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One of the most notorious "forever chemicals" is perfluorooctanoic acid or PFOA. By their very design‚ these substances are extremely difficult to degrade‚ which makes them very useful in industrial applications but also bad for our health and the environment as they tend to accumulate.A couple of years ago‚ researchers worked out that using boron nitride – which is commercially used in cosmetics – and exposing it to ultraviolet (UV) radiation at 254 nanometers‚ could destroy 99 percent of PFOA in a water sample. A fantastic result but one that required improvements. “That was great because PFOA is an increasingly problematic pollutant that’s really hard to destroy‚” Michael Wong‚ from Rice University and corresponding author of the research‚ said in a statement. “But it was also less than ideal because the boron nitride was activated by short-wave UV‚ and the atmosphere filters out almost all of the short-wave UV from sunlight. We wanted to push as much as possible boron nitride’s ability to access energy from other wavelengths of sunlight.”As reported in the study‚ the solution to that thorny problem was to employ titanium dioxide‚ another common chemical that is used in substances like sunscreen. Titanium dioxide is activated by the UV light that can penetrate the ozone layer and it can break down PFOA but very slowly compared to the very efficient boron nitride.The team created a composite of boron nitride and titanium dioxide and discovered that they had a substance with the best of both worlds. It was activated by the UV light in the atmosphere and it was capable of destroying PFOA very quickly. In deionized water‚ it took less than three hours to break down 99 percent of the PFOA into carbon dioxide‚ fluorine‚ and minerals. In salty water‚ the process takes about nine hours.The team will now investigate how good this substance is at breaking down other perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) – the broader class of forever chemicals. Recent reviews of their chemistry highlight just how little we know about them.The study is published in the Chemical Engineering Journal.An earlier version of this article was published in July 2022.

The next time you sit down to tackle a jigsaw puzzle‚ bring your calculator – you just might need it.Math kind of has a reputation for being a dry topic‚ suitable only for boffins and… uh… FBI agents? But the truth is‚ mathematicians are fun‚ cool people‚ who enjoy maximally efficient parties and humorous wordplay just like the rest of us.And what’s the most badass thing a person can do? That’s right: jigsaws. So it’s no wonder that mathematicians have turned their attention to the pastime‚ offering up an answer to the question plaguing puzzlers the world over: exactly how large of a table do you need to put your ‘saw on?    Well‚ okay – technically‚ it wasn’t mathematicians‚ rather one biophysicist and one experimental quantum physicist. “My husband and I were doing a jigsaw puzzle one day‚” Madeleine Bonsma-Fisher‚ a postdoc at the University of Toronto‚ told New Scientist‚ “and I just wondered if you could estimate the area that the pieces take up before you put the puzzle together.” The result: a neat little paper‚ barely six pages long‚ which takes the concept of optimal circle packing and applies it to your grandma’s favorite rainy-day activity. (It’s worth noting that while only a preprint‚ and therefore not peer-reviewed‚ the geometry calculations used in the paper are pretty basic and unlikely to be incorrect.)“People have been interested in arranging circles in 2D for a long time‚” Bonsma-Fisher told Popular Mechanics‚ “and it’s now known that arranging circles in a hexagonal lattice is the tightest possible way to arrange them on a 2D surface‚ where the goal is to have the smallest spaces possible between circles.”“This is also the reason why honeycombs are shaped the way they are‚” she pointed out. “[B]ees actually make circular cells‚ but these get squished into a hexagonal lattice‚ [which is] the most efficient way to squish circles together.”The idea is this: for a table to contain every piece of a jigsaw puzzle‚ it should be big enough to fit that number of circles across it. That might sound strange – after all‚ jigsaw pieces are generally not circular – but there’s a method in the madness: the Bonsma-Fishers are looking not for the absolute minimum area needed to fit all pieces‚ but “the area the pieces take up when you don’t pay much attention to piece orientation or position‚” she explained.It’s less efficient‚ space-wise‚ but it makes more sense for a human puzzle-solver. By considering each piece as a circle rather than some closer approximation‚ there’s room for us to rotate‚ move‚ or swap out various pieces – and actually‚ y’know‚ solve the thing.So‚ what’s the answer? Well‚ it pretty much comes down to that hexagonal tiling pattern. If we draw it out‚ we can see that each hexagon has an area approximately three times that of one circular “puzzle piece” – there’s the complete one in the middle‚ and then six thirds around the edge.Circles packed in a hexagonal packing arrangement.Image Credit: Inductiveload‚ Public domain‚ via Wikimedia CommonsNow‚ the area of a regular hexagon is 3√3/2 times d2‚ where d is the length of the sides. So what’s d? Well‚ we can see from the diagram that it’s the diameter of one of the circles – or‚ in puzzle piece terms‚ the diagonal across one piece.Assuming each piece is (roughly) a square‚ then‚ that d will be the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle with two equal shorter sides of length √(Area of entire puzzle/Number of puzzle pieces). Using the Pythagorean theorem‚ this means that d2 is equal to twice the area of the puzzle divided by the number of pieces.Pythagoras's Theorem states that a^2 + b^2 = c^2 ... or in this case‚ d^2.Image credit: Leonardo Da Vinci‚ Public Domain‚ Edited By IFLScienceThe total amount of space needed‚ then‚ is equal to the number of pieces N times the area of one piece. That piece‚ if you remember‚ is approximately one-third of the area of one hexagon in this lattice configuration – which‚ in turn‚ is equal to 3√3/2 times d2. In other words‚For those taking notes.Image Credit: IFLScienceThe final answer: root 3. “The area of the unassembled puzzle is simply √3 times the area of the assembled puzzle‚ independent of the number of pieces‚” write the Bonsma-Fishers in their paper.Just to make sure‚ the couple verified their formula on nine puzzles‚ ranging from a 9-piece to a 2000-piece. It worked perfectly: “We found close agreement between realistic measurements and our theoretical prediction across a wide range of puzzle areas and numbers of pieces‚” the pair wrote‚ before presenting photographic evidence of a completed 1008-piece jigsaw puzzle.So‚ now we know: if you want enough space for all your jigsaw pieces‚ make sure your surface is about 1.73 times the area of your puzzle – although “if you really want to lay all your pieces out flat and be comfortable‚” Bonsma-Fisher told New Scientist‚ “your table should be a little over twice as big as your sample puzzle.”The paper can be found on the ArXiV.

More things than you would think fall out of the sky at seemingly random intervals. Pieces of meteorite in Germany and frozen igunanas have all hit the deck in the not-too-distant past. Now‚ however‚ 200 parrots have dropped from the skies‚ and scientists aren’t quite sure why.In northern New South Wales‚ Australia‚ around 200 rainbow lorikeets (Trichoglossus moluccanus) dropped from the skies near Grafton. The birds were swiftly rescued and taken to wildlife centers to be cared for; however it is thought that 40 percent of the birds won’t survive their illness. It seems the parrots were suffering from an illness known as Lorikeet Paralysis Syndrome (LPS)‚ causing varying degrees of paralysis in their legs and wings. What is baffling to scientists is that the disease has no known trigger‚ so it is difficult to work out why these birds were suddenly affected and in such high numbers. "It's a significant animal welfare issue and crisis. These animals suffer terribly before they die or get killed by a cat or a possum finds them‚" David Phalen‚ a professor of wildlife health and conservation at the University of Sydney‚ who works on the Lorikeet Paralysis Syndrome Project‚ told ABC.This is not the first time such a incident has happened‚ with birds regularly having to be cared for and nursed back to health in wildlife centers‚ especially in the months of December‚ January‚ and February — the Australian summer.           IFLScience is not responsible for content shared from external sites."A lot of them don't make it because when they come in‚ they are underweight and malnourished and very sick birds‚" said Robyn Gray‚ the Clarence Valley avian coordinator for the Wildlife Information‚ Rescue and Education Service (WIRES). While researchers and scientists have been looking into the disease since it was first identified in 2010‚ as yet no environmental element or pathogen has been identified as the cause. "We've got professors in Sydney‚ Currumbin and Australia Zoo‚ Sydney Uni‚ all testing them and no one can really give a definitive answer‚” continued Gray. According to Animalia‚ rainbow lorikeets mainly eat nectar from flowers‚ but will also consume berries and fruits as well as visiting garden feeders. One theory suggested that the birds were getting drunk on fermented fruit such as mangoes‚ which was causing them to fall from the sky‚ but this has been debunked. However‚ the possibility that a toxin in pesticides could be causing the LPS is still being considered. "We have tested for alcohol‚ and we have not found any alcohol in their system‚ and the signs we are seeing are not consistent with alcohol poisoning‚" said Phalen.Further testing on pesticides and toxins on the fruit has yet to reveal any conclusive cause. Since the paralysis typically occurs during set months‚ others believe it could be something within the fruit that causes this disease‚ creating a pathogen or substance toxic to the parrots as it ripens."Not all fruits they're eating are necessarily toxic‚ so it could be a toxin forming inside them‚ possibly because the [fruit is] going off‚" Phalen said. "We still think there might be some toxins out there that we haven't tested for and that will be the focus of our investigation this year."According to the Queensland Government‚ the lorikeets might not be the only animals affected by this problem. A species of bat known as the flying fox (genus: Pteropus) are also being found on the ground‚ presenting wildlife veterinarians with similar symptoms. "Basically‚ bats are the lorikeets of the night‚" Jane Hall‚ wildlife health project officer at Taronga Conservation Society Australian told Scientific American. “Whatever the lorikeets are feeding on in the daytime‚ the bats are feeding on in the nighttime. So it’s really interesting that the bats are presenting with similar clinical signs.”Whatever the cause of this horrible and mysterious illness‚ we hope the researchers are able to find it soon. 

The waters of the St. Lawrence River are flowing with antidepressants‚ simulants‚ painkillers‚ and many other kinds of drugs‚ according to a new study. Scientists have recently studied the pharmaceutical pollution of the river and concluded that some of the compounds could pose a threat to the aquatic organisms living in the environment. The entire St. Lawrence River system is 3‚058 kilometers (1‚900 miles) long‚ starting in Canada’s Lake Ontario and traversing through Ontario‚ Quebec‚ and the US state of New York. In this new study‚ researchers at Université de Montréal collected over 400 water samples along a 700-kilometer (434-mile) stretch of the river between 2017 and 2021.The most recurrent substances were caffeine‚ diclofenac (an anti-inflammatory painkiller)‚ and venlafaxine (an antidepressant). Carbamazepine (an epilepsy treatment) and acebutolol (a beta blocker to treat hypertension and arrhythmia) were widely detected in the water samples. They also found lower levels of chemotherapy drugs and antibiotics. The team was particularly worried about the concentrations of four compounds — caffeine‚ carbamazepine‚ diclofenac‚ and ibuprofen — which they believe are high enough to impact the growth and reproduction of animals living in the river system.“Some concentrations exceeded toxicity thresholds for long-term exposure in aquatic life‚ but for most pharmaceutical compounds‚ there are currently no Canadian environmental standards‚” Marc-Antoine Vaudreuil‚ lead study author and doctoral student at Université de Montréal‚ said in a statement. “With the exception of carbamazepine‚ most of the compounds do not cause immediate harm‚ because they degrade fairly rapidly. However‚ it appears that chronic exposure can be very toxic‚ especially to organisms in the early stages of growth‚ such as newly hatched fish‚” added Vaudreuil.Map of North America showing the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River.Image credit: Pinpin/Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA 4.0 DEED)Many of the drugs entered the river via wastewater after being secreted in people's pee. Researchers have previously shown how rivers near outdoor music festivals are loaded with substances like MDMA and cocaine due to drug use and public urination. Alternatively‚ some of the compounds in the St. Lawrence likely entered the water system due to improper disposal.In this latest study‚ the most startling concentrations of drugs were identified downstream of Montreal‚ the largest city in Canada's Québec province with a sizeable population. The contamination from the city extended all the way to Lac Saint-Pierre‚ some 70 kilometers (43 miles) downstream.“It’s amazing that there are still traces so far from Montreal‚” said Sauvé. “We would expect more contamination in the immediate vicinity of the island given that the city has a population of two million and only one wastewater treatment plant to treat 900 billion liters of water per year.”The good news is that Montreal is planning to add ozonation technology to its wastewater treatment facilities‚ which will remove up to 80 percent of pharmaceuticals.However‚ this problem isn't isolated to this single North American river. Other studies have identified similar issues in Europe and Australia. In the rivers of Suffolk in eastern England‚ scientists found notable levels of cocaine‚ ketamine‚ Valium‚ Xanax‚ and tramadol in the bodies of freshwater shrimp that inhabit the ecosystem. Once again‚ drug-laced pee was a prime suspect. The new study is published in the journal Science of The Total Environment.

European hedgehogs might be a popular garden visitor‚ but having to share space with humans can sometimes put them at risk‚ including from the smart tech that keeps our lawns looking tidy. New research has highlighted how some robotic lawnmowers could cause harm to hedgehogs‚ but thankfully‚ it’s also come up with a creative safety test solution.That solution came in the form of a hedgehog “crash test dummy”. Developed by a team led by Dr Sophie Lund Rasmussen from the University of Oxford‚ the dummy is made from a soft rubbery plastic that’s designed to mimic the squishy body of a real hedgehog – and of course‚ its iconic spines.To create a safety test using this dummy‚ it was first important to determine how hedgehogs reacted when faced with a robotic lawnmower. Working in an enclosed environment with rescued hedgehogs that were now ready for release‚ the research team tested the responses of hedgehogs to a bladeless robotic lawnmower that was stopped 50 centimeters (20 inches) away.The test setup for the encounter tests between live hedgehogs and a disarmed robotic lawnmower‚ which was stopped before reaching the hedgehogs.Image credit: Sophie Lund RasmussenThey found that the creatures either ran away‚ stood in front of the lawnmower slightly curled up‚ or started sniffing it. From this‚ the researchers could identify the best positions to put the hedgehog crash test dummy in to safety test a robotic mower‚ with the test itself then revealing if the device could avoid a hedgehog and if not‚ the level of damage it would cause to the animal. "Cut injuries from robotic lawnmowers are placing an enormous burden on many hedgehog care centres and using up important resources‚ as these injuries often require above-average care and treatment‚” said study co-author Dr Anne Berger in a statement. “Moreover‚ the majority of hedgehogs with cut injuries are found days or weeks after the accident happened and therefore have to endure considerable suffering‚ pain and harm until they are found.” It’s hoped that the new safety test will lead to the development of more hedgehog-friendly robotic lawnmowers‚ something that Dr Rasmussen told IFLScience is already in the works.”Our research has identified a potential threat to the hedgehogs‚ as some models of robotic lawn mowers – but not all – can be harmful to hedgehogs. Therefore‚ we have formed collaborations with industry partners to find solutions to this challenge by designing hedgehog-friendly robotic lawn mowers based on the knowledge gained through the research‚” the researcher explained.With hedgehog numbers having been in decline for a while‚ this research hopefully comes as the start of some good news for these firm favorites of the European garden. The two studies describing the findings are published in the journal Animals‚ here and here.

Archaeologists have discovered a complete mosaic Maya jade mask bearing an uncanny resemblance to the one Jim Carrey sported in the 1994 film‚ The Mask. This ancient version‚ however‚ was found in the tomb of a Maya king who once ruled from Chochkitam‚ a lesser-known Maya polity in Guatemala near the borders of modern Mexico and Belize.The king’s tomb‚ which dates back 1‚700 years‚ contained an extraordinary array of offerings‚ including rare shells‚ human femur bones with words carved into them‚ and the impressive mosaic jade mask.Among the hieroglyphs carved into the bones is the name “Itzam Kokaj Bahlam”‚ which could be the name of the unknown king who is thought to have ruled Chochkitam around 350 CE. Interestingly‚ one of the bones also includes a depiction of a figure‚ potentially the ruler‚ holding the head of a Maya deity‚ which just happens to look like the assembled mosaic jade mask.Other hieroglyphs on the artefacts are thought to identify the king’s father and grandfather‚ which links the individual to other Maya states‚ such as Tikal and Teotihuacan.“A discovery like this is a bit like winning the lottery in terms of information‚” Francisco Estrada-Belli‚ the lead archaeologist who discovered the tomb in 2022‚ said in a statement. Since its discovery‚ Estrada-Belli and colleagues have been working to preserve‚ scan‚ photograph‚ and interpret the finds. “It opens a window into an obscure time we have very little texts about.”Incised femur bone beside drawing by Alexandre Tokovinine with the Tulane University Holmul Archaeological Project.Image courtesy of Tulane UniversityThe fact that Estrada-Belli and his team were able to find these amazing artifacts is quite a stroke of luck‚ as the tomb appeared to have been looted at some point in the past. But it seems the grave robbers either did a poor job or were unable to finish‚ as the tomb itself was only about 2 meters (6.5 feet) from where they had stopped digging.Looting has been a big issue for researchers investigating Maya culture. Detailed information about the height of the Maya classic period – between 250-900 CE – remains obscured because so much archaeological content has been looted over the centuries. This makes the Chochkitam site particularly special.Despite its close run-in with looters‚ the tomb itself has survived with little damage (save for a collapsed stone ceiling).“That was the first amazing thing about it‚” Estrada-Belli added. “[I]t was very lucky.”But then again‚ perhaps it if was not for the looters‚ the site may have remained hidden. Its location was only discovered because the team came across the looter’s tunnels‚ which they identified using lidar technology‚ which maps out hard-to-find features on the ground by shooting laser beams from an airplane through the dense jungle canopy.“It’s like taking x-rays of the jungle floor‚” Estrada-Belli explained. “It revolutionizes our field. Only now can we see where we’re going instead of just bushwhacking through the jungle hoping to find something.”The tomb also contained over 16 spondylus shells‚ a rare genus of spiny oysters that were used as jewelry and currency by the ancient elite or in religious ceremonies. These objects‚ together with the information carved in the human bones‚ strengthen the assumed connection between Chochkitam‚ contemporary Tikal‚ and the central Mexican site of Teotihuacan.The discovery comes 100 years after the Chochkitam site was first explored by Fran Blom‚ an early director of Tulane University."All of Indigenous America has a deep and complex history‚" said Marcello A. Canuto‚ the director of Tulane’s Middle American Research Institute (MARI). "For this reason‚ Tulane recognized early on that it was important and worthy of serious and focused academic interest. Discoveries like this one and others‚ including those made by other Tulane faculty and students also conducting fieldwork‚ represent Tulane's commitment to the study of ancient indigenous American peoples and their accomplishments."According to Estrada-Belli‚ the next step will be to conduct DNA analysis on the bones recovered from the site and to perhaps find more contents hidden in the abandoned pyramid where the tomb lay.