The supernatural world has enraptured humanity for centuries through mythical creatures‚ tales of the afterlife‚ and pantheons of gods. Among some of the most popular and longstanding myths are those of demonic creatures‚ entities of evil that exist to oppose the good forces of the universe. Abrahamic religions (Christianity‚ Judaism‚ and Islam) share many connected stories and texts. However‚ some are not canonical for every religion. But both canon and non-canon texts have explored the history and characteristics of demons and the organizational structure of Hell‚ or of equivalent beings that usher evil into the world.  A woodcarving of Belial and some of his followers from Jacobus de Teramo’s book Buch Belial (1473) Sources of Demonic Lore Descriptions of demons have been written for centuries and cover all facets of their existence: their myriad appearances and the variety of abilities they have. Also‚ how to summon them‚ and how they oppose the order of the universe. Texts that document the details of the demonic hierarchy include the Pseudomonarchia Daemonum and The Lesser Key of Soloman. Although‚ there are hundreds more that outline demonic lore. One of the earliest and most famous was written by occultist Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa. He created a system of scaling rulership‚ with Lucifer as the supreme leader and a growing cascade of demons below him fanning out. Many of these texts explicitly leave out certain details for demonic ceremonies. This is purposeful and is meant to hinder those who would attempt to summon the demons.  Hundreds of demons are recorded in texts from across the centuries. Each has many names and appears in various stories‚ with different features‚ abilities‚ and names. Without a central canonical text‚ the titles and positions of the demons change based on the contextual lore. Different systems of belief place these kings in a different order or place them in a lower position of power. Some beliefs ascribe different demons to specific sins that they are responsible for inciting in men. Others assert that different demons rule over hell like Lucifer or Be’elzebub‚ or that there is a council of rulers. Across various grimoires and demonologies written over the centuries‚ there are over eighty-nine kings of Hell who rule in various capacities. Let alone the scores of other demons who are notable enough to have been written about.  Famous Texts That Address Demon Lore The Pseudomonarchia Daemonum‚ or The False Monarchy of Demons‚ is an early text that documents the characteristics of a long list of demons. A similar but later text‚ which draws heavily on the Pseudomonarchia Daemonun and elaborates on many aspects of it‚ is The Lesser Key of Soloman. This grimoire‚ or a mystical text regarding magical or supernatural lore‚ is divided into multiple books. The first of these books‚ the Ars Goetia‚ is the most well-known aspect of The Lesser Key. It documents a list of seventy-two demons: their abilities‚ their image‚ and how to summon them. The text is based on the Testament of Soloman‚ a non-canonical collection of text dictating the tales of King Soloman. he supposedly captured the demons and locked them away with a ring. The Circle of Solomon and Triangle of Solomon from The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (1904) It lays out the hierarchy of demons in Hell‚ including kings‚ dukes‚ princes‚ marquis‚ counts‚ and presidents. It is one of the most comprehensive sources of demonic knowledge that exists. Of the seventy-two demons outlined between these two texts‚ there were nine kings of Hell. In other texts‚ there are more kings and various princes or other rulers that hold sway over the demons of Hell‚ but these nine kings are the most powerful demons in the most recognized text of demonology. These kings hold immense power and rule over other demonic hoards. When summoned‚ each demon king can offer immense power‚ wealth‚ or knowledge to the summoner if the ceremony is performed correctly. According to lore‚ King Solomon did just that and then documented the practice before locking away the demons.  1. Bael: The First King of Hell Bael (sometimes Baal or Ba’al) is the first spirit mentioned in both the Ars Goetia and the Pseudomonarchia Daemonum. He is described with a hoarse voice and the knowledge to turn men invisible. Some sources also attribute him with abilities of science and love. His physical form is confusing. He is described as having the head of a man in some texts‚ but also as having the heads of a cat and a toad‚ among other less common shapes. As many demons are associated with cardinal directions‚ Baal lives in an estate in the east of Hell. He commands sixty-six legions of demons. It is possible that Baal’s characteristics were influenced by the Canaanite god Baal. He is likely related to if not the same entity as Baal or Baalzebub‚ who is one of the Seven Princes of Hell from an earlier classification of demons.  Bael‚ Medium woodblock‚ from J.A.S. Collin de Plancy. Dictionnaire Infernal 2. Paimon: The King of the West Paimon is the king of the west of Hell and also leads sixty-six legions. He also is described as having a hoarse voice and is said to communicate in his native language until the person who summoned him bids him to speak in their language‚ after which he will communicate with them so they can understand. Upon summoning Paimon‚ it is written he would arrive on the back of a camel with a parade of demons shaped like men proceeding him. The broadest descriptions of Paimon classify him as a teacher‚ able to assist others in gaining knowledge. In some texts‚ he is even omniscient‚ able to answer any question asked of him truthfully‚ even if the answer is a secret.  Depiction of the demon Paimon‚ or Paymon‚ from Collin de Plancy’s Dictionnaire Infernal‚ 1863 edition 3. Beleth: The Cat King Less is known of the third king‚ Beleth (sometimes Byleth) who has the image of a terrifying cat. He is said to have eighty legions of demons under his control‚ strikingly more than the first two kings. Similar to Paimon‚ music precedes him when he is summoned. He arrives riding on the back of a pale horse. Strict directions are given for summoning Beleth to ensure he does the summoner’s bidding. Some texts claim the summoner must maintain their bravery in the face of Beleth’s intentionally terrifying appearance. You must draw a triangle from south to east to upwards using a hazel wand before commanding Beleth to do their bidding. The Psuedomonarchia Demonum claims that the son of biblical Noah was the first to summon Beleth‚ calling on him after the flood to write a book of mathematics.  Byleth‚ an illustration from the “Dictionnaire Infernal” by Jacques Collin de Plancy. 4. Purson: The Familiar King Purson‚ the fourth king‚ is depicted as a man with the head of a lion‚ riding a large bear instead of a horse. He commands twenty-two legions of demons. He carries a viper in one hand‚ and a trumpet in the other. He has a crowd of trumpeting demons who announce his arrival. It is also believed that Purson will trumpet the arrival of the Antichrist during Revelations. Like Paimon‚ Purson is said to know of hidden things and can tell the past‚ present‚ and future. He answers every question a summoner may have. He is also known to produce familiars. Familiars are creatures whose purpose is to help magicians and witches with their craft and can take on myriad forms. They are summoned for a specific purpose before being dismissed.  The Demon Purson‚ or Pruflas 5. Asmodeus: The Demon King That Built the Temple of Soloman Asmodeus is a demon present in many different theologies‚ specifically across Abrahamic religions. His image is that of a three-headed creature: one head is a bull‚ one head is a man‚ and one is a goat. He also has the tail of a serpent and breathes fire‚ similar to the dragon that he rides upon while leading seventy-two legions of demons. Sometimes he is a prince of demons‚ and other times he is the king of demons and daemons‚ which are lesser demons. In the most famous story of Asmodeus‚ King Soloman summons the demon king to assist in building the Temple of Soloman‚ located in Jerusalem. Asmodeus then predicts that Soloman’s kingdom will soon be divided. In other texts‚ Asmodeus is also defined as the demon of lust‚ married to Lilith who was Adam’s first wife in the Garden of Eden who was cast out for not abiding by God’s laws.  Depiction of the demon Asmodaeus‚ a king of demons‚ from J.A.S. Collin de Plancy. Dictionnaire Infernal 6. Vine: The Builder and Destroyer Vine is the sixth king mentioned in the Ars Goetia. He is similar to Purson in appearance. He is described as a lion riding a black horse and carrying a viper in his hand. He has thirty-six legions of demons under his command. Like many of the other demons‚ Vine is able to assist with sorcery and answer questions about all events throughout time but uniquely has the ability to build towers and destroy walls. The etymology of the name is derived from a medieval tool used to destroy walls during an invasion.  The demon‚ Vine 7. Balam: The Three-Headed Manipulator Balam commands forty legions of demons. He is also omniscient in answering questions‚ unveiling the answer to any question a summoner may have. Similar to Baal‚ Balam has the ability to make people invisible‚ although he also has the unique ability to make men witty. Also similar to Baal‚ Balam is described as having three heads. One head is a bull‚ one is a ram‚ and one is human‚ as well as having flaming eyes and the tail of a snake. He rides a bear‚ like Purson‚ but carries a hawk in his hand instead of a serpent. Scholars believe that his name is derived from Balaam‚ who in the Bible is a prophet and manipulator who led the Israelites into worshiping a false idol.  The demon‚ Balam 8. Zagan: The Transmogrifier Zagan is the eighth king of Hell‚ but also a President. He commands thirty-three legions and physically is a griffin-winged bull‚ although he can also take the form of a man. Along with the ability to make men more intelligent‚ answering questions they have like other demons but also improving their natural wisdom. Alongside this‚ Zagan can also convert water into wine‚ wine into water‚ and blood into wine‚ although some texts trade out the use of water and blood for oil. He also has transmogrification powers‚ with the ability to turn any metal into a coin made with that metal. This kind of transformation can easily make a man wealthy if they summoned Zagan.  The demon‚ Zagan 9. Belial: The Most Infamous Demon King Belial‚ the final king of Hell‚ also has a broad legacy in Abrahamic religions. Belial is mentioned nearly thirty times in the Old Testament and Masoretic Text as an embodiment of worthlessness or wickedness. Etymologists believe the name is derived from the Hebrew words beli which means “without” and ya’al which means “to be of value.” The term “son of Belial” is used throughout the Old Testament to demarcate someone who is morally bankrupt or who has committed heinous acts‚ the lowest of the low. Belial himself is described in further detail in the Second Temple period texts. He is accepted in the Jewish faith as canon but not in the Christian faith. The Dead Sea Scrolls outline Belial as the direct opposition of God. He bypasses even Lucifer as a source of evil‚ despite other texts claiming Belial was created second to Lucifer.  Belial‚ the final King of Hell As the list above demonstrates‚ demons share several skills‚ such as answering summoners’ questions about events past‚ present‚ and future. They also share several characteristics‚ such as riding various creatures and having bodies that are amalgamations of animals. But since sources vary and none of the grimoires are canonical texts‚ the details of each demon are fluid and can be construed in different ways. Regardless of belief system though‚ it is clear that these kings of hell hold immense power and influence. Many exist across theologies and are mentioned in multiple stories‚ truly capturing the fears and desires of mankind throughout the ages.  References Green‚ Joseph. “(In Pics) The Nine Kings of Hell.” Historic Mysteries‚ August 25‚ 2023. https://www.historicmysteries.com/kings-of-hell/.  Peterson‚ Joseph H. “Lemegeton Clavicula Salomonis Rex: The little Key of Salomon the King Part 1: Of the Arte Goetia.” Esoteric Archives‚ October 8‚ 2023. http://www.esotericarchives.com/solomon/goetia.htm. The post 9 Kings of Hell: Demonic Rulers and Their Legions first appeared on History Defined.

On Tuesday‚ September 16‚ 2016‚ a backhoe owned by Simonson Construction tore into the facade of 363 Covert Court in Ashland‚ Ohio. A police barrier had been erected to keep out the modest crowd of locals who had gathered to watch the demolition. But the emotion from the gathering was palpable as the house began to fall. This house had become a horrifying reminder of a series of murders that rocked the city‚ all of them committed by serial killer Shawn Grate. Over several years Grate would murder five women. Two of their bodies would be found within the Covert Court house upon his arrest.  In this article‚ we’ll examine Shawn Grate‚ his crimes‚ his victims‚ and the brave woman whose desperate call for help would bring Grate to justice once and for all. Shawn Grate in court. Jason Molyet‚ News Journal. The Early Life of Shawn Grate Shawn Grate was a lifelong resident of Ohio. His familiarity with his local community may have played a part in why he was able to kill without detection for so many years. Before Shawn was a murderer‚ though‚ he lived a relatively peaceful childhood. It was marred with a few incidents that warped the young man for life.  He was born in Marion‚ Ohio to mother Theresa McFarland and father Terry Grate on August 8‚ 1976. The first five years of his life were uneventful. But just two days before his sixth birthday‚ his parents would get divorced.  The divorce didn’t start to affect Shawn until he was 11 when his mother left to live with a man in Kentucky. Shawn remained living with his father‚ and it was at this time that his siblings began to notice the violent thoughts that Shawn would harbor for his mother.  Grate was a fantastic baseball player but broke his arm during high school and could never play again. He began to show signs of depression‚ sometimes laying on the couch for days in a sort of stupor.  Shawn Grate was still attending River Valley High School when his tendency for violence began to show. He was arrested for attempting to choke his girlfriend in 1994‚ and later‚ after graduation‚ he was caught breaking into a home in Marion County to steal valuable jewelry.  Later‚ he would marry Amber Nicole Bowman‚ but the couple divorced after just a year. They had a daughter together‚ but Bowman was able to get a restraining order against Grate citing domestic violence concerns. This was a haunting precursor to what Grate would do to other women in the near future.  How Many Kids Does Shawn Grate Have? Shawn Grate has three children. One with his ex-wife Amber Nicole Bowman. His other two children would be with two separate women whose identities have not been made public. The Ashland Murders  Grate would bounce between living situations and jobs for years‚ never settling. Only a little was heard about the man until late one night‚ on September 13‚ 2016‚ a phone call came into the Ashland police dispatch.  The woman on the other line was speaking in a hurried whisper. She was saying that she was being held captive and that the man who abducted her was sleeping in the bed just inches away. She did her best to describe where the house was but was almost caught when she knocked Grate’s taser off the bedside table‚ briefly waking him up. Luckily‚ Grate would simply roll over and go back to sleep…and the police were on their way.  This woman‚ who is only referred to as Jane Doe to protect her identity‚ was saved by police after being held for a terrifying three days by Shawn Grate. During that time he sexually assaulted her‚ keeping her bound to the bed‚ until she was finally able to call for help. Grate was arrested‚ and the yellow house on Covert Court was searched thoroughly. To the horror of officers‚ two other bodies were found–one in a closet‚ and the other in the basement‚ revealing that Grate wasn’t just a kidnapper‚ but a murderer.  This is where police arrested Shawn Grate‚ rescued a woman he had abducted‚ and found two dead bodies in Ashland‚ Ohio. Was Jane Doe Rescued From Shawn Grate? Despite calling the police while lying right next to Grate‚ and even waking him up accidentally during the call‚ Jane Doe was successfully rescued by the police. Her bravery led to the discovery of Grate’s other victims and stopped his murder spree in its tracks.  The Victims of Ohio Serial Killer Shawn Grate  The two murder victims and kidnapping victim Jane Doe were horrifying enough. But once he was behind bars‚ Grate confessed to three other killings. The victims of Shawn Grate were:  Stacey Stanley- Stacey Stanley‚ also known as Stacey Hicks‚ was one of the two victims found in the Ashland house. She had been reported missing a week before police apprehended Grate. Elizabeth Griffith- The second victim to be found in the Ashland house was Elizabeth Griffith. By the time her remains were found‚ she had been missing for a month. Candice Cunningham- On the very same day he was arrested‚ Grate led police to the body of Candice Cunnigham behind a burned-out house in Richmond County.  Rebekah Leicy- While in prison‚ Grate confessed to killing Rebekah Lacey. Her body was found in March 2015‚ but her death was initially thought to be from a drug overdose. Shawn Grate told police that he strangled Leicy because she had stolen money from his place of employment.  Dana Lowrey- Shawn Grate also confessed to killing another woman whose name he didn’t remember exactly‚ but he told police that he thought her name was “Dana”. When her remains were found in 2006‚ they couldn’t be identified. In 2019‚ the DNA Doe Project was able to confirm that the remains were those of Dana Lowrey. Where Is Shawn Grate Now? After the trial‚ Shawn Grate pled guilty to all five murders and was sentenced to both life in prison and death. At this time‚ he is imprisoned at Chillicothe Correctional Institution but will be transferred to the Southern Ohio Correctional Facility in Lucasville‚ Ohio‚ for his execution which is tentatively set for 2025.  Shawn Grate’s mugshot. Ashland County Sheriff’s Office References “State v. Grate‚ 164 Ohio St.3d 9‚ 2020-Ohio-5584” https://www.supremecourt.ohio.gov/rod/docs/pdf/0/2020/2020-Ohio-5584.pdf “Ohio Supreme Court upholds conviction‚ death sentence for serial killer Shawn Grate”- Julia Bingel https://www.cleveland19.com/2020/12/10/ohio-supreme-court-upholds-conviction-death-sentence-serial-killer-shawn-grate/The post Serial Killer‚ Shawn Grate and his House of Horrors first appeared on History Defined.

When we talk about history’s greatest firsts‚ several landmark achievements come to mind. In 1969‚ Neil Armstrong did what many thought could never be done‚ becoming the first person to step foot on the moon. Charles Lindbergh became the first person to fly across the Atlantic in 1927. In terms of sailing around the world‚ while many think it was Christopher Columbus‚ it was actually Ferdinand Magellan from 1519 to 1522. But one historic achievement is a bit of a mystery: nobody knows who was the first person to climb Mount Everest. While official records give that honor to Edmund Hillary in 1953‚ many historians say George Mallory may have reached that peak first in 1924. Mallory led one of the first British expeditions up the world’s highest mountains. However‚ he disappeared‚ and for the longest time could not be found. His body wasn’t discovered until 75 years later‚ very near the top of the summit. It has led to one of history’s greatest mysteries: Did Mallory actually reach the top of Mount Everest?  British climber George Mallory Who Was George Mallory? George Mallory started as a clergyman‚ studying at Winchester College. However‚ as time passed‚ he developed a strong passion for climbing after he was recruited by one of his teachers to go on a hiking trip to the Alps. Many who knew Mallory say he was apt at it. He picked up the skill quickly and mastered the ability to conquer new routes. But climbing was never Mallory’s main job. Instead‚ he was a soldier during World War I‚ serving in France. He also taught in 1919 in Cambridge‚ England‚ after the war was over. But climbing was always his passion‚ as evidenced by him being a top member of the Alpine Club. This was a prestigious group for only the best climbers. In 1921‚ it was announced that there would be a British Mount Everest Reconnaissance Expedition‚ and Mallory would be a big part of the team. The ambitious Mallory had always said it was a dream of his to reach the top of Mount Everest. When someone asked why he would want to do it‚ he simply responded with‚ “It’s there.”  The Expeditions In the early 1920s‚ climbing and reaching the top of Mount Everest was seen as the next big discovery. The North and South Pole had been navigated‚ and the sources of all the world’s major rivers were uncovered. Efforts were now underway by teams to try and become the first to reach the world’s highest point‚ a 29‚035-foot mountain located in the Himalayan Mountains bordering Nepal and China. This was known as the “Third Pole.”  Mallory was an integral part of the expedition team. He helped map out the first expedition in 1921‚ trying to find a route to reach the summit. However‚ high winds ended the mission after making substantial progress. Mallory was also a part of the second expedition in 1922‚ which included the use of bottled oxygen. The team reached 27‚300 feet before an avalanche killed some of the team’s members and were forced to cancel the rest of the journey. The third expedition happened in 1924‚ one of which the now 38-year-old Mallory was extremely confident he would succeed with. However‚ he was concerned he’d never make it back home. Mallory was steadfast in doing what no one else could ever do. When high winds and heavy snow forced most of the members to stay behind‚ Mallory and partner Andrew Irvine kept going‚ determined to reach the summit. However‚ they were running out of supplies and oxygen‚ and people that knew Mallory came to the conclusion that he would die trying to reach the top. Irvine was an important of Mallory’s attempt to push forward. Irvine was an expert with oxygen tanks‚ and Mallory had come around to the fact that they could not survive the full journey without the help of artificial air. Irvine’s ability to rebuild unreliable rigs was essential to the mission. Some members of the 1924 British Mount Everest expedition: Mallory is highlighted beside Edward F. Norton to his left and Geoffrey Bruce far right. The Final Expedition On June 6‚ the men were at 23‚100 feet‚ and could arguably reach the top of the summit within three days‚ which would mark a historical achievement. By June 8‚ they had gotten to 26‚800 feet. Shortly after this‚ geologist Neil Odell‚ who had gone with them earlier in the expedition and stayed behind‚ had spotted them journeying up the mountain through the mist. They were roughly one day from becoming the first men in history to reach the summit of Mount Everest. Unfortunately‚ that was the last report of anyone having seen Mallory and Irvine‚ both of whom disappeared into the clouds that came sweeping down. Odell reported that a strong snow squall moved in at the top of the mountain. He found oxygen canisters in one of their last tents. He continued looking for signs of life from the men. Odell reached the last camp of Mallory and Irvine. He waited with anxiety for the men to return‚ but no one came. In his tent‚ he found a torch. If Mallory had remembered to take it‚ he could have sent up flares showing where he was. Hope quickly vanished inside Odell when he couldn’t find his friends. A few days later‚ news spread that Mallory was lost and likely dead. Evidence for Mallory Reaching the Summit Debates began to grow that Mallory and Irvine did‚ in fact‚ get to the summit of Mount Everest. According to Odell‚ the last man to have seen them‚ the two men were going very strong. He claimed that they had reached what is called “The Second Step‚” which is very near the base of the base of the summit pyramid. Once past this very steep step‚ which ascends to 28‚250 feet‚ you reach the pyramid which takes you to the top of the mountain. View northward of Mount Everest In the 1930s‚ the first piece of evidence that Mallory had advanced past where he was last seen was confirmed. His axe was discovered at 27‚700 feet. Other items were found in the coming years. A Chinese explorer‚ traveling the same expedition as Mallory and Irvine‚ found a body in 1975. Many believed this was the body of Irvine. In 1991‚ an oxygen canister was found. Mallory’s body was eventually found at 26‚760 feet in 1999‚ and a study showed he died of a bad fall. However‚ the question is where did he fall from? Mallory was buried at the site where he was discovered. Over the years‚ mountaineers have conducted studies to try and uncover the mystery of what happened to Mallory and Irvine. Most experts don’t believe the men could have survived making it up the Second Step with the supplies they had. It’s an extremely difficult and steep rock‚ where you need rope‚ anchors‚ and a ladder. These were eventually added to the Second Step to help one reach the summit. The answer to whether the two men reached the Summit may still one day be answered. A camera is still missing‚ and if that is found‚ it could provide evidence as to where the men were last seen. Until then‚ the debates will continue. References “George Mallory: British Explorer and Mountaineer.” Britannica.com. 9 Nov 2023. https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-Mallory.  Clark‚ Lisel. “The Mystery of Mallory &; Irvine ‘24.” PBS. Nd. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/everest/lost/mystery/. The post Did Adventurer George Mallory Make it to the Top of Everest? first appeared on History Defined.

The Goths were a significant ethnic group in Europe during the first half of the first millennium of the Common Era. They first appear in the historical record in the first century AD. They eventually spawned kingdoms that clashed with the Huns‚ the Romans‚ and the Umayyad Empire. They spoke an East Germanic language that died out sometime around 800 AD.  The Gothic language was most similar to Proto-Germanic and Ancient Norse. A Gothic alphabet was invented in the fourth century by a Greek-Gothic bishop in order to translate the Bible into the Gothic language. The Goths played a major role in the fall of the Roman Empire. They then dispersed and eventually assimilated into other cultures. The Gothic King Alaric I and the Sack of Rome. Live Science Where did the Goths come from? The earliest speculation about the origin of the Goths was written by a Christian scholar named Ambrose who lived in the fourth century AD. He wrote that‚ like the biblical figures Gog and Magog‚ the Goths were barbarians who came from islands to the far north.  Like the Vandals‚ the Goths appear to have migrated south from what is now Poland. Before that‚ they likely originated in Scandinavia. Around 550 AD‚ a Roman bureaucrat named Jordanis wrote the Getica. This is one of the most significant historical documents detailing the various migrations of Gothic peoples.  Believed to have been descended from the Ostrogoths‚ or the Eastern Goths‚ Jordanis took much of his information from twelve volumes on the history of the Goths written by the historian Cassidorius. This synopsis by Jordanis is all that remains; the extensive history written by Cassidorius has never been found.  The Getica begins with the emigration of Berig‚ a legendary Gothic king‚ and his people. They came from a place called Scandza – understood to mean Scandinavia – and settled in Gothiscandza‚ which scholars believe was the Vistula Basin of modern-day Poland.  There are many mythical elements to the Getica‚ including god-kings and dealings with Egyptian pharaohs. It comes back to a more factual account of when the Goths came into conflict with Roman forces in the third century AD. According to the Getica‚ Scandza was an island. The Greeks had long since coined the name Scandia to describe the unexplored islands and peninsulas of Northern Europe. The Goths probably came from Götaland‚ the southernmost part of the Swedish peninsula‚ or Gotland‚ a large island off the coast of Sweden. Gothic Paganism and The Conversion of the Goths In the beginning‚ the Goths practiced a form of paganism. Their polytheistic religion was overseen by reiks‚ who were both the political and religious leaders of most clans.  Little is known of the gods of the Goths‚ but they likely worshiped some variation of the god Odin and his son Thor.  They may have a god by the name of Gaut (probably another name for Odin) who was said to be their ancient ancestor hailing from the lands around the Black Sea. In their mythology (and possibly in reality)‚ their people came from these lands and eventually returned to them. Ancestor worship was an important part of their culture. Many battles began with songs that recounted the stories of their forefathers and praised their great deeds. The Goths first encountered Christianity when they came into contact with the Roman Empire in the third century AD. In 251 they raided Roman provinces‚ killed a Roman emperor‚ and took a number of Christian captives.  Often‚ the children of the Christian women taken captive by the Goths became Christian Goths themselves. The grandson of one of these captives became a bishop who presided over the creation of a Gothic translation of the Bible. As their contact with the Christian world increased‚ many Goths began to convert to Christianity. The new religion spread quickly‚ and within a few generations‚ it became the majority religion among some Gothic groups. Many Goths fought back against this cultural conversion. One fourth-century ruler called Winguric burned over three hundred Gothic Christians to death when they refused to worship a pagan idol.  This was a part of King Athanaric’s systematic attempts to deter conversion by persecuting Christian Goths – not all Christians‚ but rather people of his culture who had converted and thereby forsaken their ancestors. In 405‚ a Gothic king called Radagaisus invaded Italy. He was a devout Pagan‚ and he intended to sacrifice Rome’s Christian Senators to his gods. But he was defeated‚ and some twelve thousand of his soldiers were made to join the Roman army. Tens of thousands of others – lesser soldiers and the families of military men who traveled with the army – were sold into slavery.  These slaves and conscripted soldiers bided their time and joined King Alaric’s forces when they attacked Rome five years later – more on that in a moment. The Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy controlled the area in the fifth and sixth centuries. Under their rule‚ Arian Christianity became popular. Arian theology holds that Jesus is simply the son of God rather than being part of the Holy Trinity‚ and Rome regarded this stance as heresy. This sect of Christianity called itself the Church of the Goths. Alaric I and The Visigoths This group of Goths came together under the rule of King Alaric (370 – 411 AD). He was their first Christian leader and belonged to the Arian sect. They came from Moesia‚ an area that included parts of modern-day Serbia‚ Albania‚ Macedonia‚ and Bulgaria.  ‘Visi’ may have referenced their western provenance or it may have been their tribal name. Their movement from east to west was driven in part by the Huns‚ whose persistent attacks forced the Goths west into the Roman Empire.  In his youth‚ Alaric was a part of the Roman army. By his mid-twenties‚ he was the king of the Visigoths. Throughout his reign‚ the Visigoths and other Gothic peoples came into frequent conflict with the Roman Empire.  Under his rule‚ the Visigoths raided Rome in 410 AD. Alaric I taken from a painting by Ludwig Thiersch Two years before the Sack of Rome‚ Alaric descended upon Rome with thirty thousand men and blockaded the city. Tens of thousands of Gothic slaves joined his ranks. Alaric’s forces seized control of the river and cut all supply lines. He demanded all of Rome’s riches and all of the barbarian slaves. Rome was the largest city in the world at this point in time‚ with a population of around eight hundred thousand people.  When its citizens began to die of starvation‚ Rome agreed to pay a staggering ransom: five thousand pounds of gold‚ thirty thousand pounds of silver‚ three thousand pounds of pepper‚ four thousand silken tunics‚ and three thousand scarlet hides. In 410‚ Alaric attacked Rome again. Likely aided by Gothic slaves within the city‚ his forces entered and raided Rome for three days. This was the first time in eight centuries that the city of Rome had fallen to foreign enemies.  It was a desperate move on Alaric’s part‚ an admission that he would never achieve the legitimate place within the empire that he had tried to negotiate for over the intervening years.  Alaric’s army seized much-needed provisions and slaughtered countless thousands of citizens in and around the city of Rome. He died soon after‚ and the bulk of his forces eventually settled in Gaul.  The Visigothic Kingdom eventually grew to encompass most of what is now Spain and the south of France. The Visigoths founded the only new cities to be created in Europe during the fifth‚ sixth‚ seventh‚ and eighth centuries. These cities included Reccopolis‚ Victoriacum‚ Isidore‚ and Ologicus.  The Visigoth civilization featured aqueducts that brought water to public baths. Visigoth nobles were highly educated; they studied philosophy‚ medicine‚ and the law. This kingdom endured until the Muslim conquest of Spain in the early eighth century. Johannes Lingelbach: Sack of Rome of 1527 What happened to the Goths? The last ruler of the Ostrogoths was Teia‚ a ruthless military leader who died in battle in the year 553. This fight‚ the Battle of Mons Lactarius‚ was the final defeat of the Goths by the Romans. Following this defeat‚ the Ostrogothic Kingdom disintegrated. The Gothic people assimilated into other cultures. The Visigoths went a similar way‚ declining as a power and assimilating into the local populations who were by then speaking Romance languages. Gothic influenced these languages‚ and Gothic loanwords can still be found in Spanish‚ Portuguese‚ and Italian. A small subset of Gothic people known as the Crimean Goths survived a thousand years longer than their counterparts in the West. They were still active in the sixteenth century‚ and a contemporary Flemish diplomat wrote that they were “a warlike people‚ who to this day inhabit many villages”. The Crimean Goths may have descended from the Ostrogoths‚ or they may have been a separate subset of Germanic peoples who were merely influenced by the Goths. They may have even descended from Anglo-Saxons who immigrated to the Crimean Peninsula around 1100.  Some scholars believe that the Germanic dialect spoken by the Crimean Goths was still spoken as late as 1945‚ but it has since ceased to be a living language.The post History of the Early Germanic Goths and Visigoths first appeared on History Defined.

In the vast landscape of Utah’s West Desert‚ there are countless expansive cave networks popular with spelunkers of all ages and expertise. Nutty Putty Cave is one such cave. It is a labyrinth of tight‚ twisting tunnels that was a challenge for all who entered its walls. It was a popular location for adventure seekers until 2009 when the tragic story of John Edward Jones took place deep within the cave.  The now-sealed entrance to the Nutty Putty Cave system. How Stuff Works. The Allure of Nutty Putty Cave Nutty Putty Cave is located near Utah Lake. It was long a popular spot for Boy Scout outings and college students exploring outdoor activities in their spare time. It was famous for its intricate passages and narrow tunnels‚ challenging at times for even experienced spelunkers. It is so perilous that before 2009‚ there were four separate rescue missions into the cave. In 2004 two Boy Scouts got trapped within just one week of each other. This would result in the cave being closed until early 2009. It was a danger to anyone who was not an expert‚ yet hundreds loved to roam its tunnels.  A Thanksgiving Adventure In November 2009‚ during the Thanksgiving holiday‚ John traveled to Utah during the holidays with his family to explore the caves. He had grown up making trips to the area and adventuring through the underground caverns. He decided to visit Utah during his break from medical school to once again explore the caves. He said farewell to his pregnant wife and one-year-old daughter and departed on an adventure that‚ unbeknownst to anyone at the time‚ he would not return from.  John Edward Jones and his wife The Perilous Descent At around 8 pm on November 24‚ John and some friends entered through the narrow hole that served as an entrance to the tunnel. As the group explored the cave’s narrow tunnels‚ John found himself in front of a particularly narrow passage that he believed was the famous section known as the Birth Canal. It was called this because it was a very tight space you had to slide your body through and as you emerged. The image was similar to a baby being birthed. John lowered himself head first into the confined space which was barely wide enough for an average-sized person‚ let alone John who was six feet tall and 200 lbs. Despite his efforts to back himself out of the space‚ John became stuck upside down in the narrow passage. His body was wedged in a way that made extraction nearly impossible. Each time he tried to breathe in to pull himself out‚ he slid further down. Breathing back out stuck him further until he was unable to be removed from the hole.  Photo illustration showing the map of Nutty Putty cave. John Jones’ body is stuck in uncharted territory near Ed’s Push in the Nutty Putty cave. Desperate Attempts to Rescue John’s brother was the first to find him stuck. He found his way out of the cave as fast as possible‚ although John was stuck at the end of over 400 feet of tunnel. By the time rescuers were able to reach him after midnight‚ he had already been stuck for three and a half hours. Emergency responders‚ cave experts‚ and volunteers gathered to orchestrate a complex and perilous rescue mission. The lengthy depth into the tunnel‚ the nature of the clay that made up the caves‚ and the fact John was upside down all complicated the procedure for rescuing him.  The teams set up an intricate pulley system designed to remove John from the hole‚ but as they went to tug him out‚ the system failed. Rescuers believe somewhere along the route of pulleys‚ one must have been pulled from the wall due to the structural integrity of the clay wall. Once the system had failed there was no further hope for rescuing John. Remaining suspended upside down‚ he was putting a massive strain on his heart as it attempted to pump blood away from his brain. His life was on a timer. With the pulley system broken‚ there was not enough time to construct another solution before John passed away‚ although they kept brainstorming new ideas. For nearly 28 hours rescuers did everything they could to save John’s life. Sadly‚ he was pronounced dead of cardiac arrest just after midnight on November 25. The Aftermath and Closure In the wake of his death‚ authorities needed to determine the best course of action for recovering John’s body and keeping future spelunkers safe. After closely analyzing their options‚ they realized that it would be nearly impossible to recover the body. In order to prevent a similar tragedy from ever occurring again‚ they decided to close the cave. Instead of putting up a gate‚ which people had broken through before‚ they decided to fully collapse the entrance to the cave and fill it with cement. This would deny all access to the cave and make it John Edward Jones’ tomb. This was a difficult decision‚ as the cave was popular and they were abandoning a man’s body. But‚ ultimately everyone recognized that it was necessary to prevent any further harm from befalling anyone in the cave. Conclusion: A Tragic Chapter in Cave Exploration The Nutty Putty Cave incident stands as a depressing chapter in the history of cave exploration and a reminder of the true dangers of spelunking. John Edward Jones’s passion for adventure led him into the depths of an underground world that he did not fully understand. This was a decision that ultimately cost him his life. The subsequent decision to seal the cave‚ while contentious‚ emphasized the need to prioritize safety and environmental conservation over personal desires. As the sealed entrance to Nutty Putty Cave serves as a permanent memorial to John Edward Jones‚ it also serves as a reminder to those who venture into the unknown. References Abel. “Edward Jones: The Harrowing Tale of the Nutty Putty Cave Tragedy.” Medium‚ October 21‚ 2023. https://medium.com/@abelpeter93/edward-jones-the-harrowing-tale-of-the-nutty-putty-cave-tragedy-55274b9ac479.  Whitehurst‚ Lindsay. “Nutty Putty: ‘We’re going to get you out’.” The Salt Lake Tribune‚ August 20‚ 2019. https://www.sltrib.com/news/2018/07/10/nutty-putty-were-going/. The post Monument to a Lost Spelunker: Why Nutty Putty Cave Closed first appeared on History Defined.

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A shooting near a parade celebrating the Kansas City Chiefs Super Bowl victory‚ today‚ has left at least one dead and several injured. Continue reading…