDonald of the Glencoe MacDonald clan. The coins had been placed in a pot and covered with a pebble before burial under the hearth of a grand stone fireplace. The pot contained silver and bronze coins from the 16th and 17th centuries. Most of them were British coins, minted by Elizabeth I, James VI of Scotland/James I of Britain, Charles I, the Commonwealth, Charles II. However, it also contained a bronze coin of Philip IV of Spain (r. 1621-1665), a brass coin of Louis XIII of France (r. 1610-1643) and a rare quattrino of Pope Clement VIII (r. 1592-1605). Other objects discovered in the excavation of the hoard include: musket shot, a powder measure, spindle whorls, and high-status pottery from England, France and Germany, including a large fragment from a “beardman” jug produced in workshops on the Rhine. None of the coins found in the hoard were minted after the 1680s, which indicates they were hidden right before or even during the massacre. Since nobody ever returned to retrieve this valuable treasure, it’s possible the person who buried it was one of the killed. Another possibility is that it was buried there by a survivor fleeing the massacre who never had the opportunity to return. The presence of English coins is expected in a Scottish hoard, but the European coins and pottery fragments suggest some of the coins may have been collected by Maclain himself who was known to have traveled widely on the continent. Dr Eddie Stewart, senior archaeology lecturer at Glasgow University, said of the project: “The excavations at the summerhouse site, and our surveys and excavations in the wider landscape, paint a vivid picture of the world of the Macdonald of Glencoe chiefs. Instead of wild and savage clansmen in a remote glen, they were highly educated, well-travelled and better connected with access to continental educations, imported wine and tobacco, and fine dining wares from Germany, France, and England. “The coins from the hoard highlight these connections which surely played a part in how the chiefs presented themselves and performed their status and worldliness to their clan, kin, and guests.” The Glencoe Folk Museum is the ideal location to tell this story, as it combines the charm of authentic 1800s thatched croft cottages with a new fully accessible exhibition space and a remote engagement program that makes the museum’s collections and events available worldwide via the internet. It is currently closed for construction and will reopen early next year. Catriona Davidson, the Curator of Glencoe Folk Museum, said: “We are so excited to be adding these artefacts to our collection. One of the aims of our current redevelopment project is to create exhibition spaces with the environmental conditions and security to allow us to acquire more significant objects – and we’re thrilled that this has already paid off. “Items such as these give us a tangible connection to the people who lived here in the past and can tell us so much about everyday life in the Glen. We can’t wait to work with the archaeology team to interpret the artefacts for the Museum and share their stories in the place where they were discovered.”

Russia’s literary tradition is rich and profound, producing works that have resonated through the ages. Classics like Leo Tolstoy’s “War and Peace” and Fyodor Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment” offer deep insights into the human condition, societal structures, and historical contexts. These novels continue to captivate readers worldwide, providing timeless reflections on universal themes. Their enduring ... The post 15 Greatest Russian Novels Of All-Time And Why We Should Still Read Them appeared first on History Collection.

1759 - British troops chase French out of Masulipatam, India 1933 - Manchester Guardian warns of unknown Nazi terror 1939 - King Zog I of Albania flees after Italy invades 1941 - In his 4th title defense in 9 weeks Joe Louis beats Tony Musto by TKO in the 9th round at the Arena, Saint Louis, Missouri to retain NYSAC heavyweight boxing crown 1972 - Alvin Kallicharran scores 100* in his 1st Test Cricket innings v NZ 1983 - In front of a live audience of 20 tourists, David Copperfield makes the Statue of Liberty disappear 1989 - California Angels pitcher Jim Abbott, born without his right hand, makes MLB debut, lasting only 4 2/3 innings 2018 - 82nd US Masters Tournament: Patrick Reed wins his first major title, 1 stroke ahead of fellow American Rickie Fowler More Historical Events »

Wikimedia CommonsDavid Toschi spent nearly a decade pursuing the Zodiac Killer while working in the homicide division of the San Francisco Police Department. In the late 1960s, a killer began terrorizing Northern California. He targeted young couples and taunted police with cryptic letters. He called himself the Zodiac. And Detective Dave Toschi spent years trying to track him down. A sharply dressed homicide detective with the San Francisco Police Department, Toschi was known for both his flashy suits and his commitment to the Zodiac investigation. He spent years chasing the elusive Zodiac Killer after the 1969 murder of a San Francisco taxi driver, but was ultimately taken off the case following a terrible lapse in judgement. In the end, the Zodiac Killer was never caught. And Toschi was haunted by both the case, and his errors during it, for the rest of his life. David Toschi Before The Zodiac Killer David Ramon Toschi was born on July 11, 1931, in San Francisco, California. His father, Sam Toschi, worked as a school janitor, while his mother, Millie Toschi, was employed at a candy factory. After his parents separated, Toschi was largely raised by his mother and his stepfather. He graduated from Galileo High School in 1951, after which he enlisted in the United States Army. During the Korean War, Toschi served in the 24th Infantry Division and helped defend the Pusan Perimeter. He was honorably discharged in 1952 and returned home to San Francisco, where he then joined the San Francisco Police Department. Toschi worked for the department for more than three decades, ultimately working his way into the homicide division. But while most detectives preferred to blend in, Toschi stood out. He wore bow ties, vibrant sports coats, colorful shirts, and a distinctive shoulder holster. KRON 4/YouTubeDetective David Toschi inspired Hollywood legends like Bullitt and Dirty Harry. Then, in the 1960s, Dave Toschi was drawn into the most notorious case of his day: the search for the Zodiac Killer. The Hunt For The Zodiac Killer Between 1968 and 1969, the Zodiac Killer murdered at least five people in northern California, mostly young couples. He also sent cryptic, taunting letters to the police, yet managed to evade capture. San Francisco Police DepartmentA depiction of the Zodiac killer, based on the testimony of a surviving victim. And in October 1969, after the murder of cab driver Paul Stine — the Zodiac’s final known victim and the only person to be killed in San Francisco — the case landed on Detective Dave Toschi’s desk. Working alongside Inspector Bill Armstrong, Toschi became the chief investigator on the case. For years, the two detectives sifted through evidence, interviewed witnesses, and attempted to decipher the killer’s cryptic messages. According to Toschi’s obituary in The New York Times, he once estimated that he’d spoken to 5,000 people during the investigation. Indeed, Toschi followed countless leads — but one suspect stood out above all others. Of all the Zodiac Killer suspects, Toschi believed that a man named Arthur Leigh Allen was the most likely candidate. Toschi had a feeling about Allen the moment he met him, and Allen had reportedly told a friend he was writing a “novel” about a killer called “Zodiac” who murdered couples. Public DomainThe driver’s license of Arthur Leigh Allen, one of the top Zodiac Killer suspects. However, investigators were never able to prove Allen was responsible. Fingerprints and handwriting analysis failed to conclusively tie him to the murders, and the Zodiac Killer remained free. Then, in 1978, Dave Toschi was forced to resign from the case. How Scandal Ended Dave Toschi’s Hunt For The Zodiac Killer During his search for the Zodiac Killer, Dave Toschi drew widespread attention. He was the inspiration for Steve McQueen’s character in the 1968 film Bullitt, and also helped inspire the character Harry Callahan in the 1971 film Dirty Harry. But in 1978, he drew attention for a different reason. Solar Productions/Warner BrothersSteve McQueen in the 1968 film Bullitt, in which his character was inspired by Dave Toschi. That year, Toschi’s involvement in the Zodiac Killer case came to an abrupt and unexpected end. It turned out that Toschi had been sending letters to the San Francisco Chronicle under a fake name, in which he praised his own performance in the Zodiac investigation. Toschi later called his letters “a foolish thing to do,” and an “ill-advised indulgence.” But the damage had been done. Toschi was removed from the Zodiac investigation and reassigned to the robbery detail. While he remained with the police force until his retirement in 1985, the scandal effectively ended his chances of rising further within the San Francisco Police Department. What’s more, it also raised the question of whether Toschi had written at least one of the Zodiac Killer letters himself. The detective vehemently denied it, and no evidence has been uncovered to definitively link him to the Zodiac letters. But though he’d been removed from the case, Dave Toschi never fully walked away from the mystery of the Zodiac Killer. The Unsolved Case That Haunted Dave Toschi After retiring from the San Francisco Police Department, Dave Toschi worked in private security. But he never forgot the Zodiac Killer case, and spent many hours discussing it with Robert Graysmith, a former political cartoonist with the San Francisco Chronicle who wrote two books on the Zodiac Killer. Instead, the mystery lingered, unresolved and deeply personal. In the 2007 film Zodiac, directed by David Fincher, actor Mark Ruffalo plays Toschi, capturing the detective’s determination as he works to track down the Zodiac Killer. Ruffalo portrays Toschi as both confident and increasingly frustrated, showing how the case slowly wears on him over the years. Indeed, according to the San Francisco Chronicle, Toschi’s friends said that the case weighed so heavily on him that he developed a stomach ulcer from the stress. Toschi had spent years chasing leads, interviewing thousands of suspects, and working decode the killer’s cryptic messages. Paramount PicturesMark Ruffalo portrays homicide detective David Toschi in David Fincher’s 2007 film Zodiac. Tosci believed he knew who the Zodiac was. But without enough evidence, the case slipped through his grasp. And he never stopped thinking about it. Every year on the anniversary of Paul Stine’s murder, Toschi returned to the quiet Presidio Heights street in San Francisco where the crime took place back in 1969. Sitting in his car, sometimes for hours, he would replay the case in his mind, wondering what he had missed. “Why didn’t we get this guy?” he once asked. “It still haunts me. It always will.” Dave Toschi died on Jan. 6, 2018, at the age of 86. The Zodiac Killer, however, was never identified, and the case that defined his life remains unsolved. After reading about Dave Toschi, the detective that chased the Zodiac Killer until scandal unraveled his career, discover the stories of some of California’s most terrifying serial killers. Or, learn about Gary Francis Poste, one of the Zodiac Killer suspects. The post Dave Toschi, The San Francisco Detective Who Hunted The Zodiac Killer appeared first on All That's Interesting.

  The gallowglass were elite Norse-Gaelic mercenary warriors who served in Ireland from the 13th to the early 17th century. Descended from Norse settlers in the Western Isles and Argyll, they became Ireland’s most reliable heavy infantry, fighting for Gaelic and Anglo-Irish lords alike. Armed with massive axes and clad in chainmail, they acted as shock troops, bodyguards, and household soldiers during centuries of conflict. Their role declined with the rise of gunpowder warfare, but their names, clans, and reputation left an enduring mark on Irish history and cultural memory.   Origins and Rise of the Gallowglass Leiv Eirikson discovering America by Christian Krohg, 1893. Source: National Museum of Art, Architecture and Design, Oslo   The original gallowglass came from the western coast of Scotland, particularly the Western Isles and Argyll. These areas had seen heavy Norse settlement from the 10th century onwards. Intermarriage between the Norse settlers and the local Gaels had resulted in a distinct difference from the native Irish though they had adopted the Irish language and shared many customs. The term gallowglass comes from the Irish gallóglach. Gall means foreign and óglach has several meanings from hero to volunteer. Literally translated it means foreign warrior, a reflection of their origins.   These Gall Gaeil (foreign Gaels) were steeped in Norse heritage and even their homelands in the Western Isles were known to the Irish as the Innse Gall or Isles of the Foreigners. Life in the Hebrides and Argyll was often harsh, dominated by subsistence farming and clan warfare. Service as a mercenary appealed to ambitious young men seeking wealth and prestige. Irish kings began hiring these foreign Gaels as soldiers from the 12th century onwards.   As foreigners they were popular as bodyguards and enforcers since they had no stake in local rivalries and were loyal only to their paymasters. Every Irish lord of note kept a retinue with some clans entering into generational service with Irish lordships. In time many gallowglass settled in Ireland and recruited from the Irish but they were still referred to as Scots by the rest of the population. Despite contemporary chroniclers decrying their love of money, they showed unrestrained courage on the battlefield and fought loyally for their employers.   Appearance and Types Irish Gallowglass and Kern by Albrecht Durer, 1521. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Gallowglasses were physically imposing warriors, noted in contemporary accounts for their exceptional height and strength. Much like the grenadiers of later centuries, they formed an elite heavy infantry whose presence alone could intimidate opponents. Their armor distinguished them immediately from the typically lightly equipped Irish kern. A gallowglass usually wore a long chainmail hauberk, an iron helmet, and sometimes gauntlets, equipment that changed little from the 13th to the 16th century. To many English observers, their appearance evoked memories of Viking raiders, with some chroniclers remarking that they looked like figures from an earlier age.   Their weaponry reinforced this impression. The signature gallowglass weapon was the large two-handed axe, capable of cleaving shields and causing catastrophic injuries. Its sheer size had a powerful psychological effect in close combat. Spears were also used, and by the 15th and 16th centuries, some warriors adopted the two-handed claymore, though this weapon became more strongly associated with other Scottish mercenary groups. Many gallowglasses carried short swords or dirks as secondary weapons, while their personal attendants, sometimes referred to as knaves by the English, were equipped with javelins, bows, and spears.   Two broad categories of gallowglass existed. Some entered hereditary service with a single Irish lordship, forming a permanent household guard whose families often became integrated into local society over generations. Only powerful Gaelic dynasties could afford such retainers. The majority, however, were freelance warriors hired seasonally, typically for three months at a time. They moved from lordship to lordship seeking employment in local wars and raids, often fighting against rival gallowglass companies. For many freelancers, the ultimate ambition was to earn a place in a permanent retinue.   Organization, Hiring, and Household Service Anonymous woodcut of Irish warriors, 1575. Source: Ashmolean Museum, Oxford   Gallowglass were organized in corrughadh or battles (battalion). These usually consisted of 80 spars or more. Each spar was made up of one gallowglass and their attendants. Typically a gallowglass would have two boys in service, much like a knight had squires. In exchange they would be trained in the ways of war. In battle they would fight as skirmishers in support of their lord. A constable would lead each battle and in cases where a lord was fortunate enough to have several in his service, they would appoint a marshal over all their troops.   Payment for gallowglasses was traditionally made in kind rather than in coin. Contemporary records from the 16th century note that a gallowglass’s quarterly wage consisted of one cow as pay and two more for his sustenance. This system imposed a heavy burden on local populations, as lords were obliged not only to feed and provision the soldiers but also to billet them in the homes of tenants. The requirement to house these armed retainers, who were not always disciplined off the battlefield, was a frequent cause of resentment in the countryside.   Gallowglasses could also enter service through political alliances. It was not uncommon for companies to be included in marriage dowries. One notable example occurred in 1569 when Turlough Luineach O’Neill, lord of Tír Eoghain (Tyrone), married the widowed Agnes Campbell, daughter of the Earl of Argyll. Her dowry is recorded as including at least 1,200 gallowglasses, demonstrating the considerable military power such alliances could bring to Irish chiefs.   The Gallowglasses in Irish Warfare (13th–16th Centuries) The Image of Irelande by John Derrick, 1581. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Ireland in the medieval and early modern periods was a landscape of continual conflict. Gaelic lords fought one another for dominance, battled the Anglo-Norman earls, and resisted the expanding authority of the English Crown. This climate of near-constant warfare created steady demand for professional soldiers, and the gallowglass thrived within it. Their initial value lay in countering Norman men-at-arms, whose armor, longbows, and cavalry tactics disrupted traditional Irish warfare. By the sixteenth century, during the Tudor reconquest, gallowglasses had become the only reliable heavy infantry available to Gaelic lords.   Within the Gaelic military system, gallowglasses occupied a distinctive middle tier between the mounted nobles and the lightly equipped kern. Irish cavalry, though noble and prestigious, fought without stirrups and were unsuited to the shock tactics of English cavalry. Kern, meanwhile, formed the bulk of Irish armies as mobile skirmishers, excellent at ambush, raiding, and harassment but not built to endure prolonged close combat. The gallowglass provided what both groups lacked: disciplined, armored infantry capable of meeting Norman or Tudor troops face-to-face.   Most Irish warfare consisted of raids, ambushes, and punitive expeditions. During cattle raids, kern swept ahead in loose formations while gallowglasses served as the solid reserve, ready to confront any rescuing force. In set-piece battles, they formed the main body of the Gaelic host, advancing in dense formations that relied on shock, weight, and ferocity. Their reputation for steadfastness was legendary: numerous contemporary accounts describe gallowglasses who fought to the last, refusing to flee even when their employer and his household cavalry had already abandoned the field.   Decline During the Tudor Conquest Irish and Scottish soldiers in the Thirty Years War, 1631. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The 16th century saw the end of the Gaelic order in Ireland and with it, the gallowglass. As warfare intensified, Irish lords hired increasing numbers of mercenaries, from seasonal Scottish redshanks to professional bonnachts, who mirrored the gallowglass system of billeting. Yet by the 1500s the traditional equipment and tactics of the gallowglass were becoming obsolete. The growing use of firearms and disciplined pike formations in Irish warfare exposed their limitations. Their shock charges, once devastating, struggled to break the deep English pike squares employed by Tudor commanders. Individually a gallowglass remained a formidable fighter, but in close-order combat the cohesion and drill of English infantry usually proved superior. Adaptation became essential.   From the mid 1500s on, the gallowglass frequently came off the worst in pitched battles. Hugh O’Neill and other Gaelic lords used Irish continental veterans and Spanish soldiers as instructors to modernize their gallowglass and kern infantry. Generally the kern became musketeers while the gallowglass became pikemen. Some continued to use their distinctive weaponry similar to the doppelsoldners amongst the Landsknechts. Continental fashions had slowly started to influence their helmets and armor.   The catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Kinsale in 1601 was effectively the last major engagement in which gallowglasses fought in their traditional role. The subsequent collapse of Gaelic lordship removed the economic systems that sustained them. Some families survived as landowners under English rule; others turned to banditry or sought service abroad. Irish mercenaries with distinctive equipment appear in scattered accounts of the Thirty Years’ War, but as a distinct military caste the gallowglass had vanished by the early seventeenth century.   Legacy and Cultural Memory Gallowglass stone carvings at Roscommon Friary. Source: Heritage Ireland   Over the centuries, the gallowglass became woven into the fabric of Irish society. Those who served permanently under a single lordship often evolved into hereditary military families, gaining land and authority in their own right. Clans such as the MacDonnells, MacSweeneys, and MacSheehys trace their roots to these warrior lineages, and their names remain common today in regions where gallowglass septs once held power. Their descendants became part of the social landscape long after their battlefield role vanished.   Though they were praised for their courage and skill, there is always a sense of dread in the writings about the gallowglass. They gave no quarter and in victory would run amok. Their brutality was typical for warfare of the time but they seem to be equally reviled by Irish and English writers. Such was their reputation that crown administrators were quick to deport any masterless swordsman during the Plantations for fear of renewed rebellion.   Their striking appearance and martial identity also entered wider cultural memory. Shakespeare alluded to gallowglasses in Macbeth, grouping them with other exotic fighters of the Gaelic world. Edmund Spenser, drawing on English fears of Irish “wildness,” used the image of a gallowglass to describe a monstrous giant in The Faerie Queene. Chroniclers noted the shock of English courtiers when Shane O’Neill appeared in London accompanied by his mailed gallowglass bodyguards, whose imposing stature and foreignness unsettled the Elizabethan court. To English settlers in Dublin, they embodied the dangers of a world beyond their experience. To the Gaelic Irish, by contrast, the gallowglass stood for continuity and strength, a mark of the Gaelic order that had endured in Ireland and the Scottish Highlands.