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  Hesiod (c. 750-650 BCE) is one of the earliest extant Greek poets. His most notable surviving works are Theogony, which describes the origins and genealogy of the gods and the universe, and Works and Days, which covers various subjects such as farming advice, mythical stories, mortality, religion, and the decline of humanity. Unlike his contemporary Homer, Hesiod wrote his poems and incorporated personal elements into his writings, reflecting on his life and worldview. Continue reading to learn more about Hesiod,  a key figure in establishing Greek mythology as we know it.   The Life of Hesiod: The Farmer The so-called “Pseudo-Seneca” is now considered an imaginative portrait bust of Hesiod, Unknown, 2nd century BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Hesiod was believed to be active between 750 and 650 BCE, making him a contemporary of the legendary poet Homer. In his poem, Works and Days, Hesiod offers some insights into his life, though these details are somewhat sporadic. His father hailed from Cyme in Aeolis, a city on Anatolia’s western coast in modern-day Turkey. Before Hesiod’s birth, his father migrated across the sea to mainland Greece. He settled on a farm in a small hamlet near Thespiae in Boeotia called Ascra, located on Mount Helicon, the home of the Muses. Hesiod appears to have disliked his hometown, describing it as a miserable place that is harsh in winter, sultry in summer, and pleasant at no time.   The Voices, by Gustave Moreau, 1880. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Hesiod had a brother named Perses, who is frequently mentioned in Hesiod’s Works and Days. After their father’s death, Hesiod and Perses divided their inheritance, but Perses wanted more. He bribed the local lords to judge in his favor and took the larger share of the inheritance. Ultimately, Perses squandered his inheritance and later returned to his brother, seeking help. However, instead of providing him with goods or property, Hesiod endeavored to teach his brother how to live a more moral and ethical life.   Photograph of Mount Zagaras, a peak on Mount Helicon, by GOFAS, 2010. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Although Hesiod frequently laments the poverty and hardships of farm work, his farm appears to have been relatively successful. He mentions employing several workers, including a friend, an energetic yet elderly plowman, an enslaved boy, female servants to clean his home, and multiple teams of oxen and mules.   Hesiod mentions that he once traveled to the island of Euboea to participate in the funeral celebrations of a man named Amphidamas from Chalcis. It is unclear whether he sailed anywhere else besides Euboea, as he expresses a dislike for sailing. Hesiod describes sailing as an endeavor unworthy of praise and struggles to understand why sailors and merchants willingly choose to journey across the sea.   The Life of Hesiod: The Rhapsode Hesiod and the Muses, by Gustave Moreau, 1860. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Hesiod invokes the Muses at the beginning of his poems and attributes his poetic skills to the goddess of inspiration. He claims that while tending to his sheep on the slopes of Mount Helicon, he met the nine Muses. During this encounter, they taught him how to compose poetry and instilled in him a divine voice to celebrate all things to come and those that have already passed. They then presented him with a laurel staff, symbolizing his authority as a poet.   Although scholars view this tale as fanciful, it implies that Hesiod was not a professionally trained poet known as a Rhapsode in ancient Greece. In contrast, professional epic poets typically received a lyre after training, not a staff. The notion that Hesiod was self-taught may help explain why his work differs from that of other rhapsodes, such as Homer.   Unlike Homer, Hesiod wrote down his poems, and scholars have speculated that he did this due to a lack of confidence or to assist his memory. In contrast, trained rhapsodes could perform thousands of lines of poetry from memory, using specific formulaic phrases, which made written texts unnecessary during recitals. Rhapsodes traditionally invoked the Muses at the beginning of their performances, seeking inspiration and guidance. Hesiod’s assertion that the Muses granted him a divine voice might have been a strategy to lend credibility to his poetry among his professionally trained peers.   Hesiod was a skilled performer despite his training, as demonstrated by his poems’ lasting impact and survival. He claims to have won first prize in a singing competition in Euboea, for which he received a tripod as a reward.   The Life of Hesiod: The Misogynist   Pandora, by Alexandre Cabanel, 1873. Source: The Walters Art Museum   Another aspect of Hesiod’s personality evident in his poetry is his misogyny. He believed that women were the greatest bane mankind had to contend with. Hesiod’s misogyny is most evident in his myth about the creation of the first woman, Pandora, in Works and Days. According to Hesiod, women were a punishment from the gods following Prometheus’s theft of fire.   Hesiod’s poetry expresses frustration that while men toil all day, women remain indoors and consume the resources earned through men’s hard work. He argues that a married man experiences only suffering and is driven to an early old age because of his spouse. He states that anyone who believes what women say is merely accepting the words of a cheater. He suggests that unless a woman stays home all day, one should question whether any children she gives birth to are his. Yet, Hesiod laments that it is better to marry than to avoid women, as those who remain unmarried grow old alone and without children to care for them.   Even Hesiod’s divine patrons, the Muses—goddesses of inspiration—are not exempt from his mistrust of women. At the beginning of the Theogony, Hesiod notes that the Muses assert they can present lies as truth and have the power to choose when to convey them. It is unclear how much of this misogyny was personal to Hesiod or reflected the broader societal views of his time; it is likely a combination of both.   The Life of Hesiod: Death Photograph of the Temple of Zeus in Nemea, by Dave Lazarus, 2016. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The exact circumstances surrounding Hesiod’s death remain unclear, but later ancient sources provide two different accounts regarding his demise and burial. In one version, the oracle of Delphi prophesied that Hesiod would die in Nemea. To escape this fate, he fled to Locris, where he was killed at the local temple dedicated to Nemean Zeus and subsequently buried there.   Another account claims that Hesiod died in his hometown of Ascra and was cremated. Later, the neighboring Thespians attacked the settlement, prompting the locals to flee to Orchomenus. Following the advice of an oracle, they took Hesiod’s ashes with them and placed them in the agora of Orchomenus. These stories emerged centuries after Hesiod’s death and are likely more fanciful than factual.   Works of Hesiod   Hesiod and the Muse, by Gustave Moreau, 1891. Source: Musée d’Orsay   Hesiod is primarily recognized for his two major poems, Theogony and Works and Days. In addition, several other works, such as The Shield of Heracles, The Catalogue of Women, and Astronomy, have been attributed to him. While Theogony and Works and Days are generally accepted as authentic, scholars question the authenticity of the other works and believe they were likely not composed by Hesiod. Hesiod employs dactylic hexameter, a rhythmic scheme characteristic of epic poetry, and uses the Ionian Greek dialect, similar to that of his contemporary, Homer.   Many core themes in Hesiod’s Theogony and Works and Days reflect Eastern myths and wisdom literature. The succession myth in Theogony is comparable to the Babylonian Enuma Elish and the Hittite Song of Kumarbi. At the same time, the wisdom literature in Works and Days resembles instructional texts from the Egyptian, Hebrew, Sumerian, and Babylonian traditions. The Eastern influence in Hesiod’s work is not unexpected, as Greek society experienced increased contact with the Near East through trade and migration during his time. Some scholars suggest that Hesiod may have heard these stories from his father, who was originally from Anatolia in the Near East.   The Theogony  The ceiling of the Room of the Giants depicting the Olympian gods in Palazzo Te, by Mantua, Giulio Romano, 1532-1534. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Hesiod’s Theogony, just over 1,000 lines long, outlines the origins and genealogies of the gods, beginning with the creation of the cosmos and the primordial deities leading up to the Olympian gods. A central theme in the poem is the succession myth, which illustrates the violent cycle of one generation overthrowing another divine ruler for supreme control.   The poem includes significant aetiological myths that explain religious rites, such as the origin of animal sacrifices and cosmic phenomena, including the significance of Delphi. The poem also explores themes of justice embodied in Zeus, establishing the divine order of the cosmos. Additionally, it features an extensive genealogical catalog that lists approximately 300 names of various gods, monsters, and heroes.   Summary of the Theology Chaos, by George Frederic Watts and Assistants, 1875. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Hesiod begins by invoking the Muses to inspire his account of the origins of the gods and the universe.   Hesiod then describes the origins of the Cosmos. He states that in the beginning, there was a void known as Chaos (Chasm), and from Chaos emerged Gaia (Earth), Tartarus (the abyss beneath the Earth), and Eros (Desire). Next, from Chaos came Erebus (Darkness) and Nyx (Night), who together would give rise to Aether (Brightness) and Hemera (Day). From Gaia, Uranus (Sky), the Ourea (Mountains), and Pontus (Sea) would emerge.   Uranus became the supreme ruler of the cosmos and, together with Gaia, fathered the Hecatoncheires (the “Hundred-Handers”), the Cyclopes, and the original twelve Titans: Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Cronus; Thea, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, and Tethys. Paranoid that his children would usurp his power, Uranus imprisoned them in Tartarus, angering Gaia. She conspired with Cronos, the youngest Titan, who castrated Uranus and overthrew him. From Uranus’s severed genitalia and blood, the Erinyes (Furies), the Giants, and the Meliae (Nymphs) emerged from the earth, and from the sea came Aphrodite.   Meanwhile, Nyx gives birth to several deities, including Thanatos (Death), Hypnos (Sleep), and Eris (Discord). Eris would later have numerous children who embodied suffering and turmoil. In addition, Pontus fathers Nereus, the father of the Nereid sea nymphs, and Phorcys and Ceto, who give birth to the Gorgons, the Graiae, and Echidna. Together with Typhon, Echidna gave birth to many monsters, including the Hydra, Cerberus, and the Chimera.     The Fall of the Titans, by Cornelis van Haarlem, 1588-1590. Source: Statens Museum for Kunst   Now in power, the Titans began to pair off among themselves and had a new generation of children. Oceanus and Tethys gave birth to the Potamoi (River gods) and the Oceanid nymphs. Hyperion and Theia had three children: Helios (the Sun), Selene (the Moon), and Eos (the Dawn). From Iapetus and Clymene came the Titan Prometheus, who later tricked Zeus and established how humans should sacrifice to the gods. Cronus and Rhea had the six original Olympian gods: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus.   Like his father, Cronus feared his children would overthrow him, so he swallowed each newborn. Rhea, however, managed to save her youngest son, Zeus. She tricked Cronus into swallowing a stone wrapped in a swaddling blanket instead of the baby and hid them in a cave on Crete. After growing up, Zeus rescued his siblings, freed the Cyclopes and Hecatoncheires from Tartarus, and overthrew Cronus after the long war known as the Titanomachy. Zeus imprisoned Cronus in Tartarus and became the new supreme ruler of the cosmos. Zeus battles Typhon, the multi-headed serpent monster and last child of Gaia, and is nearly overthrown by Typhon before ultimately triumphing.   Jupiter & Thetis, by Dominique Ingres, 1811. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Zeus and the Olympians had several children through marriages and affairs with each other, nymphs, Titans, and mortals, resulting in the second generation of Olympians: Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Ares, Hermes, and Dionysus. Zeus married six times before his final wife, Hera, and had multiple children besides the Olympians. With his second wife, the Titaness Themis (personification of Law), he had children who maintained cosmic order and justice, including the Horae (Seasons), and the three Moirai (Fates).   Hesiod bids farewell to the Olympians and presents a list of the children of goddesses who slept with mortal men. He concludes with a list of heroic children born to mortal women, however, this last list is widely considered an inauthentic addition added later.   Works and Days  Hesiod Admonishing Perses, by William Blake, 1817. Source: The William Blake Archive   Hesiod’s The Works and Days is an 800-line poem composed after Theogony. In this work, Hesiod references his earlier poem and corrects his earlier claim regarding the number of figures representing Strife. In Theogony, he states that there is one figure of Strife, but in The Works and Days, he asserts that there are two.   Unlike Theogony, a narrative poem, The Works and Days is a didactic poem designed to teach important lessons about moral behavior. It includes proverbial maxims and offers advice on various topics, ranging from farming to religion. The poem centers on Hesiod advising his brother Perses, who represents the audience, on living a life of honesty and hard work.   Hesiod also weaves myths into the poem, including the myth of Pandora and Prometheus and the tale of the five races. Through these myths, he outlines the current state of the world and explains why humanity has to work for survival and adhere to religious rites, divine order, and justice.   Summary of the Works and Days Pandora, by John William Waterhouse, 1896. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The opening begins with Hesiod invoking the Muses and praising Zeus. He then addresses his lazy brother, explaining that he will teach him the value of hard work. Hesiod describes two types of strife in the world: the Good Strife, which inspires hard work, and the Bad Strife, which leads to conflict and cruelty. He urges his brother to reject the Bad Strife and embrace the Good Strife.   Hesiod explains the origins of hard work and human suffering by recounting the myth of Prometheus and Pandora. Zeus had hidden fire from humanity, but Prometheus stole it from the king of the gods and gave it to mortals. When Zeus discovers Prometheus’s betrayal, he allows humans to keep fire but punishes them by sending Pandora, the first woman.   The gods endowed Pandora with various gifts to entice men, including a jar she was instructed not to open. Ultimately, she disobeyed their warning and opened the jar, unleashing sickness, death, old age, and many other curses upon the mortal world. The only thing left inside the jar was hope, and thereafter, humanity was forced to suffer and work for survival.   Hesiod recounts humanity’s gradual decline through the myth of the five races. The first was the Golden Age, during which people lived among the gods in peace, free from work, under the rule of Cronus. The second age, the Silver Age, began when Zeus took over. In this period, humans were weaker and lived only briefly as adults. Their recklessness led them to abandon the worship of the gods, resulting in their destruction.   The Golden Age, by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1530. Source: Cranach Digital Archive   The third age was the Bronze Age, which was characterized by violence. People fought among themselves and ultimately destroyed one another. The fourth age, the Heroic Age, saw the rise of Greek heroes and significant events such as the Trojan War. Finally, the fifth age, the Iron Age, which corresponds to Hesiod’s time, is marked by toil, suffering, and moral decline.   Hesiod emphasizes the importance of living a just life and working hard, warning that Zeus rewards the just and punishes the unjust. He uses the parable of the Hawk and the Nightingale to illustrate the unjust abuse of power.   After this, Hesiod provides guidance on proper religious behavior and how to treat others. He then offers advice on various farming techniques, including practical tips on when and how to farm throughout the year. Recommendations on sailing and additional social and religious guidance follow this.   The final section includes a detailed calendar that outlines the best days for certain activities, such as marriage or business. However, many consider this section a later addition to the poem rather than part of Hesiod’s original work.   The Significance of Hesiod Hesiod and the Muse, by Gustave Moreau, 1870. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Hesiod played a pivotal role in shaping Greek mythology as we recognize it today. Through his works, Theogony and Works and Days, he influenced ancient and contemporary readings of Greek mythology and ancient life. Hesiod was believed to have been active between 750 and 650 BCE, making him a contemporary of Homer, the composer of the Iliad and the Odyssey, whose work also contributed significantly to what we now recognize as Greek mythology.   The influence of Homer and Hesiod on Greek myth is unquestionable. The ancient historian Herodotus wrote that Homer and Hesiod were responsible for teaching the Greeks about the genealogy of the gods, giving the gods their names, establishing their spheres of influence and their functions, and describing their physical appearances. Both poets employed dactylic hexameter, but their works have notable differences. Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey are epic narratives that do not allow for personal revelations from their creator. These Homeric epics were primarily oral traditions passed down from one performer to another, which made them prone to changes and deviations from the original story with each retelling. Consequently, the details regarding Homer’s identity, existence, and life remain a mystery, leading many to believe that multiple Homers contributed to these works.     Hesiod and the Muse, by Gustave Moreau, 1857. Source: Harvard Art Museums   Hesiod employed epic narrative in his poetry while also incorporating didactic poetry, which aims to both entertain and instruct audiences on important moral lessons through various themes and stories. This method enabled him to include personal references in his work and, to a certain degree, utilize his own voice to communicate his intended lessons effectively. Hesiod’s poetry provides us with significant insight into his life. Additionally, he was among the first individuals of his time to write down his poetry. Unlike the ongoing scholarly debate over whether there was one or multiple poets named Homer, we have concrete information about Hesiod, including details about his birthplace, that he had a father and brother, and insights into his worldviews.   Many consider Hesiod the first poet in the Western tradition to see himself as an individual who played an active role in his subject matter. His poems carry a unique and personal voice unseen in Homer. There is considerable debate about the validity of Hesiod’s work. However, his poems allow us to gain insight into his character through which we learn that he was a misogynist, fearful of sailing, discontented with his hometown, and outspoken on topics ranging from religion to farming and the nature of existence.

  It is well known that large numbers of Irish settlers migrated to western Britain, especially western Wales, during the early Dark Ages. This was mostly after, but some also before, the fall of Roman Britain. They managed to establish a relatively long-lasting kingdom in Dyfed, southwest Wales, and an even more significant Irish kingdom at Dal Riada in western Scotland. However, it appears that there was another Irish kingdom, albeit only a temporary one, in Dark Age Britain, which has been largely forgotten today.   The Life of Saint Efflam Depiction of Saint Efflam in Carnoet, Brittany, c. 18th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Historia Brittonum, written in c. 830, informs us that the Irish settled various parts of western Britain in the late Roman and early Post-Roman periods. Medieval Irish texts corroborate this. Archaeology further confirms it, showing the presence of Irish inscriptions on memorial stones that were evidently used by the elite class in various parts of Wales.   It is in this historical context that the Life of St Efflam is set. This is a hagiography, or religious biography, of a figure known as Saint Efflam. As hagiographies go, this is a relatively early one, being written in either the 11th or the 12th century. The account claims that Efflam was the son of an Irish king. It leaves the name of this king unstated, and it also does not specify which kingdom he ruled over. Fortunately, there is a Breton ballad that provides some extra information. It states that Efflam’s father was a king of Demetia. Brittany was an area in which Efflam was influential, which is why we find information about him from there.   Folio 33r from Jesus College MS 20 showing the ancestry of Brychan through his mother Marchell, c. 14th century. Source: Bodleian Library, Oxford   Demetia is the Latin name for Dyfed, the kingdom of southwest Wales. As already mentioned, this was a Dark Age Irish kingdom, at least until c. 500. However, the term “Demetia” was sometimes used to refer to South Wales in general. This is important since there was another Irish kingdom in South Wales in the Dark Ages. This was the kingdom of Brycheiniog. Its first king was Anlach, an Irish prince who had married a Brythonic princess named Marchell. Instead of being the son of one of the kings of Dyfed, Efflam could just as easily have been the son of Anlach.   Interestingly, this suggestion leads to the possibility that there was another Irish kingdom in Dark Age Britain, which has largely been forgotten. The reason is that the Life of St Efflam states that Efflam’s father fought against another Irish king. On the other hand, another version of his life, by Albert Le Grand, says that this other king ruled in Britain. Examining the available information about Anlach, this leads us to a very interesting conclusion.   Anlach: The Likely Father of Saint Efflam Folio 33r from Jesus College MS 20 showing Cynog the son of Brychan and the daughter of Banadl, c. 14th century. Source: Bodleian Library, Oxford   Anlach is recorded in the Cognatio Brychan and the De Situ Brecheniauc as fighting against a king named Banadl of Powys. Eventually, the two kings made peace. At some point, Anlach sent his son, Brychan, to the court of King Banadl. Subsequently, Brychan had relations with Banadl’s daughter.   The reason that this is so interesting is because this is a very close match for what the Life of St Efflam says about Efflam’s father. As we have seen, since he was an Irish king but apparently based in South Wales, he can only have been a king of Dyfed or Brycheiniog. Anlach was a king of Brycheiniog. Just like Anlach, Efflam’s father is said to have warred against a king for years until eventually making peace. He then sent his son to his former enemy’s court, and this son then married that king’s daughter.   Given the strong similarities between these stories and the fact that they are set at the same time, we can likely identify Efflam’s unnamed father with Anlach. At least, no other attested king from that era is recorded as matching the description of Efflam’s father so well.   Was King Banadl of Powys an Irish King? Map showing the location of Powys, the territory of Banadl. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The reason that this is significant is because the early Life of St Efflam states that the enemy of Efflam’s father was an Irish king. If Efflam’s father really was Anlach, then this would mean that Banadl, the king of Powys who fought against Anlach, was apparently Irish. The fact that Albert Le Grand’s much later version of Efflam’s life states that Efflam’s father’s enemy ruled in Britain is consistent with this identification.   This is a fascinating conclusion since Powys is not normally included in considerations of the Irish kingdoms of Dark Age Britain. Is there any supporting evidence for the conclusion that Banadl of Powys was Irish? Interestingly, there are a number of online sources that state that Banadl was an Irish usurper. Yet despite this positive assertion, Banadl does not explicitly appear outside of the two aforementioned documents describing Anlach’s wars, and these documents do not call Banadl Irish. However, this does not mean that there is no evidence for this statement. In fact, there is good reason to believe it.   Eglwys Sant Garmon, St Garmon’s Church, Denbighshire, dedicated to Germanus who defeated King Benlli. Source: Eirian Evans via Geograph   It is difficult to track down the source for the claim that Banadl was an Irish usurper. However, it appears that this ultimately comes from the identification of Banadl with a king mentioned in the Historia Brittonum. This king appears in that document with the name “Benlli.” For a number of reasons, the identification of these two kings does seem reasonable.   The account of Benlli is set during Germanus’ activities in Britain. As scholars have established, this was Garmon, the bishop of the Isle of Man, not Germanus of Auxerre, as popularly believed. Hence, Benlli evidently ruled in Powys in the late 5th or early 6th century. This would fit very well with Banadl, the enemy of Anlach.   As well as ruling at the same time and in the same place, their names are obviously similar. “Benlli” can reasonably be understood as a shortened form of “Banadl.” Many instances of such shortenings of names are seen in the medieval manuscripts. One attested variant of Benlli’s name, “Benty,” may well preserve the ‘d’ from the name “Banadl.”   The Irish Kings of Powys View from Ben Nevis overlooking the territory of Dal Riada, from where Benlli allegedly came. Source: Copyright Caleb Howells   Why has the identification of Benlli with Anlach’s enemy Banadl apparently led to the claim that Banadl was an Irish king? There are a number of reasons to believe that Benlli was Irish. For one thing, the account in which he appears in the Historia Brittonum heavily implies that Benlli and his subjects were pagan. Since Christianity had already spread throughout much of Britain by c. 500, this favors the conclusion that Benlli, King of Powys, was Irish rather than a native Briton.   Furthermore, in one manuscript version of the Historia Brittonum, King Benlli is actually said to have reigned in “Dalreatae” or “Dalrieta,” that is, Dal Riada. This is known to have been an Irish kingdom. Therefore, this manuscript evidently preserves a tradition that King Benlli was from that Irish kingdom. The presence of a king from Dal Riada so far south seems unusual. It may be related to the Welsh tradition that King Arthur fought Rhita Gawr in Gwynedd, northwest Wales, since Rhita is likely identifiable as Domangart Reti of Dal Riada.   Wroxeter Stone inscription, c. 460-475. Source: University College London   There is yet more evidence that Benlli, and thus his apparent alter ego Banadl, was an Irish king. As we noted earlier, archaeology supports the Historia Brittonum’s claim that the Irish settled much of western and southern Wales. However, we find some of the same archaeological evidence in Powys. Just as we find apparently elite burial monuments inscribed with Irish ogham text in Dyfed, we find the same in Powys.   One example is the Wroxeter Stone. It is also known as the Cunorix Stone. It dates to the second half of the 5th century, possibly near the start of Benlli’s reign or even before it. It is dedicated to a certain Cunorix, described as the son of Maqui Coline. This is a form of a name later attested in Irish as Macc-Cuilinn. Wroxeter was a prominent and important Roman city in the territory of Powys. Hence, this inscription strongly supports the conclusion that Powys was ruled by an Irish elite class in this period.   The Forgotten Irish Kingdom of Powys in Dark Age Britain Roman ruins of Wroxeter, one of the principal cities of early medieval Powys. Source: David Dixon via Geograph   In conclusion, although we cannot be dogmatic about it, the evidence does appear to support the conclusion that Powys was a generally forgotten Irish kingdom in Dark Age Britain. The Historia Brittonum presents us with a king of Powys named Benlli, who was evidently a pagan. Based on this and the manuscript, which makes him a king of Dal Riada, it would seem that he was Irish. This is supported by archaeological evidence for Irish elites in Powys in that same era.   However, we can also support this by arguing that Benlli should be identified as Banadl. Since they lived at the same time, ruled over the same territory, and had similar names, this identification seems likely. The fact that Anlach is recorded as fighting Banadl is significant in view of the argument that Anlach was Efflam’s father, who was recorded as fighting an Irish king in Britain. Even if these identifications are rejected, the aforementioned evidence concerning Benlli and the archaeology of Powys stands on its own.

  Captain Kidd was one of many notorious pirates that operated during the 17th century “Golden Age of Piracy.” Legend has it he hid his treasure, intending to come back to it, but was stopped short when the law caught up with him. So where is this alleged treasure, and if people know where it is, has someone retrieved it? Just off of the town East Hampton, New York is Gardiner’s Island, named after the family that has owned it since 1693. Six years later William Kidd sailed there in June and with permission of the Gardiner family buried what amounted to a box of gold, two of silver in a ravine. He gave a gift of cloth and sugar to the family as thanks saying he would be back for it.   Buried Treasure: illustration of William “Captain” Kidd overseeing a treasure burial, by Howard Pyle. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While this is a confirmed treasure burial, there are rumors of other buried treasure that Kidd hid on other islands and areas he visited. This includes near the Rahway River in New Jersey. No, there is no treasure map with a special x marking the spot. Nor is he the only pirate or thief who had allegedly buried treasure and gold for later. It has driven many to seek out their fortune as treasure hunters.   What Is Captain Kidd’s Background? William Kidd, privateer, pirate. 18th century portrait by Sir James Thornhill, 1750. Source: Wikimedia Commons   William Kidd was born around 1645 in Greenock, Scotland. Outside of this not much is known about his background. The general consensus seems to be that he was at sea at a very early age. At the time it wasn’t unusual for youth to serve as cabin boys between 12-16 years old on ships. They would carry out tasks like cleaning, fetching and moving supplies, steering, and rigging. They were often children who had very little other options, they were either orphans or came from impoverished families.   Pirates of the Eastern Seas (1618-1723), A Lurid Page of History by Charles Grey. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Kidd eventually became a Captain and was a privateer – a person that commits piracy on behalf of the government against enemy ships. This often took place during times of war. Unlike regular pirates, privateers are taxed on the goods or money they get from their raids. They can only keep a small portion of what they receive, while the rest goes to the commissioner. Their job turns nasty when privateers don’t stop after the government asks them to cease activities when peace is established again.   Kidd was a privateer for the Earl of Bellmont, who was the governor of New York, Massachusetts Bay, and New Hampshire. His job was to take down French ships and pirates that were in the Indian Ocean aboard the ship, Adventure Galley, eventually capturing the Quedagh Merchant. However, it was deemed he was a pirate upon his return to Bellomont.   What Adventures Did Captain Kidd Have? Captain Kidd in New York Harbor, by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, c. 1920. Source: Library of Congress   Not all events during Kidd’s pirating spell were positive. During his initial trip, a third of his crew died from disease, especially cholera. The already decimated crew became even more disheartened with the rugged condition of the ship and that they didn’t find many French ships or pirates to attack. Mutiny was mentioned by those that stayed although throughout his time many abandoned him.   At one point Kidd killed one of his crewmen, a gunner named William Moore who wanted to attack a Dutch ship. Kidd refused as that would have been an act of piracy. They got into a fight and apparently Kidd dropped a heavy bucket on Moore’s head. Moore died the next day. While captains were allowed to be violent to their crew up to a point, killing was a against the law.   Why Did Kidd Never Return for His Treasure? Hanging of Captain Kidd, 1837. Source: Library of Congress   Kidd ran into some trouble when he was no longer able to claim being a privateer. The capture of the Quedagh Merchant, which was being used by Armenian merchants to transport goods from Indiana including satin, cloth, gold, and silver, was outside of his job, and officials claimed Kidd to be a pirate. Others were under order to find and capture Captain Kidd and his crew.   A cigarette card of Captain Kidd, from Heritage Images / Getty Images. Source: ThoughtCo.   Kidd had found out that he was wanted as a pirate. He made arrangements to be on a different ship, sold the stolen items and hid his treasure to be used as way to negotiate his freedom. He went to Governor Bellomont believing he was going to grant him clemency. Instead, as a way to save his own neck and keep at arm’s length from Kidd, Bellomont lured him to him so he could turn him over to England.   Kidd was arrested July 6, 1699. The conditions of the prison he was in were terrible, and he was there for two years before his trial. He had defense lawyers, although due to a funding error he only gained defense on the day of the trial with no preparation. He was charged with murder and piracy, and sentenced to death. Kidd faced public execution by hanging on May 23, 1701 in London. His body was left on display by the river as a warning for future pirates.   Has Anyone Tried to Find Kidd’s Treasure? Gardiner’s Island. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Kidd’s treasure which he buried on Gardiner Island did not remain secret for long. As the Gardiner family knew where it was buried, they were able to give it to authorities upon Kidd’s arrest and trial. That treasure is no longer there, unless more was secretly buried on it that the family took to their grave. Legends of other pirates hiding their treasure has persisted over the years. In his book, Treasure Island, Robert Louis Stevenson used many real-life examples of pirates who buried their treasure in a similar way to Captain Kidd.   However, despite the many rumors, Captain Kidd’s treasure is the only pirate stash that has been officially confirmed and found. Often the treasure was spent for goods or gambling, taken back by authorities, or sank to the bottom of the ocean on ships during storms or battles. Considering how long it took to find the Titanic, where there was a large but specific search area, the likelihood of finding sunken treasure for most is unobtainable. The ship that Kidd captured, the Quedagh Merchant, was believed to have been found in December of 2007 near the Dominican Republic.