Kösem Sultan, initially a concubine, then the wife of the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed I, was a controversial figure even in her own time. She not only exercised power through three different sultans but influenced court politics in her own right. She had her son Ibrahim deposed from power but was eventually assassinated by his wife, Hatice Turhan, an equally ambitious woman.   Kosem’s Humble Beginnings Topkapi Palace Harem Quarters. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Kösem’s story begins in the Balkans where she was born as Anastasia in the year 1589. Various sources claim that she was Bosnian, Greek, or Circassian. Kösem was most likely going to live a life like other female villagers of her time: a life filled with fieldwork, household duties, and childrearing. Yet fate had other plans for her.   Although information is scarce, it is known that as a child, she was enslaved and employed in the palace of the beylerbeyi (governor-general) of the province of Bosnia. Realizing that she was a bright and beautiful girl, the beylerbeyi sent her to the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul. During this period, it was common for officials and those seeking the Sultan’s approval to gift talented and promising slaves to the sultan’s palace.   She was given the name Mahpeyker. However, her leadership and guidance of the other girls of the harem earned her the moniker “Kösem.” This term referred to a ram used by shepherds to lead herds of sheep. It can therefore be inferred that Kösem, from a young age, was skilled in controlling and influencing others.   Life as the “Haseki” Portrait of Kösem, 17th century, Venetian School. Source: Sotheby’s   Kösem’s expressive brown eyes, pale complexion, and striking physique weren’t the only things that attracted the attention of the Valide Sultan (Queen Mother) Handan Sultan. The girl’s intelligence and skill in various fields like literature, mathematics, and music made her a good candidate for the future mother of an Ottoman prince.   At around age 15, she became Sultan Ahmed I’s “haseki,” or chief consort, a title first granted to Hürrem, wife of Suleyman the Magnificent. This gave Kösem certain privileges, such as a salary of 1,000 aspers per day. Ahmed was reportedly infatuated with the lively and positive Kösem, who was careful not to interfere too openly in political issues   Still, her intelligence made her an important advisor to the Sultan. According to the Venetian ambassador Contarini, she was “listened to in some matters.” Her role in governance was later remarked upon by the English envoy Thomas Roe, who noted that Kösem had “governed” Sultan Ahmed.   When Ahmed’s powerful grandmother Safiye Sultan was banished to the Old Palace, and his mother Handan Sultan died in 1605, a special opportunity presented itself to the ambitious Kösem. In the absence of other senior female figures, the already commanding Kösem took charge of harem politics. Her influence was not only exercised over the Sultan—who eventually married her—but also over major court officials like Mustafa Ağa, leader of the janissary corps.   Kösem and Court Politics A garden party, hosted by the Valide Sultan for Madame Girardin, wife of the French Ambassador, late 17th century. Source: Bibliothèque Nationale   Ottoman court politics in the early 17th century was plagued by several issues. Ottoman power was decreasing with losses in wars across Europe. Queen mothers and Hasekis were competing for power and influence in a period dubbed the “Sultanate of Women.” Added to this was the introduction of child sultans (starting with Ahmed I).   Kösem was immediately introduced to this world when she entered the palace and witnessed the old Valide Sultan Safiye being sent away from the palace to be replaced by Ahmed I’s mother, Handan. Yet, instead of being crushed by this system, Kösem adapted to it. She gained the respect of the Valide Handan Sultan and treated Ahmed’s children from his other concubines as her own.   She likewise maintained a good relationship with Ahmed’s half-brother Mustafa and convinced the Sultan not to have his brother killed. This would later benefit her children; Should Mustafa come to the throne one day, he would be merciful towards Kösem’s sons and not institute the policy of fratricide, where a sultan would have his brothers executed to ensure political unity.   Following the death of Ahmed in 1617, his half-brother Mustafa was indeed declared sultan. However, due to Mustafa’s questionable mental state, he was replaced by Ahmed’s son Osman II. Osman’s efforts to institute state and military reforms gained him many enemies,  and at 18 years old, he was imprisoned and murdered. Mustafa once again acceded to the throne. This time, however, it was Kösem who would put an end to his reign.   Becoming the “Valide Sultan”: Queen Mother Miniature of Kösem, acquired by Swedish envoy Claes Ralamb (d.1698), ca. 1657. Source: Library of Congress   To ensure both her children’s security and her own, Kösem wanted her son Murad to become sultan. She achieved this goal by gaining the support of courtiers and viziers. In 1623, Murad IV became sultan at age eleven. Since he was a minor, his mother Kösem had to take power. For the first time in 300 years of Ottoman rule, a woman assumed the official title of regent.   Kösem was an apt political player. She attended the divan meetings—albeit from behind a screen—during which the viziers discussed important state affairs. She also was in correspondence with foreign ambassadors and statesmen. Her kira, or agent, was a Jewish woman who would often write her letters for her and represent the valide in meetings with male dignitaries or tradesmen.   Yet Kösem’s regency was rocked by political and economic instability. Uprisings, raids, and wars threatened the Ottoman state throughout the 17th century. Economic issues also arose due to a loss of territories like Baghdad and the plague in Egypt, which was a major revenue source for the Ottoman state.   Despite Kösem’s efforts in battling inflation and appeasing the dissatisfied janissary troops, her son Murad had come to see his mother’s power in a negative light. After nine years of rule, Kösem was distanced from power by her son. Her most loyal courtiers and companions were also removed from power and replaced by individuals who supported Murad.   Here Comes Trouble Engraving of Ibrahim I (“The Mad”), by English diplomat Paul Rycaut, ca. 1694. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Kösem’s ambitious nature would not allow her to lead a life removed from political power. When her son went on military campaigns, she was formally left in charge of the empire. In addition to running the harem, she advised her son on important political issues like executions and diplomatic proceedings.   When Murad fell ill, the Ottomans realized that their state was in serious threat of ending.  The Sultan had executed all but one of his four brothers: Ibrahim “the Mad.” Kösem had managed to dissuade Murad from executing Ibrahim, arguing that he was mentally ill and therefore not a threat to Murad’s power. As a result, on Murad’s death in 1640, Ibrahim was declared Sultan. Kösem once again became the valide, this time exercising power over a mentally unstable adult son.   But she had not factored in how Ibrahim’s mental instability would play out. The sultan’s erratic personal relationships, his lustful obsession with women and his tendency to act violently when displeased were among some of the factors that made him unpopular at court. Kösem, like the religious and political elite, believed that getting rid of Ibrahim would be beneficial to the state.   In his youth, Ibrahim had lived under house arrest in the kafes (a restricted part of the Harem) and was paranoid about being assassinated. Though he was now free, this fear became a reality when Kösem conspired to have him removed from power. Although it is said that she only wished for him to be imprisoned in the kafes, he was eventually strangled in 1648.   Assassinating the Queen Mother Engraving of the murder of Kösem Sultan, by Paul Rycaut, ca. 1694. Source: Wikimedia Commons   After Ibrahim’s murder, his six-year-old son Mehmed IV was put on the throne. As a child, Mehmed was to rule through a regent. Naturally, this would be his mother, Hatice Turhan Sultan. However, Kösem refused to relinquish power so easily, and a dangerous rivalry began between the two women.   Hatice Turhan was the official Valide Sultan and therefore had more right to power. To counteract this, Kösem had herself declared Büyük (elder) Valide. The court also became highly factionalized due to this competition; Hatice Turhan wanted Siyavush Pasha to become the grand vizier, while Kösem preferred Melek Ahmet Pasha, the husband of her granddaughter Kaya Sultan.   This rivalry, and the political turmoil that followed, was possibly a major factor that led to the assassination of Kösem. In 1651, eunuchs entered Kösem’s quarters and strangled her to death, according to some accounts with her own braids. The news of Kösem’s death caused a degree of civil and social disorder. Crowds gathered near Topkapi Palace demanding revenge on Kösem’s murderers, and the city went into mourning for three days.   Another Side to Kösem?  The Çinilli Camii (Istanbul, Turkey), patronized by Kösem in 1638. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Kösem has been depicted in various ways throughout the ages. Her contemporaries, too, had differing views about her. The Venetian ambassador Contarini said that she was generally respected. English traveler George Sandys, however, noted that she had an unnatural influence over the Sultan because she was a “witch.”   Kösem was also a controversial figure among the local populace. Prominent Ottoman theologians and statesmen argued that her immense wealth was a result of financial abuse in a period that saw poverty and inflation.   Others praised her charitable acts: Kösem built mosques, fountains, and madrasas (institutes of theological teaching), built in the Ottoman architectural style around the empire. As a former slave, she perhaps even felt some sympathy towards other enslaved women. Ottoman historian Mustafa Naima (d.1716) wrote that Kösem would free her female slaves after two to three years of service. Additionally, she would give them an annual wage, and have them married.   Like other politically-savvy women throughout history, Kösem was a product of her environment. This was a male-dominated world in which she had to fight to survive and prosper.

  Long before the age of shoguns and samurai, before the Japanese people even arrived in what is now considered their homeland, the islands were already inhabited in what is known as the Jōmon period. While the people of the Jōmon period had no written language, archaeology reveals fascinating insights into their world.   Incipient Jōmon Period (10500-8000 BCE) Miso soup with Japanese littleneck clams. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Around 39,000 years ago, before the rise of sedentary civilization, hunter-gatherers lived by following the herds of animals upon which they relied. During the Last Ice Age, lower sea levels meant that Japan’s islands were connected to mainland Asia, allowing people to follow these herds into Japan. Located on the Pacific Ring of Fire, Japan’s volcanic landscape had many of the resources early hunter-gatherers needed to make stone tools. Evidence suggests that these early inhabitants were mining obsidian as far back as 35,000 years ago.   When the Ice Age ended, the glaciers retreated to the north, melted, and the sea levels began to rise. By the end of the Last Ice Age, roughly 10,000 years ago, Japan was a series of islands, and those on them were cut off from the Asian mainland. The herds were similarly cut off and separated from their migration routes. They suffered and began to die off. The people on the islands had to change their lifestyle and began hunting smaller game, becoming knowledgeable and involved in the Japanese flora and fauna.   The glacial retreat also turned Japan into a lush wilderness where trees and plants flourished. Among this flora were nut-bearing trees such as beeches, buckeyes, oaks, and chestnuts, which provided an invaluable source of food for the people of these Incipient and Initial Jōmon periods.   Initial Jōmon Period (8000-5000 BCE) Hira-ide Historic Site Park is a reconstruction of a Middle Jōmon period settlement. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The southern part of Kyushu is of prime importance to Jōmon archaeology. Theories suggest that people in East Asia turned to a lifestyle that relied more heavily on a plant-based diet, and discoveries near Kagoshima support this theory. The ruins of Tanegashima are among Japan’s oldest and exhibit the extensive practice of preparation and cooking of nuts, most notably chestnuts, which may have formed the basis of these people’s diet.   As an archipelago, the warmer climate also brought an abundance of sea life to the coastal waters, and much human activity began to center around the harvesting and consumption of this sea life. Large mounds of shells in the archaeological record are a testament to this.   Prehistoric life was governed by Japan’s seasonal climate. In late autumn and winter, the Jōmon hunted boar and deer. In the spring, they gathered wild greens and shellfish. In the summer, the calmer waters allowed them to venture out into the sea and fish, and in the autumn, attention turned to collecting the plentiful nuts and wild fruit that were available.   The Initial Jōmon period lasted until around 5000 BCE, when the population multiplied due to an abundance of food and resources made available by a period of warmer, more humid weather.   The Early Jōmon Period (5000-2500 BCE) The Early Jōmon period Uenohara site near Kagoshima. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The emergence of pottery in Japan likely began during the Incipient Jōmon period over 10,000 years ago. Around 5000 BCE, pottery slowly became more intricate as a culture formed around the creation of earthenware. This marked the beginning of the Early Jōmon period and the end of the Initial Jōmon period.   Pottery at this time was simple and decorated with corded designs, which would become more intricate over the centuries. Limited agriculture was practiced as the culture transitioned from a hunter-gatherer society into a pastoralist one. Lacquer groves were tended, and crops were farmed on a small scale. These crops included bottle-gourd, adzuki beans, soybeans, hemp, and Perilla. There is also evidence to suggest that peaches were cultivated.   The Middle Jōmon Period (2500-1500 BCE) A flame-rimmed bowl from the Middle Jōmon period, from around 3500 BCE to 2500 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   The period from 3520 BCE to 2470 BCE is considered the Middle Jōmon period. It is marked by the end of the hunter-gatherer lifestyle and a move towards a more sedentary way of life. This may have been affected by a spike in temperatures. People at this time also seem to have expanded into the mountains, where it was cooler. Populations also remained in the fertile plains, near the rivers, and in the coastal areas where food was plentiful.   Communities became larger, and various parts of the hunter-gatherer lifestyle remained, despite the need to support themselves via agriculture. Deer, bear, rabbit, and duck were all hunted, and fishing continued. The shell mounds that began in earlier periods became significantly larger, and burials took place in these by-products of Jōmon society. Clay beads that served an ornamental function in the early Jōmon period became grave goods in the Middle Jōmon period.   Archaeologists have also discovered increased evidence of ritualistic practices, as attested to by the large numbers of female figurines carved from stone, as well as a significant amount of phallic imagery.   Pottery from the end of the Middle Jōmon period. Source: jomon.co   While the Early Jōmon period focused on creating objects more in line with function rather than form, the Middle Jōmon period is notable for increased artistic exploration, even to the detriment of the object’s function. This is most evident in the rise of ornamental pottery. Pottery decorations included animal forms, suggestive of totemic reverence. Clay figurines were also created with holes in their necks, presumably so they could be hung in the house where they would serve a spiritual function. While the quality of the pottery ornamentation increased significantly, what is noticeable is that the quality of the clay did not.   A reconstruction of a building built around 2600 BCE at Sannai-Murayama. Source: Wikimedia Commons   During the Middle Jōmon period, houses also became more complex, and the usual pit-floor dwellings started to include floors paved with stone. Walls and roofs were now separated as different parts of the building, and construction became more complex. Thatch and other reeds constituted the construction material of choice.   Late Jōmon Period (1500-300 BCE) A dogū figurine from the Late Jōmon period. Source: Wikimedia Commons   A striking feature of the Late Jōmon period is the array of complex dogū figurines that became common. They were highly stylized figures of humans and animals decorated with patterns. Although originating in the Middle Jōmon period, their usage grew throughout the Late Jōmon period.   Dogū figurines are theorized to have been representative of gods and used for sympathetic magic. This may have been used to absorb ailments and negative things affecting humans. Thereupon, the figurines were destroyed or discarded, as many dogū figurines were found in ancient trash heaps. Many figurines have been found with parts of their bodies purposely removed.   The Yayoi period, which began around 300 BCE, coincided with the mass migration of peoples from the Asian mainland. It marked an end to the manufacture and usage of Dogū figurines, indicating a change in belief systems.   Populations across Japan were, of course, not uniform. The pottery of the Tohoku region of northern Honshu and the southern Hokkaido region was notable for its elaborate decoration. In contrast to this culture, pottery in many parts of western Japan during the Late Jōmon period showed a more austere aesthetic.   The Late Jōmon period was also notable for the prevalent style of beadwork. Curved, comma-shaped beads called Magatama were popular.   A Jōmon skull and facial reconstruction of a woman who had teeth ritually removed. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Housing structures also evolved during the Late Jōmon period from rounded dwellings to square or rectangular houses. Packed mud floors were covered with rugs. Like the houses in the previous periods, they included indoor fire pits.   One particularly common trait of the Jōmon period, which continued through the Late Jōmon period and well into the Yayoi period (300 BCE), was the practice of ritual tooth ablation. Around 80% to 90% of all skulls found from this time exhibit the absence of teeth that have been intentionally removed, probably as a rite of passage.   From around 1500 BCE, the climate began to cool, and the population of Japan started to decrease. It is suggested that a decrease in resources led to the overall population decline. By 300 BCE, the Late Jōmon period is considered to have ended, while some historians and archaeologists push this date further back as far as 1000 BCE.   The end of the Late Jōmon period was marked by an influx of people from the Korean Peninsula who began mixing with the local Jōmon people. This event marks the beginning of the Yayoi period of Japanese history.   Jōmon Legacy Modern Japan. Source: pxhere.com   While many thousands of artifacts have been discovered relating to the Jōmon period, it still remains the most mysterious part of Japanese history. We know nothing of the language, and most of what we know about their culture and religion is speculative. But the Jōmon legacy has left its mark on modern Japan.   From a genetic perspective, the Jōmon people live on in the Yamato people, who constitute 98% of Japan’s current population. Research has shown that modern Yamato people carry 30% paternal Jōmon DNA, 15% maternal DNA, and 10% autosomal (non-sex-specific) DNA.   Modern interest in the Jōmon culture has also gained much traction over the past few decades. Jōmon patterns and designs have become frequent in Japanese fashion, as well as in other parts of Japanese culture, such as stationery and packaged food. Efforts have also been made to recreate Jōmon pottery using ancient techniques.   Fashion designer Ryunosuke Okazaki uses Jōmon pottery as an influence on his couture. Source: Kenji Agata via spoon-tamago.com   With the designs on Jōmon figurines being popular, there is speculation that the designs represented ancient tattoos, despite the stigma attached to tattoos in Japanese culture. Educational interest in the Jōmon period has also increased, and Jōmon exhibitions in museums draw large crowds.

  In the 10th century, a group of nomadic Turks called the Seljuks began a migration through Central Asia, searching for pasture for their herds. By 1071, this tribe had formed a mighty empire that encouraged the Turkic migration and settlement of Anatolia. This would ultimately lead to the establishment of other powerful Turkic dynasties, such as the Ottomans.   Seljuks: Nomads From Central Asia Eurasian Steppe, Kazakhstan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Oghuz Turks, the ethnic group to whom the Seljuk Dynasty belonged, originated in Central Asia. They had lived a pastoralist and nomadic life throughout the early Middle Ages. The Oghuz Turks were transhumant, meaning that they followed a pattern of seasonal migrations with their herds of animals. Historians believe that the Oghuz were originally a tribal confederation that, like many others, developed an ethnic identity. There were 24 major Oghuz tribes. The Kinik tribe was considered a prominent one, and a man named Seljuk (late 10th century) was a chieftain belonging to this tribe.   Seljuk and his nomadic followers were accustomed to a tribal life on the volatile open grasslands, or steppes, of Central Asia. From a young age, tribespeople in this region learned how to ride horses like experts. Also, the threat of constant attacks by other tribes made them skilled in the art of war and defense. Archery was a valued art and an effective weapon for horseback riders. This made steppe nomads like the Seljuks (and later the Chinggisid Mongols) a dangerous force to be reckoned with.   Though sources from this period are scarce, it is believed that Seljuk worked as a mercenary or chieftain for the Khazak Khaganate, a Judeo-Turkic polity situated around the Volga River. Possibly due to a falling out with the Khazak rulers in the late 10th century, Seljuk gathered his followers and began a southward migration that would forever change the fate of Asia and Europe.   Entry Into Anatolia Turkmen Nomad Camp by Muhammad Siyah Qalem, ca. 15th century. Source: Topkapi Palace Museum   It was Seljuk’s grandsons Tuğril (d.1063) and Çağri who turned Seljuk’s small tribe into an empire. They conquered various cities around Central and Western Asia, including Nishapur (Iran) and Merv (Turkmenistan). However, it was Çağri’s son, Sultan Alp Arslan (d.1072) who began the incursion into Anatolia.   To appease his unruly nomadic followers, the Sultan organized several gaza, or Islamically-sanctified raiding parties, into Christian territories. The Oghuz were accustomed to a tribal steppe lifestyle defined by inter-tribal raids and warfare. Their conversion to Islam did not stop them from their traditional raiding and looting, of which Muslim households were now the target. This upset the citizens of the “civilized” Islamic centers of Baghdad and Tabriz, who expected the Seljuk Dynasty to protect them.   Directing the nomads’ energies towards Christian lands would not only save the reputation of the Seljuks in Islamic lands but it would also gain them territory, power, and prestige. The Seljuks had already conducted campaigns in Anatolia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. In 1064, they conquered Ani (Eastern Anatolia), which the Byzantines could not protect. War between these two powers became inevitable as the Seljuks pushed further into Anatolia.   In 1071, on the plain of Manzikert in Eastern Anatolia, the Byzantine army was defeated by Seljuk forces. That same year, the Seljuks secured Jerusalem, leading to the First Crusade (1096-1099).   The Sultanate of Rum Map of the Sultanate of Rum, or Anatolian Seljuk Empire. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The most crucial effect of the Battle of Manzikert was that it opened Anatolia to Turkic settlement. Hordes of Oghuz nomads—now called “Turkmen” to separate them from some Oghuz tribes who were still pagan—migrated to cities like Ani. In Anatolia, they found rich pasture and a terrain very similar to the steppe lands of Central Asia. This was a major factor in their permanent settlement in the country.   Another factor in the Turkic settlement of Anatolia was the weakening of the Great Seljukid Empire based in Iran. By 1090, the state was beginning to show signs of decline. A power struggle between Sultan Malikshah’s wife Terken Hatun and the Persian Grand Vizier Nizam-ul-Mulk ended in the latter’s death and Terken’s removal from power.   After Nizam-ul-Mulk’s death, the empire began to disintegrate. Yet, rather than disappearing altogether, the Seljuk Empire came back to life as the “Sultanate of Rum.” Rum referred to “Rome,” another name for Anatolia. In the early 12th century, Suleyman Shah I, cousin of Sultan Alp Arslan, set up his new capital in Iconium, the modern-day city of Konya.   Court and Social Life in Seljuk Anatolia Ince Minareli Madrasa, with clear Central Asian influences, built ca. 1264. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Seljuks of Anatolia existed in a different political and social milieu than their brothers in Iran and Iraq had. Anatolia had a large Christian population, mainly made up of Greeks (called “Rum,” or Romans), Armenians, and Assyrians. There were also other populations, like Kurds and Arabs in the East. The entry of nomadic Turks had added another ethnic and religious element to this melting pot.   Communities were not only divided along ethnic or religious lines. Sedentary peoples who lived in villages and towns, whether Christian or Muslim, mistrusted and feared nomads. The Turkmen nomads sometimes raided villages to obtain farmed goods that they could not produce themselves. Other times, nomads and townspeople traded goods at markets, facilitating a transfer of cultural and religious ideals.   Amongst the elites and royals, Persian culture and language, rather than Turkic, was more popular. To the Seljuks, Persian language, literature, and religious movements, like Sufism, were considered more refined and superior to the Oghuz culture which was increasingly associated with “uncouth” nomads. Many court officials, along with popular personalities, like the Sufi poet Jalal-al-Din Rumi, were Persian and wrote in the Persian language.   The Seljuks were also great patrons of art, science, and architecture. They built scores of mosques, caravanserais, hospitals, and madrasas (schools of learning) in their cities. In their art, they mixed Turkic and Persian motifs. Unlike other Islamic dynasties of the period, they liked to depict human, animal, and mythological figures in their palaces and pottery.   The Beyliks Depiction of a Turkmen lord and the Turkmen principalities, from the Catalan Atlas, by Abraham Cresques, ca. 1375. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Although the diverse communities in Medieval Anatolia played different roles, it was the Turkmen who dominated politics. The Turkmen nomads who had supported the Seljuks since the 10th century, and who made up the bulk of their followers, also held military power. They made up the military class, including soldiers, commanders, and generals who were given timar (land grants) in return for their service.   As Turkoman chiefs proved themselves in war and raids, they were given titles and land by the Seljuks. Backed by their followers, chiefs and “gazis” (raiders), like Danishmend Gazi (d.1085), formed their own principalities. Danishmend was a renowned gazi who formed the Danishmendid principality that eventually rebelled against the Seljuk Sultanate.   These principalities, ruled by “beys,” meaning “lords,” were called beyliks and thus, the period from the late 11th to the 14th century is also often referred to as the First Beylik Period. The lords of these principalities were supported by the Seljuks at times because they secured land for the Turks and weakened the Seljuks’ Byzantine and Crusader enemies.   The Mongol Invasions Portrait of Chinggis Khan, Mongolian. Source: The British Museum   By 1220, the Anatolian Seljuks were at the height of their power. Yet, to the east, there was a new force threatening to destroy all in its path: the Chingissid Mongols. Under the command of Chinggis Khan, the Mongol Empire was expanding considerably throughout Central and Western Asia. After this conqueror’s death, the Mongols continued to invade nations across Eurasia, including Anatolia.   These invasions culminated in the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1241. The Mongols were led by Baiju Noyan, an effective commander appointed by Chinggis Khan’s son Ögedei Khan. Located in the mountain ranges of Köse Dağ, between the cities of Sivas and Erzincan, the battle was a decisive factor in the fall of the Anatolian Seljuks. The Mongols defeated the Seljuk army using steppe warfare tactics, like the famous feigned retreat of steppe warriors. Interestingly, these were tactics that the Seljuks themselves had used before their state took on a more sedentary and Persian identity.   Although the Seljuks outnumbered the Mongol army, the latter fought ferociously and had effective commanders, something that the Seljuk forces lacked. The Seljuks were decimated, many of their soldiers eventually deserting the battlefield. As a result, Seljuk Sultan Keyhusrev II fled to Ankara. He eventually accepted Mongol suzerainty, paying an annual tribute to the Mongol Khaganate. This marked the end of independent Seljuk rule in Anatolia and began their slow process of decline.   The Downfall of the Seljuk Dynasty Mongols (left) pursue the Seljuk army (right) at Köse Dag, by Hayton of Corycus, Fleur des Histoires d’orient, ca. 1243. Source: Bibliothèque Nationale de France   After the decisive battle of Köse Dağ, the Seljuks reigned largely as figureheads. They were challenged by other Turkmen principalities, like the Karamanids, who disagreed with the Seljuks’ non-aggression policy towards the Mongols. These Turkmen could not accept being under the rule of those they considered pagans and infidels.   In 1277, the Karamanids—who had long interfered in Seljuk politics—annexed Konya, the capital of the Seljuk state. However, since the Seljuks had the Mongol army’s military support, they defeated the Karamanid army.   Still, this did not put an end to popular rebellions against the Seljuks. In 1239, a mystic preacher named Baba Ishak managed to stir up rebellion amongst the Turkmen tribes. Likewise, in 1276, the Seljuk statesman Hatiroğlu Serafeddin began a revolt against Mongol—and therefore Seljuk—rule. Both uprisings were ruthlessly suppressed, and their leaders were executed.   A series of internal struggles for power among members of the Seljuk Dynasty ultimately contributed to the state’s disintegration in 1308. After the downfall of the Seljuk Dynasty in 1308, the Second Beylik Period began as several chieftaincies, including the Ottomans and Karamanids, vied for power for the next two centuries.

Did you know President Trump is not the only President to be shot at in Butler? It’s true. As always, truth is stranger than fiction! Check this out: DID YOU KNOW: President Trump was not the only President to get shot in Butler….@glennbeck SOURCE:https://t.co/Knqvp7RAkN pic.twitter.com/wVcXaCJ8kw — Noah Christopher (@DailyNoahNews) April 10, 2025 TRANSCRIPT: Sure. He’s not dumb. He’s pragmatic. Yes, he’s incredibly pragmatic. There’s also some—by the way, people will find out that Trump, in this book in Butler, that Trump is not the only president to be shot in Butler and almost died. George Washington did. Oh, you’re kidding me. Wait a minute—wait wait wait wait. He was shot? I didn’t think George Washington was ever wounded. He did. They missed, just like this guy did. God. Yeah, that’s the first chapter. George Washington running through Butler. I think we need to make sure everybody knows—if you’re running for president, don’t go to Butler. Jeez. And Butler—the reason why Butler is also so important—Butler is a symbol of everyday America, right? This is a county and a city that is a great big mix of suburbs but also industrial, and farmer, and ranchers, right? If you wanted to see like a melting pot of the country in one county, this is it, right? And he goes to places like that, and he lets people know that they are seen. Yeah, I know. Just like East Palestine. Like, that was the moment that changed the trajectory of his election—was showing up in East Palestine in February of 2023. People might not remember—he was down in the polls then. This was before, you know, the primary process started and—and— And he was down in the polls. One week after he went to East Palestine, he shot out above DeSantis and Haley and never looked back. DID YOU KNOW: President Trump was not the only President to get shot in Butler….@glennbeck SOURCE:https://t.co/Knqvp7RAkN pic.twitter.com/wVcXaCJ8kw — Noah Christopher (@DailyNoahNews) April 10, 2025 There is actually a long and strange political history in Butler, PA. Check this out: Butler, Pennsylvania, and its surrounding county have a surprisingly rich history of political and presidential connections, marked by both strange and significant events. Here’s a look at some notable occurrences tied to presidents or political happenings, beyond the well-known 1753 assassination attempt on George Washington and the 2024 attempt on Donald Trump: John F. Kennedy’s 1960 Campaign Stop: On October 15, 1960, then-Senator John F. Kennedy visited Butler during his presidential campaign. He spoke from the steps of the Butler County Courthouse to a crowd of about 5,000, despite the area’s staunch Republican leanings. A local anecdote claims Kennedy quipped about the Nixon Hotel across the street, saying, “Nixon Lodge? When I’m elected president, they’ll change it to Kennedy’s Inn.” This lighthearted jab at his opponent, Richard Nixon, reflected the competitive spirit of the election. Kennedy’s visit was a bold move in a region that rarely supported Democrats, making it a memorable political moment for Butler. William Howard Taft’s 1918 Visit: Former President William Howard Taft came to Butler on November 26, 1918, just weeks after the World War I armistice. Taft, who had been president from 1909 to 1913, spoke at the Majestic Theater to rally support for the League of Nations, an idea championed by his successor, Woodrow Wilson. His visit was part of a broader speaking tour, and he arrived after a warm reception in New Castle, accompanied by Butler’s civic leaders via a chartered streetcar. Taft’s hefty 350-pound frame reportedly required a rest in the Nixon Hotel’s Presidential Suite afterward, adding a quirky footnote to his stop in this small town. Warren G. Harding’s Funeral Train in 1923: Following President Warren G. Harding’s sudden death in August 1923, his funeral train passed through Butler County en route from San Francisco to Washington, D.C. While not a stop, the slow procession through the region drew mourners to the tracks, marking a somber political moment. Harding’s death sparked conspiracy theories nationwide, including poisoning rumors, though none were tied specifically to Butler. The event left a quiet imprint on the county’s historical memory. George Washington’s Earlier Visit and the “Washington’s Trail” Legacy: Before the 1753 assassination attempt near present-day Butler, Washington traversed the area in 1753 as a 21-year-old major on a mission for Virginia’s governor. His journey, now commemorated as “Washington’s Trail 1753,” included encounters with French and Native American forces, setting the stage for the French and Indian War. A historical marker near Butler notes his “narrow escape from death,” tying the region to the early political machinations of colonial America that shaped the future president’s career. The Trump Assassination Attempt of 2024: On July 13, 2024, former President Donald Trump survived an assassination attempt during a campaign rally at the Butler Farm Show Grounds, just outside city limits. A bullet grazed his ear, one spectator was killed, and the shooter, Thomas Matthew Crooks, was neutralized by Secret Service. This event thrust Butler into the global spotlight, echoing its 1753 brush with Washington’s near-death experience. The region’s deep Republican tilt—Trump won nearly two-to-one in 2020—made the attack a shocking political anomaly in a supportive stronghold. Political Figures from Butler: The area produced notable political figures, though not presidents. William J. Perry, born in Butler in 1927, served as U.S. Secretary of Defense under Bill Clinton from 1994 to 1997, rising from local roots to a key national role. Additionally, Walter Lowrie, Butler’s only U.S. Senator, served from 1819 to 1825 and built a home in 1828 that still stands behind the courthouse, now maintained by the Butler County Historical Society. These figures tie Butler to broader political history. If you want to see the entire interview, it was fascinating, and I have it for your below. Keep reading: Reporter Reveals What Trump Said BEFORE “Fight! Fight! Fight!” Reporter Reveals What Trump Said BEFORE “Fight! Fight! Fight!” Major credit to Glenn Beck recently for putting out some incredible videos! I don't mean to imply that's something new, Glenn has been one of my favorite sources for years, but he's really been crushing it recently. Today I want to show you his interview with journalist Selena Zito, who was with Trump in Butler, and for the first time ever that I've heard, she revealed what President Trump said down on the ground after being shot, right before he stood up and said "Fight! Fight! Fight!" It's all in the short video below, which is worth watching the whole thing but I'm not trying to hide the ball on you either, I've put the key part in red below in the transcript. It's all from her upcoming new book, which you can find on Amazon here if you're interested: https://amzn.to/42E8ovz Please enjoy: FULL TRANSCRIPT: Glenn Beck:We're talking to Selena Zito. She is the author of a coming book—uh, we'll talk to her again this summer when it comes out—a coming book called Butler: The Untold Story of the Near Assassination of Donald Trump and the Fight for America's Heartland. I think that's chapter one, that's the longest title—uh, Selena, I've ever heard.And my books have long titles. Selena Zito:I didn't come up with that. Glenn Beck:Yeah, okay. Anyway—um—you were talking about when he was shot,and you said it was the next day that was really telling. Let me ask you first, before you go into the next day—you were close enough to see when he was down on the ground. I asked him recently, privately, "What was going through your head?"And he said:"Uh, honestly Glenn, this is pathetic. It looks weak. Get up. You're not afraid. Get up. Get up." Yes. That was amazing. Has he talked to you about that? Selena Zito:Yeah. It’s in the book. I won’t give too much away—I want everyone to buy it. Glenn Beck:I’m ordering mine today. Everybody should read it. Because Selena is a great writer.She’s the one I would want to tell this story. But anyway, go ahead. Selena Zito:Yeah, yeah. Pre-orders—you know how important that is,especially if you don’t live in New York or D.C. So, we had that conversation, and I’ll tell you a little bit of it because I had the same—um, it was the way he explained it—it was so powerful. So first thing I think people should know is that he called me first thing in the morning the next day.And before I could even say hello, he said, “Selena, are you okay? Is your daughter okay?” Isn’t that crazy?And I kind of swore at the president—my mom’s going to be mad when she reads this part—but I said, “Are you bleeping kidding me? You’re the one that was shot, right?” But I was just so stunned that that—that that was the first thing he was thinking of.And it was o-dark in the morning, like it was really early. We proceeded to have about seven more phone calls—I think maybe more.And, you know, one of the things that he said to me was— So one thing people don’t know is before he said “Fight, fight, fight,” I could see him.He says “USA” twice. He’s still on the ground. And then I see him turn and get up and say “Fight, fight, fight.” Glenn Beck:Wow. Selena Zito:And so we talked about that.And I said, “Why?” Like you did. And he said, “Well, Selena, at that moment I wasn’t Donald Trump.I was symbolic. Even though I wasn’t president yet again—I had once been president—I had an obligation to show that the country is strong,that we will not be defeated, and that we are resolute. I did not want to be the symbol of America being weak.” Glenn Beck:Jeez, that does not happen—I mean, you’re bringing me to tears.That is not something that happens.That is in you.That is either in you or not in you, and it’s in very few people. Selena Zito:Yes. And we talk a lot about faith as well.There are some very gripping, emotional moments that he and I had—not only that next day,but also I saw him probably a dozen times after that at different rallies that I covered,and we had some very emotional conversations. But he believed in that moment—and I think he believes this always—you can tell by his swagger, you can tell by the way he talks,he always believes that you have a responsibility as the President of the United States. You are a symbol of the country and everything it stands for.You should project strength at all times.And he had it in that moment. Glenn Beck:Isn’t it weird—funny—yeah, go ahead. Selena Zito:Isn’t it weird? You know, there have been other world leadersthat have had assassination attempts,and it makes them egotistical. This assassination attempt actually humbled him and yet strengthened him.It’s the most bizarre thing I’ve seen. You know, he could have easily gone up and said,“It was the most beautiful bullet of all time, but my superpowers…”You know what I mean? And he doesn’t. He was like, “God saved me.” And he doesn’t use that as a—“That’s why you need to go stay at the Trump God golf course that I’m building.”I mean, you know what I mean? Glenn Beck:No, no, no. You’re exactly right.And if people are wondering why he is so resolute on everything that he’s doingand everything he is doing at such warp speed,it’s because he believes—and he told me this—that God was there. God saved him. Because he never uses a chart. He never turns away.He asks me several times, “I don’t know why.”Like out loud, he’s like, “I don’t know why I did that, Selena. I don’t know why I did that.” And the man you see today, and you see what he is projecting—no matter who is saying, “This is terrible. You’re going to break the country, blah blah blah, whatever it is”—he’s like, “No. I am supposed to do this. I am supposed to save this country.” And I don’t think you’re going to see him waver.Now, will he change his mind on things? Sure.He’s not dumb. He’s pragmatic. Selena Zito:Yes, he’s incredibly pragmatic.There’s also some—by the way—people will find out that Trump, in this book Butler,Trump is not the only president to be shot in Butler and almost die.George Washington did. Glenn Beck:Oh, you’re kidding me. Wait a minute.No, wait wait wait—he was shot?I didn’t think George—I didn’t think George Washington was ever wounded. Selena Zito:Oh, he did. They missed—just like this guy did. Glenn Beck:Oh my God. Selena Zito:Yeah, that’s the first chapter. George Washington running through Butler.I think we need to make sure everybody knows—if you’re running for president, don’t go to Butler. Jeez. And Butler—the reason why Butler is also so important is that Butler is a symbol of everyday America.This is a county and a city that is a great big mix of suburbs,but also industrial and farmers and ranchers. This is—if you wanted to see a melting pot of the country in one county, this is it.And he goes to places like that, and he lets people know that they are seen. Selena Zito:Yeah, I know. Just like East Palestine.That was the moment that changed the trajectory of his election—was showing up in East Palestine in February of 2023. People might not remember, he was down in the polls then.This was before the primary process started.And he was down in the polls.One week after he went to East Palestine, he shot out above DeSantis and Haley and never looked back. And that is that magic power that he has—in that he makes places, and people in those places, feel seen.And so the book will take you also through what nobody saw and heard during the election cycle. Glenn Beck:Hang on, hang on—let me go back to Butler here for a second.He also said to me the one thing that cemented where he knew—and I think this is part of where he got his swagger back—where he knew the American people were with him. He said, “I get back up and I see the crowd is not a jumble of chaos, everybody stampeding toward an exit.” I’ve never really seen the video of that moment from the crowd perspective, just—you always see the video of him.What was it like in the crowd when that was going on?What was happening to the crowd? Selena Zito:It was—it was like a miracle.People were not freaking out.People were cheering him on as he left.And after he was safely gone, they just quietly exited. And what is really profound, Glenn, is, you know, they kept me in the back for a long time.They were trying to make sure I wasn’t hit, because I never got down.And, you know, sometimes you don’t know if you’re hit, right? So I go out and walk with my daughter and my son-in-law.And we walk to our car—and this is on a big farm, right?And there’s—all those cars are still there.They hadn’t let anybody leave yet. And instead of people blowing their horns—like, this is an hour after it happened—instead of people freaking out, people were outside of their cars.They were hugging each other. They were sharing waters and food.Helping each other. Making sure everyone was okay. It was incredibly moving to be there.And I talked to people that were there—in the book.And it was absolutely—I get chills even talking about it—because what you saw in that moment was the way that people behave in a crisis situation.It can go one of two ways. And many people said to me they felt the presence of something greater than self in that moment.And they believed—they weren’t scared. They weren’t scared. Glenn Beck:Selena, the name of the book is Butler, and it’s coming out this summer.You can pre-order it now. I’m literally going to order my copy today. Because Selena is just—she’s a fantast—and just really, really good. So this is going to be a great story. Do you get into who the shooter was and all of that? Selena Zito:There—yeah, I mean, the shooter actually grew up maybe three miles from my home of 30 years.There’s not much to tell in terms of motive, but I really get into the family,the poor sportsman range where he went to. You know, this is a kid who—I went and looked at the log of when he went to the range.He went on Thanksgiving. He went on Christmas.He went on Valentine’s Day. These are days—you know, you’re able to get more of a profile of this gentleman. But I also—you know, this is a day that, had the wind blown any other way,had, you know, so many things gone differently—so many things could have been so wrong in that moment. And that’s the heart of Butler.And you saw it elsewhere throughout the election with the president. And like I said, there’s some funny spots.He chases me with hairspray all the time. Glenn Beck:Wait, all the time? Selena Zito:Oh yeah. Yeah. He thinks I have the greatest hair in America.And he will tell you that. But he also is like, “What? You need to wear hairspray?”I’m like, “Sir, I don’t want my hair any bigger. It’s Italian. I can’t help the way it looks.” And so yeah, there are some very humorous moments in the book as well,but also just really on the ground in Pennsylvaniaand really seeing what was happening in that election—not just with President Trump, but also with Harrison and Walt. There are some stories there that will blow people’s mindsin terms of how inept and unprepared they were. Glenn Beck:We’d love to have you back when the book is out.But thank you so much for sharing that.I know you didn’t plan on sharing it today,but thank you so much. Appreciate it. Selena Zito:Oh my gosh, thank you so much.I really deeply appreciate it. Glenn Beck:No, it’s always good to talk to you.Good, good dear friend, and one of the best journalists out there—Selena Zito. The name of the book is Butler. You can pre-order it now.Get it now and be one of the first to have it. We’ll try to have her back on when the book officially comes out,but it sounds like a great read. You can pre-order a copy of her new book on Amazon here if you want: PRE-ORDER LINK And now, before I wrap this up, I have to show you my favorite Glenn Beck segment of all time.... This one still cracks me up every time I watch it: GLENN BECK: “Hang on, our Themis has just gone off….” GLENN BECK: "Hang on, our Themis has just gone off...." This is a flashback to one of my favorite bits Glenn Beck has ever done....has me laughing hysterically every time I see it! Recently, I covered a new report from Glenn Beck. You can read that here. But I can't cover Glenn Beck and not show you one of the most hilarious things he's ever done. This one actually had me literally laughing out loud so I had to share it with you. I actually don't get to watch Glenn Beck all that often but I always liked him and I happened to click on this video of his today and it had me in stitches. So here's the background.... Apparently at Dubai Design Week (whatever that is) a new "invention" was released called the "Themis". Named after the Greek goddess of justice, the "Themis" is designed to sound an alarm when your speech includes something "offensive". Gee, what could possibly go wrong? This is the "goddess" Themis: And this is the new "invention": https://twitter.com/newsoneplace/status/1459856380513460230 https://twitter.com/aspals/status/1460673637632118789 The DailyMail had more info on the horrific new device: A new trigger-warning detector which sound alarms when it detects offensive speech has been unveiled at Dubai Design Week. The Themis is a lamp-sized device intended to 'moderate' debate in classrooms and universities and 'manifest political correctness' into a product. The small device could even be used to police language at dinner parties and family gatherings and its developers have said it hopes that Themis will encourage 'self-critique'. The Themis (pictured) emits irritating sounds when it detects racial slurs and 'offensive' jokes +2 The Themis will emit irritating sounds when it detects offensive speech has been said around it Zinah Issa, who unveiled the device in Dubai, told The Telegraph: 'Through the use of speech recognition and sound sensors we were able to program Themis to detect offensive terms - racial slurs, offensive jokes - through the microphone. 'Extremely bothersome alarms last approximately two minutes, after which Themis turns off, allowing an open, understanding discussion among people on the possible trigger matter and the potential reasons behind Themis's activation'. The device is named for Themis, the Greek goddess of justice and social order. Themis is being currently trialled in classrooms and universities with a view to a wider roll-out soon. The design were unveiled at the Global Grad Show where students from across the Middle East and North Africa were invited to share their work. So that's actually rather disturbing, but the part that had my cracking up was Glenn Beck's bit he did about it. In a sketch where he pretends to be talking to his co-host Stew, they start talking about the story and then find out that the Themis starts going off on Stew. When Glenn says "Hang on, our Themis has just gone off" I lost it. It's a good thing I wasn't drinking something or I would have sprayed it all over my computer screen. Enjoy this short bit: Full video player: GLENN BECK: "Hang on, our Themis has just gone off...." pic.twitter.com/RQ3EQ7lWfM — DailyNoah.com (@DailyNoahNews) December 26, 2023 Sometimes the best way to deal with things is through humor and satire. Well done, Glenn and Stew!

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A Pulitzer Prize-winning Washington Post journalist was arrested and charged after authorities allegedly discovered child porn on his work computer, DC US Attorney Jeanine Pirro announced Friday. Thomas Pham LeGro, a 48-year-old video editor at the news outlet, was taken into custody on Thursday after FBI agents raided his Washington, DC, home and discovered a […] The post WaPo Editor Who Torched Roy Moore Over Sexual Allegations Arrested for Child Porn? appeared first on www.independentsentinel.com.