Belisarius was a renowned military commander with impressive battlefield achievements. Hampered by limited resources in both men and money, he spearheaded Emperor Justinian’s attempt to reconquer the key territories of the former Western Roman Empire: Africa, Hispania, Italy, and Gaul. Yet, no victory would be complete without Rome. King Theodoric the Great had been an effective ruler of the Gothic kingdom of Italy. When he died, Justinian saw an opportunity to reclaim Rome for the Byzantine Empire.   Theodoric and the Kingdom of Italy Coin depicting Flavius Theodoricus (Theodoric the Great), Roman Vassal and King of the Ostrogoths. Source: Collection of Italian numismatic Francesco Gnecchi   While many people characterize barbarians as pillaging hordes bent on destruction and death, the barbarian was simply a term that the ancient Romans and Greeks used to describe ethnic groups that did not observe the same laws or culture or speak the same language as they did.   The Germanic Kingdoms and the Eastern Roman Empire in 526. Map from Shepherd, W. R. (1911) The Historical Atlas. Source: The University of Texas at Austin   Theodoric the Great, King of the Ostrogoths, was an intelligent, cultured ruler who not only expanded his kingdom of Italy but also produced great works of art and architecture that built on the legacy of the Western Roman Empire.   By Roman standards, Theodoric was a civilized barbarian of the former Western Roman Empire. Despite being an Arian Christian, he did not try to convert or subvert Italy’s ingrained orthodox Roman populace. Later generations added Great to his name in honor of the prosperity of his kingdom. The Ostrogoths changed little of the Roman administration and demonstrated respect and esteem for the Roman way of life and civilization (Hughes, pg. 73). Theodoric’s tomb in Ravenna by Robert von Spalart, 1804-1811. Source: The Wellcome Collection, London   The death of Theodoric in 526 and the elevation of his ten-year-old grandson, Athalaric, set the stage for the Gothic War between Theodoric’s successors and Emperor Justinian. The appointment of Athalaric’s mother, Amalasuntha, as regent increased tensions. She was well-educated and spoke Latin, Greek, and Gothic. The Ostrogoth nobles not only objected to a woman having such power over their king but also opposed her pro-Byzantine policies. They insisted that Athalaric should be brought up as a proper Goth instead. The young man started drinking heavily, and it soon became evident that he would not match his grandfather’s longevity.   Queen Amalasuntha of the Ostrogoths, 1500-1850. Source: The Austrian National Library, Vienna   After Athalaric’s death, Amalasuntha married her cousin Theodahad, and they became co-monarchs of the Ostrogoth Kingdom. Amalasuntha considered him easily controllable since he was more interested in academic pursuits than political affairs. However, Theodahad was a more dangerous adversary than she anticipated. He deposed Amalasuntha and exiled her to Martana, an island in Lake Vulsina. Knowing that his actions would attract a response from Justinian, Theodahad arranged Amalasuntha’s murder to prevent her raising a resistance against him.   The Invasion of Italy Begins in Earnest Emperor Justinian and Members of His Court. Reproduction of 6th century CE mosaic. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   At first, it seemed that all of Italy would fall into the hands of Justinian with no need for further bloodshed, but the Roman General Mundus, entrusted with the conquest of Salona on the Adriatic coast (present-day Solin, Croatia), came to a grisly end in the Balkans. During an encounter with the Goths, Mundus fell, leaving his army leaderless and depriving Justinian of a trusted and able general. The Roman army in Dalmatia was forced to retreat. Theodahad displayed an unexpected spark of courage. He withdrew his offer to surrender Italy for extensive estates and an annual income of just under 90,000 solidi.   The military situation was going much better for Belisarius. Having conquered North Africa, he landed in Sicily in 535 and quickly secured the surrender of Theodahad’s son-in-law and his men on the island as well as the Goths who were supposed to be guarding the straits separating Sicily from the Italian peninsula. The Romans then slowly but surely moved up the boot of Italy to the fortified city of Neapolis (present-day Naples), and encountered their first serious resistance in Italy. Naples was the center of Gothic power in southern Italy and was defended by a strong garrison.   Belisarius could not risk bypassing Neapolis. Therefore, he initiated a blockade of the city’s walls from land and sea but realized he could not afford to besiege the city indefinitely and give the Goths time to raise reinforcements to destroy the Romans. Thankfully for Belisarius, Theodahad was indecisive and made no attempt to reinforce Neapolis. The fortifications would still be an immense challenge, making it nearly impossible to bring ships close enough to attack the city.   Aqueduct Tunnels Beneath Naples. Source: The Hydria Virtual Museum   Twenty days passed, and several attempts were made to take the city by assaulting its walls. With no success and only further losses that the Romans could not sustain for long, in true Belisarius fashion, a brilliant stroke of luck would soon manifest in one of the Roman foederati (allies): an Isaurian who had climbed up a broken part of an aqueduct leading into Neapolis. Belisarius tried to get the garrison to surrender one last time, but they refused.   After some initial difficulties, the troops exited the aqueduct tunnel. They ran to the northern walls, killing the sentinels in the two main towers and taking the Goths entirely by surprise (Jacobsen, p. 91). The defenders were shocked but managed to hold for a more extended period on the South Wall, but once the Romans attacked in the rear, they finally fled, and at last, the road to Rome lay open.   Restoration of Rome The Walls and Gates of Rome in the early 6th century. Source: 1919 Edition of Procopius’ History of the Wars translated by H. B. Dewing   By 536 CE, Theodahad began contemplating his next move against Belisarius. He established a Goth garrison in Rome, but placing Gothic troops in the city set off rioting. When protests escalated, the nobles who had once supported Theodahad lost confidence in him. Citing his ineffective leadership and failure to protect major cities such as Neapolis, they removed him from power. In his place, they selected the warlord Vitigis, an experienced soldier, to be the new king. (Parnell, pg. 93). Theodahad soon fled for his life, but Vitigis and the nobles hunted him down and killed him near Ravenna.   Vitigis returned to Rome and demanded that Pope Silverius swear an oath of loyalty to the Gothic cause. He demanded the same vow from the Senate and other leading citizens. Vitigis even held several senators hostage as a reminder of the consequences for betrayal. Despite his bravado, he avoided immediate confrontation with Belisarius. Instead, he placed 4,000 men in the garrison before departing for Ravenna to counter a Frankish threat to the Gothic heartlands in northern Italy. He was confident that the garrison could provide adequate protection until he returned with reinforcements.   In Vitigis’ absence, Pope Silverius sent an envoy to Belisarius, urging him to march with all haste to Rome to take possession of the city. As the Roman expeditionary force advanced along the Via Appia, the Gothic garrison prudently chose to retreat. Belisarius led his men into the city via the Porta Asinaria without serious opposition. He sent the one remaining Gothic commander to Emperor Justinian with the keys to the city (Sarris, p. 227).   The Gothic Counterattack King Vitigis of the Ostrogoths, 17th century. Source: The Austrian National Library, Vienna   Belisarius knew that the Goths would direct their vengeance against him sooner or later. Belisarius ordered a moat to be dug around the city walls of Rome, and for the areas of the walls that had deteriorated due to neglect to be repaired (Hughes, p. 133). Using Rome as his principal base, Belisarius also dispatched troops to take control of the surrounding countryside.   Alongside the repairs to the walls, he stockpiled provisions for a siege, even though the citizens informed him that attempts to defend all of Rome’s walls were not possible. All able-bodied Roman males were signed up to protect the walls and free up Belisarius’ men for field duty in case they had to fight beyond the city walls of Rome. Belisarius’ reputation as a skilled military leader encouraged neighboring Gothic commanders to join his forces despite Vitigis’ foot soldiers and cavalry outnumbering the Roman army.   Even with their significant numerical advantage, Vitigis could still not surround the city’s complete circuit defenses when the Goths finally arrived. The King of the Goths also did not fully feel comfortable trying to take Rome by storm, which would inevitably bring significant casualties and could easily lead to a complete collapse in morale (Sarris, p. 228). As the siege tightened, Belisarius sent Justinian a letter imploring the emperor to provide reinforcements. Justinian ordered more men from Greece to Italy, but this proved painfully slow. Vitigis looked for any tactics to break the Romans’ determination. He ordered his troops to block the aqueducts leading into the city. He wanted Rome’s citizens to suffer for choosing the wrong master.   Belisarius thwarted Vitigis’ vengeance with a clever solution. He showed the citizens that the Tiber River could provide both a natural defense and hydraulic power for the mills that made the city’s flour. With this strategy, Belisarius prevented riots and increased support. He planned food rationing and organized shelters in the city’s buildings.   The Siege of Rome Begins Walls of Rome: The Aurelian Wall. With the Pyramid of Cestius. Painting by Isaac Weld, 1818. Source: The Yale Center for British Art, Connecticut   Despite the initial indecisiveness about a direct assault on Rome, the Goths realized they could not afford an indefinite siege. Vitigis ordered the construction of great siege towers to breach the massive Aurelian Walls. The fighting was incredibly desperate as the Romans had to fight against two simultaneous attacks on the walls. Time after time, the enemy came within mere inches of overwhelming Belisarius’ men.   Belisarius seemed to be everywhere at once, firing arrows and aiding his men in hacking away at the scaling ladders. Soon, 30,000 Goths lay dead or dying on the battlefield, and Vittigis was left with seemingly nothing but the ashes of the smoldering remains of his siege towers (Brownsworth, p. 94).   Despite these early victories, Belisarius knew the siege would test the limits of his soldiers’ capabilities. Fortunately, he had capable officers and seasoned veterans at his disposal. Belisarius could trust his subordinates to execute orders and adapt to the changing conditions of the battlefield. Still, he understood that his mission required further reinforcements, so he asked Justinian for additional troops. The Emperor ignored Belisarius’ requests. If his most skilled general could deliver Africa with a mere handful of men, why should Italy be any different?   Just as the Romans’ manpower was at a breaking point, Justinian relented and sent reinforcements. Within the Gothic camp, Vitigis’ forces grew impatient and weary. They were exposed to the elements, running short of food and trying to avoid sickness in unsanitary conditions. Vitigis knew he was fighting a losing battle. Even the land itself around Rome seemed utterly exhausted (Brownsworth, pg. 95).   The Light of Rome Is Not Yet Extinguished Map of Europe in around 565 CE after Justianian’s reconquests. From A History of medieval and modern Europe from secondary schools by W. S. Davis and N. S. McKendrick, published by Houghton Mifflin Company, 1920. Source: The Library of Congress, Washington DC   Once Vittigis figured out that a Roman advance force had managed to slip out of Rome and capture the town of Rimini, only 33 miles from Ravenna, he realized there was no glory to be gained and cursed the winds that brought these Romans to his shores. He ordered his army to withdraw from Rome, and Belisarius ensured that the Goths would pay for their arrogance by inflicting a humiliating rout on them.   With only a few thousand men, the Roman general had taken on the mighty Ostrogothic Kingdom and managed to cripple its fighting abilities within only two years (Brownsworth, p. 96). Having fallen to barbarians on several occasions over the previous centuries, the Eternal City of Rome now seemed secure under the firm protection of the empire, but would it stay that way?   Bibliography   Brownworth, L. (2009). Lost to the west. The forgotten Byzantine Empire that rescued Western Civilization. Three Rivers Press.   Hughes, I. (2009). Belisarius: The Last Roman General. Westholme Publishing, LLC.   Jacobsen, T. C. (2012). The Gothic War: Justinian’s Campaign to Reclaim Italy. Westholme Publishing, LLC.   Parnell, D. (2023). Belisarius & Antonia: Love and War in the Age of Justinian. Oxford University Press.   Sarris, P. (2023). Justinian: Emperor, Soldier, Saint. Basic Books.

  The Hindu-Buddhist Khmer Empire stretched across what is now known as Cambodia, and you can see numerous relics from this incredible empire today. The most popular and famous is Angkor Wat, but when you visit Siem Reap and beyond, you’ll find fantastic ruins that rival anything else you’ll find in the world.   Many of these temples are within the Angkor Archaeological Park, and you can see many of them on a guided trip to the park that ends, or begins, at Angkor Wat. Others are a bit further from Siem Reap, but still an easy day trip from the city.   1. Bayon Temple Bayon temple at Angkor Thom, Cambodia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Bayon Temple, in the Angkor Archaeological Park, is one of the most impressive ruins near Siem Reap. Full of marvelous relics, including long-lost statues and set next to a lake that reflects its magnificence, Bayon Temple will be one of the highlights of your trip. Make sure that you look for the smiling faces, carved into the prangs and towns of the temple.   The Bayon Temple was built in the late 12th century and features several Buddha statues, as well as carvings of Naga and Dvarapala around the entrances. If you visit, plan to spend about two hours touring the temple.   2. Baphuon Angkor Thom, Siem Reap Province, Cambodia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   You can visit both Bayon Temple and Baphuon in a single morning, as the two are very close to each other. It’s nicknamed the “golden mountain,” and if you visit right as the sun is coming up, you’ll fully understand why. Baphuon is one of the oldest temples on our list, dating back to the early part of the 10th Century, and was initially built to worship Shiva. In later years, the temple was repurposed as a Theravada Buddhist site.   Baphuon is an excellent place to take photographs, both inside and out. If you’re feeling inclined, you can make the steep climb to the temple’s terrace and enjoy excellent views of Angkor Archeological Park.   3. Preah Vihear Temple Preah Vihear, Cambodia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   At three and a half hours away from Siem Reap by Car, Preah Vihear Temple is one of the further-flung options on our list, but it’s well worth checking out. This 11th-century temple stretches 500 feet long and 535 feet wide; you’re likely to spend several hours exploring it fully. Plus, since it’s very far off the beaten path, you’re less likely to run into any fellow tourists on your journey.   One thing that you’ll notice as you wander through Preah Vihear Temple is the intricate stone carvings depicting the Hindu gods Shiva and Vishnu. These carvings are in excellent condition, making the Preah Vihear Temple a superb option for those who want to learn more about Cambodia’s religious history.   4. Ta Prohm A tree growing out of the ruins of Ta Prohm, Siem Reap, Cambodia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Ta Prohm is located within the Angkor Archeological Park and is a Bayon-style temple built in the 12th Century. Initially, a Mahayana Buddhist monastery, the temple gained fame in 2001 when it was used for the movie Lara Croft: Tomb Raider. One of the coolest things about this temple is that it’s partially reclaimed by the jungle, so you’ll see huge trees amongst the ruins.   Ta Prohm translates to “ancestor Brahma” and was created initially by Jayavarman VII with a depiction of Prajnaparamita, also known as the incarnation of wisdom, and the “Mother of Buddhas.” Although the ruins are intertwined with the forest, they’re fairly stable, and you can safely walk amongst them.   5. Banteay Srei Banteay Srei, Siem Reap, Cambodia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Banteay Srei is a 30-minute drive from Siem Reap and is an excellent example of a 10th-century temple. One of the significant reasons people fall in love with Banteay Srei is its gorgeous pinkish exterior and exquisite carvings and bas-reliefs. That, and its proximity to Siem Reap, makes Banteay Srei a must-visit next time you’re in Cambodia.   This temple is dedicated mainly to Shiva, but you can find artifacts that honor Vishnu as well. Banteay Srei is mostly carved of red sandstone, which lends the exterior its pinkish hue. If you want to visit somewhere truly unique, make sure that you consider this spot.   6. Beng Mealea Beng Mealea Temple, Cambodia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Beng Mealea is another temple close to the Angkor Archeological Park. It’s not as well-maintained as some of the others, which is part of its charm. You’ll feel like you’re stepping back in time when you enter. Since this temple isn’t as popular as some of the others in the complex, you’re more likely to have it to yourself. Like many temples in the Angkor Archeological Park, you’ll find a mix of Buddhist and Hindu carvings, and it was likely created around the same time as Angkor Wat.   Keep your eyes peeled and you’ll see plenty of interesting depictions in the temple, such as the story of Garuda and Vishnu, and plenty of Naga scattered throughout the ruins. If you want a place of quiet solitude and contemplation, Beng Mealea is a great bet.   7. Phimeanakas Phimeanakas Temple, Cambodia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Part of the Angkor Archeological Park, Phimeanakas is a late 10th-century Hindu Temple with multiple tiers, also known as the “Celestial Temple”. This towering pyramid features several towers and galleries to explore, and has undergone several modifications since its initial construction.   Visitors will find plenty of interesting things to discover throughout the temple, including animal depictions on each of the tiers, naga, and other carvings. Like many of the temples in the Angkor Archeological Park, Phimeanakas is partially reclaimed by the jungle, which just adds more to its appeal.   8. Neak Pean Neak Pean Temple, Angkor, Cambodia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Drive half an hour away from Siem Reap and you’ll discover one of the most interesting temples in the country: Neak Pean. This smaller temple sits in the middle of a little lake, making it a great place to get unique photographs. It dates back to the 12th Century.   Neak Pean also has a fascinating history. It used to be a sort of hospital, where visitors could bathe in the healing waters that surround it. Today, nobody visits for medicinal reasons, but it is a popular trip from Siem Reap, and you can easily pair it with a visit to Angkor Archaeological Park.   These eight incredible temples are must-visit spots in Cambodia. Of course, you’ll want to see Angkor Wat on your visit, but if you want to get the full picture, see these ones as well.

  Athena, a goddess of wisdom and warfare and the patron goddess of Athens, was one of the most popular deities in the Greek pantheon. The Olympian goddess was frequently represented and associated with symbols drawn from her complex mythology. From the wise little owl to the terrifying Gorgoneion head of Medusa, Athena’s symbols reveal much about her mythology and her importance in Greek religion.   Symbols of Athena: The Owl Statue showing detail of owls on Athena’s Corinthian helmet, Greece, c. 4th century BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Perhaps one of the most enduring symbols associated with Athena is the owl. It is unclear exactly where this connection originated, but a popular theory is that Athena has her origins in Minoan culture. In the early 20th century, Martin Persson Nilsson and David Kinsley suggested that Athena’s roots go back to a Minoan palace goddess associated with birds. Meanwhile, Lithuanian archaeologist Marija Gimbutas suggested that Athena is descended from a European bird and snake goddess.   It is also suggested that Athena may have actually been an owl, or just a bird in general, before shedding her avian form. In classical artwork, she was sometimes depicted with feathery wings.   Silver coin featuring the owl of Athena, Athens, c. 6th/5th century BCE. Source: Cleveland Museum of Art   While Athena is also associated with snakes, her association specifically with owls has generated other theories. Professor William Geoffrey Arnott suggested that the link was due to the high number of owls in Attica where Athens is situated.   Whatever the reason for the association, Athena was and has always been associated with the little owl (Athene noctua), a small species of owl common to the temperate zones of Europe and Asia from Portugal to the Korean Peninsula.   The little owl (Athene noctua). Source: Wikimedia Commons   The little owl was adopted as the symbol of Athens to show the city’s loyalty to its patron goddess. They often included owl imagery on coins, works of art, banners, and shields.   As it does now, the owl is believed to have symbolized knowledge, wisdom, shrewdness, and insight, common motifs throughout Athenian society, and the perception the Athenians wanted to present.   Athena and Her Symbols of War Athena attacks the giant Enceladus, reproductive print, c. 1844-1861. Source: New York Public Library.   As both a warrior goddess and a goddess of wisdom, Athena became associated with strategic warfare rather than the brute-force side of war represented by the god Ares. She was often depicted with a shield, a spear, and wearing a helm. Athena was thought of as a warrior goddess who accompanied soldiers and heroes in their combative pursuits.   According to Greek mythology, Athena was born in full armor, ready for battle. She was the daughter of Zeus and Metis, an Oceanid, one of the 3,000 sea nymphs born to the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. Associated with wisdom and skill, Metis was an advisor and the first wife of Zeus.   Zeus, fearful that his children born of Metis would become more powerful than their father,  turned Metis into a fly and swallowed her whole while she was pregnant. Metis and her unborn daughter lived in Zeus’ mind, and gave him such a terrible headache that he asked Hermes for aid. Hermes instructed Hephaestus to split Zeus’ skull open to ease the pain. When Hephaestus struck, Athena sprang from Zeus’ skull, fully grown, wearing armor, and wielding a spear. Thus depicted, Athena was symbolically linked to resistance and victory, and not just physically. Born out of the mind of her father, her warrior element was linked to intellect.   The symbolic effect of war and the philosophy behind it were part of ancient and classical Greek culture. While Ares symbolized brute force and bloodlust, Athena was symbolically linked to the intellectual and civilized aspects of war. Restraint, pragmatism, and good counsel were considered hallmarks of this aspect.   Whatever aspect of war and combat she represented, however, Athena was often depicted with the gear of a soldier or a warrior, guiding combatants to victory, and providing protective aid.   The Olive Tree The sacred olive tree beside the temple of Erechtheion (Temple of Athena) atop the Acropolis of Athens. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In Greek mythology, when Athens was founded, Poseidon and Athena disputed who would be the city’s patron god. They decided that whoever could provide the most useful gift would have the honor. Poseidon struck the ground of the acropolis with his trident, and a spring burst forth from the ground. The people of Athens were elated until they tasted the water. It was as salty as the ocean and completely useless.   Athena then pierced a boulder with her spear, splitting it in two. From the rock sprouted a beautiful tree with silvery leaves. This was the first olive tree, and the Athenians found many uses for it. The olives were consumed, along with olive oil, which was also used for illumination and perfume amongst many other things. The wood was carved into votive statues.   To add insult to Poseidon’s injury, the olive tree proved to be hardy and resistant to brackish water. Thus, Athena became the patron goddess of Athens and has been associated with the olive tree ever since.   Today, there is an olive tree atop the Acropolis that is associated with the Athenian myth. It is said that this tree stands in roughly the same spot where the first olive tree, revered by the Athenians thousands of years ago, stood.   The Head of Medusa Modern statue of Athena with a shield featuring the head of Medusa at the Museumsberg, Flensburg. Source: Wikimedia Commons   One of the many symbols associated with Athena is the head of the gorgon, Medusa. The hero Perseus, in his quest to kill Medusa, turned to his half-sister, Athena, for aid. The goddess gave Perseus a finely polished shield that became instrumental in Medusa’s defeat. The gorgon’s powerful attribute was that she could turn anyone who looked upon her to stone. Athena’s shield gave Perseus the opportunity to fight Medusa by looking at her reflection in the polished metal.   Victorious, Perseus presented Medusa’s severed head to Athena, who attached it to her aegis. It is unclear what exactly an aegis is. It has been variously described as a breastplate, a cloak, or a shield. A shield is considered the most likely suggestion. Regardless, the aegis is a symbol of defense, and upon Athena’s aegis is a symbol of Athena’s power of victory and the destruction of her enemies.   Snakes A statue of Athena with a snake, by Alessandro Algardi, c. 17th century. Source: Boncompagni Ludovisi Collection   Many depictions of Athena also include her accompanied by a snake, and her association with the serpent can be interpreted in many ways. One of the most common interpretations is that snakes symbolize rejuvenation and rebirth because they shed their skin and are symbolically reborn.   The snake is a versatile symbol that can represent many things associated with Athena. Snakes were symbolic of cunning, an attribute represented in Athena. They also represented fertility in the earth, and because of their fangs and venom, were representative of danger, and were powerful symbols of protection.   Other Symbols Myrtle flowers. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Many other minor symbols have often appeared in depictions of Athena. Roosters, doves, and eagles have been associated with the goddess, but none of these birds are as ubiquitous as the little owl. Athena is also associated with the flute. In myth, it is said that she invented the flute but cast it aside because when played, it made her face look ugly.   In addition to being the goddess of war and wisdom, Athena was also seen as a fierce protector of the earth and nature. As such, plants aside from the olive tree were associated with her. The acanthus, with its bristle-like blooms, was often seen as a symbol of protection, and thus, it became associated with Athena. Another plant is myrtle, which, above all things, is symbolic of love.   Despite the association of Athena with martial prowess, and military matters, Athena was also the goddess of handicrafts, especially associated with weaving. In Greek mythology, according to the Roman poet Ovid, a woman named Arachne boasted that her weaving skill surpassed that of the goddess. Athena responded by challenging her to a weaving contest. When Athena could not find any fault with her opponent’s finished product, she became enraged and beat Arachne with a shuttle. Arachne hanged herself out of shame, but Athena took pity on her and transformed her into a spider so she could weave webs for all time.   Colors of Athena Detail from a statue of Athena in a Corinthian helmet, Greek, c. 180-190 CE. Source: Liebieghaus, Frankfurt   Apart from symbols that are depicted as tangible objects, there were also colors associated with Athena. She was often represented with yellow and gold, a common motif among the Greek gods. For the ancient Greeks, these colors symbolized the divine and the powerful brightness of the sun. Athena was also depicted with the color blue, which was associated with wisdom, purity, and divinity.   Athena is one of the pre-eminent deities in Greek antiquity. Her symbolic significance and the objects associated with her were powerful symbols that formed part of her character and had a huge impact on the beliefs of the Greeks millennia ago.   These symbols have not been forgotten. Just as she was in ancient times, Athena is a popular subject for artists, who use the same symbols and motifs to express the goddess’s character and nature.

  In Greek and Roman legend, Aeneas was a prince of Troy who survived the fall of the city. After the Trojan War, he was said to have traveled to Italy carrying his father on his back. He then married, and his descendants went on to found the city of Rome. What do we know about his family? Who were his parents and his children? What legacy did he leave behind?   Aeneas’s Dynasty Archaeological site of Hisarlik, showing the ruins of ancient Troy. Source: Alison Day via Flickr   Aeneas was a prince of the famous city of Troy, according to ancient Greek and Roman records. According to records dating back to Homer in the 7th century BCE, this was a relatively recently founded dynasty. It was said to have been founded some six generations before the final king of Troy, King Priam, by two separate arrivals. One was the arrival of Teucer from Crete, and the other was the arrival of Dardanus from Greece (or Italy, depending on the source).   Dardanus married Batea, the daughter of King Teucer, and founded the city of Dardanus. A few generations later came Ilus, son of Tros. It was from Ilus that the recently founded city of Troy took its name, Ilios, while Troy came from Ilus’s father, Tros. Aeneas was the son of Anchises, son of Capys, son of Assaracus, son of Tros. Hence, he was not an heir to the throne of Troy, whose kings descended from Assaracus’ brother, Ilus.   Stater coin from the ancient city of Dardanus. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Nevertheless, Aeneas was still an important member of the dynasty. During the Trojan War, Aeneas served as the leader of the Dardanians, the close relatives of the Trojans. Their city, Dardanus, was a few miles northeast of Troy. Aeneas’ grandfather, Capys, was the king of that city during the Trojan War.   Interestingly, Aeneas’ ancestors were said to have had a divine origin. Dardanus’ descendants were partially descended from the gods by virtue of Dardanus’ marriage to Olizone, daughter of Phineus and Cleopatra. The latter was a daughter of Boreas, the god of the north wind, who lived in Thrace. However, this was not the only trace of the gods in Aeneas’ lineage. In fact, Aeneas was a demigod, since he was born from the union of Anchises and the goddess Aphrodite.   Aeneas’s father is most famous for his role in Virgil’s Aeneid, written in the 1st century BCE. In that epic tale, Aeneas carries his elderly father Anchises out of the burning city of Troy.   Ascanius, Aeneas’ Most Famous Son Aeneas Fleeing Troy with Anchises, Creusa, and Ascanias, from the Master of the Aeneid, c. 1530. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   The sources credit Aeneas with several children. However, by far his most famous child is Ascanius. He was born to Aeneas by Creusa, a princess of Troy, the daughter of King Priam. According to Virgil’s Aeneid, Ascanius was a young child when Aeneas took his father from the city. Ascanius, of course, was brought with them. However, there are some versions of the legend in which Ascanius was born after the Trojan War. The Roman historian Livy in the 1st century BCE recorded one such example, saying that he was the son of Aeneas by Lavinia of Latium in Italy.   Virgil recorded that Ascanius was also known by the name Iulus. It was from Iulus that the Roman family, of which Julius Caesar was a member, descended. Naturally, this gave the Roman emperors a profound interest in Ascanius and his father Aeneas. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, also in the 1st century BCE, Iulus was actually the son of Ascanius. In either case, Ascanius was viewed as the ancestor of the Julii.   Other Children of Aeneas Aeneas Arrives in Sight of Italy, from the Master of the Aeneid, c. 1530-35. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Ascanius was not the only child that Aeneas was said to have had, nor is he the one who appears in the earliest records. In fact, the earliest record about Aeneas’s descendants is actually Homer’s Iliad. In a passage in which Poseidon saves Aeneas from being killed by Achilles, the god declares that Aeneas needs to be saved due to his future. He explains that he will go on to become the king of the Trojans in the future, after Troy falls. Not only that, but his sons and grandsons are said to be destined to rule the Trojans after him.   Homer never explains how this prophecy is to be fulfilled. Its fulfilment is borne out by later texts. In the 5th century BCE, Hellanicus of Lesbos and Damastes of Siguem wrote that Aeneas, together with Odysseus, founded Rome. In the 4th or 3rd century BCE, a writer named Alcimus stated that Aeneas had a son named Romulus and a grandson named Rhomus.   Romulus and Remus, by Wenceslaus Hollar, 1652. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   In the late 3rd century BCE, a historian named Cephalon of Gergis recorded a similar tradition. He referred to a son of Aeneas named Romus. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a historian of the 1st century BCE, many other historians agreed with this version. He specifically mentions Demagoras and Agathyllus among the many who agreed that Aeneas had a son named Romus. At least one surviving tradition referred to Aeneas as having two sons named Romulus and Romus. By comparing these different traditions about Aeneas’ children, it seems very likely that these two are just alternate expressions of the same original figure. It also seems likely that the Romus of this tradition was transformed into Remus, hence explaining the brothers Romulus and Remus in later tradition.   Aeneas was also credited with at least one daughter. Plutarch recorded a tradition that Romulus was the grandson of Aeneas through a daughter named Aemilia. She was said to be the daughter of Aeneas’s wife, Lavinia.   Aeneas’ Legacy in Rome A view of Lake Albano, near the ancient settlement of Alba Longa, supposedly founded by Aeneas’ son Ascanius. Source: Wikimedia Commons   It hardly needs to be explained that Romulus, or Romus, was viewed as the eponymous founder of Rome. His very name gives that away. This is also consistent with the even earlier tradition that Aeneas himself had founded Rome.   In later tradition, particularly from the 1st century BCE onwards, Aeneas was considered the founder of the city of Lavinium after he became king of the Latins. After this, his son Ascanius took many of the Latins and founded the city of Alba Longa. In this later version, Romulus (or Romus) was not the direct son of Aeneas. Rather, he was a much later descendant, born centuries after Aeneas’ reign. He and his brother, Remus, were said to have founded Rome after being driven out of Alba Longa as infants.   Aeneas’ legacy in connection to Rome is especially famous through the Aeneid, written by Virgil in the 1st century BCE. This was commissioned by Augustus Caesar, the first Roman emperor.   The Dream of Aeneas, depicting Aeneas next to a personification of the Tiber River in Italy, by Salvator Rosa, c. 1660. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   This has led to the misconception that Virgil invented the Trojan connection to Rome in order to give the Romans a glorified past, connected to Greek mythology. As we have seen, this is far from the truth. In fact, Virgil actually made the Roman connection to the Trojans much less direct than it had been in the earlier traditions. Rather than Rome being founded by Aeneas himself or one of his early descendants, Virgil’s account placed many centuries between Aeneas and Rome. However, it was not Virgil himself who invented this less direct connection. The contemporary Roman historian Livy also mentioned it. It appears that it emerged as a result of attempts to reconcile the traditional date of the Trojan War, 1184 BCE, with the traditional date of Rome’s founding, 753 BCE.   Nevertheless, the Romans would continue to honor Aeneas as an important figure in their history. Virgil’s Aeneid, despite describing a less direct connection between the Trojans and the Romans, would prove to be extremely popular. In fact, it has remained popular right up until the present time, just like the Iliad.   The Legacy of the Family of Aeneas A dish depicting Queen Dido welcoming Aeneas and his son, c. 1520. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   In conclusion, what can we say about Aeneas’ parents, his children, and his legacy? We have seen that Aeneas was a Trojan prince, the grandson of King Capys of Dardanus. His father, Anchises, was the lover of Aphrodite. Hence, Aeneas was a demigod. On his father’s side, he had divine blood by virtue of Dardanus’ marriage to Olizone, granddaughter of Boreas, the god of the north wind. Anchises was famously carried by Aeneas out of the burning ruins of Troy at the climax of the Trojan War. His young son, Ascanius, was also brought with them in some traditions. In these, he was the son of Aeneas by Creusa, daughter of Priam.   In other traditions, Ascanius’ mother was Lavinia, daughter of King Latinus. Early traditions give Aeneas a son variously named Romus or Romulus, and others give him a grandson variously named Rhomus or Romulus. These were surely the same figure originally. Another record gives him a daughter named Aemilia. Aeneas’ legacy is most firmly manifested through his children in the legendary founding of Rome. Virgil’s Aeneid, in particular, firmly established Aeneas’s ongoing legacy as the founder of the Roman nation.

  Belisarius was a renowned military commander with impressive battlefield achievements. Hampered by limited resources in both men and money, he spearheaded Emperor Justinian’s attempt to reconquer the key territories of the former Western Roman Empire: Africa, Hispania, Italy, and Gaul. Yet, no victory would be complete without Rome. King Theodoric the Great had been an effective ruler of the Gothic kingdom of Italy. When he died, Justinian saw an opportunity to reclaim Rome for the Byzantine Empire.   Theodoric and the Kingdom of Italy Coin depicting Flavius Theodoricus (Theodoric the Great), Roman Vassal and King of the Ostrogoths. Source: Collection of Italian numismatic Francesco Gnecchi   While many people characterize barbarians as pillaging hordes bent on destruction and death, the barbarian was simply a term that the ancient Romans and Greeks used to describe ethnic groups that did not observe the same laws or culture or speak the same language as they did.   The Germanic Kingdoms and the Eastern Roman Empire in 526. Map from Shepherd, W. R. (1911) The Historical Atlas. Source: The University of Texas at Austin   Theodoric the Great, King of the Ostrogoths, was an intelligent, cultured ruler who not only expanded his kingdom of Italy but also produced great works of art and architecture that built on the legacy of the Western Roman Empire.   By Roman standards, Theodoric was a civilized barbarian of the former Western Roman Empire. Despite being an Arian Christian, he did not try to convert or subvert Italy’s ingrained orthodox Roman populace. Later generations added Great to his name in honor of the prosperity of his kingdom. The Ostrogoths changed little of the Roman administration and demonstrated respect and esteem for the Roman way of life and civilization (Hughes, pg. 73). Theodoric’s tomb in Ravenna by Robert von Spalart, 1804-1811. Source: The Wellcome Collection, London   The death of Theodoric in 526 and the elevation of his ten-year-old grandson, Athalaric, set the stage for the Gothic War between Theodoric’s successors and Emperor Justinian. The appointment of Athalaric’s mother, Amalasuntha, as regent increased tensions. She was well-educated and spoke Latin, Greek, and Gothic. The Ostrogoth nobles not only objected to a woman having such power over their king but also opposed her pro-Byzantine policies. They insisted that Athalaric should be brought up as a proper Goth instead. The young man started drinking heavily, and it soon became evident that he would not match his grandfather’s longevity.   Queen Amalasuntha of the Ostrogoths, 1500-1850. Source: The Austrian National Library, Vienna   After Athalaric’s death, Amalasuntha married her cousin Theodahad, and they became co-monarchs of the Ostrogoth Kingdom. Amalasuntha considered him easily controllable since he was more interested in academic pursuits than political affairs. However, Theodahad was a more dangerous adversary than she anticipated. He deposed Amalasuntha and exiled her to Martana, an island in Lake Vulsina. Knowing that his actions would attract a response from Justinian, Theodahad arranged Amalasuntha’s murder to prevent her raising a resistance against him.   The Invasion of Italy Begins in Earnest Emperor Justinian and Members of His Court. Reproduction of 6th century CE mosaic. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   At first, it seemed that all of Italy would fall into the hands of Justinian with no need for further bloodshed, but the Roman General Mundus, entrusted with the conquest of Salona on the Adriatic coast (present-day Solin, Croatia), came to a grisly end in the Balkans. During an encounter with the Goths, Mundus fell, leaving his army leaderless and depriving Justinian of a trusted and able general. The Roman army in Dalmatia was forced to retreat. Theodahad displayed an unexpected spark of courage. He withdrew his offer to surrender Italy for extensive estates and an annual income of just under 90,000 solidi.   The military situation was going much better for Belisarius. Having conquered North Africa, he landed in Sicily in 535 and quickly secured the surrender of Theodahad’s son-in-law and his men on the island as well as the Goths who were supposed to be guarding the straits separating Sicily from the Italian peninsula. The Romans then slowly but surely moved up the boot of Italy to the fortified city of Neapolis (present-day Naples), and encountered their first serious resistance in Italy. Naples was the center of Gothic power in southern Italy and was defended by a strong garrison.   Belisarius could not risk bypassing Neapolis. Therefore, he initiated a blockade of the city’s walls from land and sea but realized he could not afford to besiege the city indefinitely and give the Goths time to raise reinforcements to destroy the Romans. Thankfully for Belisarius, Theodahad was indecisive and made no attempt to reinforce Neapolis. The fortifications would still be an immense challenge, making it nearly impossible to bring ships close enough to attack the city.   Aqueduct Tunnels Beneath Naples. Source: The Hydria Virtual Museum   Twenty days passed, and several attempts were made to take the city by assaulting its walls. With no success and only further losses that the Romans could not sustain for long, in true Belisarius fashion, a brilliant stroke of luck would soon manifest in one of the Roman foederati (allies): an Isaurian who had climbed up a broken part of an aqueduct leading into Neapolis. Belisarius tried to get the garrison to surrender one last time, but they refused.   After some initial difficulties, the troops exited the aqueduct tunnel. They ran to the northern walls, killing the sentinels in the two main towers and taking the Goths entirely by surprise (Jacobsen, p. 91). The defenders were shocked but managed to hold for a more extended period on the South Wall, but once the Romans attacked in the rear, they finally fled, and at last, the road to Rome lay open.   Restoration of Rome The Walls and Gates of Rome in the early 6th century. Source: 1919 Edition of Procopius’ History of the Wars translated by H. B. Dewing   By 536 CE, Theodahad began contemplating his next move against Belisarius. He established a Goth garrison in Rome, but placing Gothic troops in the city set off rioting. When protests escalated, the nobles who had once supported Theodahad lost confidence in him. Citing his ineffective leadership and failure to protect major cities such as Neapolis, they removed him from power. In his place, they selected the warlord Vitigis, an experienced soldier, to be the new king. (Parnell, pg. 93). Theodahad soon fled for his life, but Vitigis and the nobles hunted him down and killed him near Ravenna.   Vitigis returned to Rome and demanded that Pope Silverius swear an oath of loyalty to the Gothic cause. He demanded the same vow from the Senate and other leading citizens. Vitigis even held several senators hostage as a reminder of the consequences for betrayal. Despite his bravado, he avoided immediate confrontation with Belisarius. Instead, he placed 4,000 men in the garrison before departing for Ravenna to counter a Frankish threat to the Gothic heartlands in northern Italy. He was confident that the garrison could provide adequate protection until he returned with reinforcements.   In Vitigis’ absence, Pope Silverius sent an envoy to Belisarius, urging him to march with all haste to Rome to take possession of the city. As the Roman expeditionary force advanced along the Via Appia, the Gothic garrison prudently chose to retreat. Belisarius led his men into the city via the Porta Asinaria without serious opposition. He sent the one remaining Gothic commander to Emperor Justinian with the keys to the city (Sarris, p. 227).   The Gothic Counterattack King Vitigis of the Ostrogoths, 17th century. Source: The Austrian National Library, Vienna   Belisarius knew that the Goths would direct their vengeance against him sooner or later. Belisarius ordered a moat to be dug around the city walls of Rome, and for the areas of the walls that had deteriorated due to neglect to be repaired (Hughes, p. 133). Using Rome as his principal base, Belisarius also dispatched troops to take control of the surrounding countryside.   Alongside the repairs to the walls, he stockpiled provisions for a siege, even though the citizens informed him that attempts to defend all of Rome’s walls were not possible. All able-bodied Roman males were signed up to protect the walls and free up Belisarius’ men for field duty in case they had to fight beyond the city walls of Rome. Belisarius’ reputation as a skilled military leader encouraged neighboring Gothic commanders to join his forces despite Vitigis’ foot soldiers and cavalry outnumbering the Roman army.   Even with their significant numerical advantage, Vitigis could still not surround the city’s complete circuit defenses when the Goths finally arrived. The King of the Goths also did not fully feel comfortable trying to take Rome by storm, which would inevitably bring significant casualties and could easily lead to a complete collapse in morale (Sarris, p. 228). As the siege tightened, Belisarius sent Justinian a letter imploring the emperor to provide reinforcements. Justinian ordered more men from Greece to Italy, but this proved painfully slow. Vitigis looked for any tactics to break the Romans’ determination. He ordered his troops to block the aqueducts leading into the city. He wanted Rome’s citizens to suffer for choosing the wrong master.   Belisarius thwarted Vitigis’ vengeance with a clever solution. He showed the citizens that the Tiber River could provide both a natural defense and hydraulic power for the mills that made the city’s flour. With this strategy, Belisarius prevented riots and increased support. He planned food rationing and organized shelters in the city’s buildings.   The Siege of Rome Begins Walls of Rome: The Aurelian Wall. With the Pyramid of Cestius. Painting by Isaac Weld, 1818. Source: The Yale Center for British Art, Connecticut   Despite the initial indecisiveness about a direct assault on Rome, the Goths realized they could not afford an indefinite siege. Vitigis ordered the construction of great siege towers to breach the massive Aurelian Walls. The fighting was incredibly desperate as the Romans had to fight against two simultaneous attacks on the walls. Time after time, the enemy came within mere inches of overwhelming Belisarius’ men.   Belisarius seemed to be everywhere at once, firing arrows and aiding his men in hacking away at the scaling ladders. Soon, 30,000 Goths lay dead or dying on the battlefield, and Vittigis was left with seemingly nothing but the ashes of the smoldering remains of his siege towers (Brownsworth, p. 94).   Despite these early victories, Belisarius knew the siege would test the limits of his soldiers’ capabilities. Fortunately, he had capable officers and seasoned veterans at his disposal. Belisarius could trust his subordinates to execute orders and adapt to the changing conditions of the battlefield. Still, he understood that his mission required further reinforcements, so he asked Justinian for additional troops. The Emperor ignored Belisarius’ requests. If his most skilled general could deliver Africa with a mere handful of men, why should Italy be any different?   Just as the Romans’ manpower was at a breaking point, Justinian relented and sent reinforcements. Within the Gothic camp, Vitigis’ forces grew impatient and weary. They were exposed to the elements, running short of food and trying to avoid sickness in unsanitary conditions. Vitigis knew he was fighting a losing battle. Even the land itself around Rome seemed utterly exhausted (Brownsworth, pg. 95).   The Light of Rome Is Not Yet Extinguished Map of Europe in around 565 CE after Justianian’s reconquests. From A History of medieval and modern Europe from secondary schools by W. S. Davis and N. S. McKendrick, published by Houghton Mifflin Company, 1920. Source: The Library of Congress, Washington DC   Once Vittigis figured out that a Roman advance force had managed to slip out of Rome and capture the town of Rimini, only 33 miles from Ravenna, he realized there was no glory to be gained and cursed the winds that brought these Romans to his shores. He ordered his army to withdraw from Rome, and Belisarius ensured that the Goths would pay for their arrogance by inflicting a humiliating rout on them.   With only a few thousand men, the Roman general had taken on the mighty Ostrogothic Kingdom and managed to cripple its fighting abilities within only two years (Brownsworth, p. 96). Having fallen to barbarians on several occasions over the previous centuries, the Eternal City of Rome now seemed secure under the firm protection of the empire, but would it stay that way?   Bibliography   Brownworth, L. (2009). Lost to the west. The forgotten Byzantine Empire that rescued Western Civilization. Three Rivers Press.   Hughes, I. (2009). Belisarius: The Last Roman General. Westholme Publishing, LLC.   Jacobsen, T. C. (2012). The Gothic War: Justinian’s Campaign to Reclaim Italy. Westholme Publishing, LLC.   Parnell, D. (2023). Belisarius & Antonia: Love and War in the Age of Justinian. Oxford University Press.   Sarris, P. (2023). Justinian: Emperor, Soldier, Saint. Basic Books.

  By the 1260s, the Mongols controlled most of China, except for the Song Dynasty in southern China. Korea (Goryeo) remained independent but as a vassal state. Now Kublai Khan looked to Imperial Japan which lay not far. Kublai sent six diplomatic missions between 1268 and 1273, demanding a relationship but threatening war. The Kamakura shogunate rebuffed each effort, even beheading several Mongols.    This continual refusal to acknowledge Kublai’s authority attacked his prestige, a major insult for the world’s top power. Economically known for its gold and silver, Japan would benefit Kublai’s growing empire. Plus, Kublai sought to add Japan as a vassal state, viewing the island nation as a tributary state from the Chinese perspective.    Angered by Japan’s non-responses to his overtures, Kublai Khan in 1273 decided to subjugate Japan. Yet preparations would be needed. Though masters of mobile warfare, the Mongols required ships and expertise that only the Khan’s vassals, China and Goryeo could provide.    The Role of Korea and China in the Mongol Invasions Portrait of Kublai Khan by court artist Araniko in the Album of Yuan Emperor Portraits, c. 1294. Source: Wikimedia Commons (National Palace Museum, Taipei)   As subjugated nations, China and Korea had no options. Both supplied men, supplies, and ships for the invasion. Records indicate that many invading soldiers were conscripted soldiers, many reluctant. The Mongols chose Korea as the site for their initial invasion; only 124 miles of ocean separated the two nations. By late 1274, they had completed all preparations.   Mongols’ First Landing Mongols pursuing Seljuk troops at the Battle of Kôse Dağ, from Fleur des histories d’orient, by Hayton of Corycus, ca.1350. Source: National Library of France   In November 1274, the Mongols’ fleet appeared off Hakata, Japan. The Mongols first crushed samurai garrisons on the islands of Tsushima and Iki. Next, the 900 ships and 40,000 soldiers sailed for the mainland. The Kamakura Shoguns, anticipating the invasion at Hakata on Kyushu, added defenses. Samurai warriors also reinforced the local noble clans, adding thousands.   Establishing a foothold, the Mongols overpowered the samurai with superior tactics and weaponry. The samurai counterattacked fiercely, but individually, not having yet mastered mass combat. Additionally, the Mongols employed exploding shells, poisoned arrows, and more effective tactics. Unable to push the Mongols and their vassals back into the sea, the samurai still inflicted heavy casualties.    The samurai retreated, but the Mongol army halted, offering no pursuit. Reasons vary from a lack of arrows, combat losses, or the invasion being a test. The Mongols returned to their ships. That night, a typhoon struck, wiping out one-third of the fleet.    Khan’s Reaction to the Defeat Mongol horseman with bow and arrow. Source: Ars Technica   Despite this setback, Kublai Khan remained determined to conquer Imperial Japan. He refused all advice regarding future invasions, remaining undaunted. Khan did dispatch more emissaries, seeking to bring  Japan into the fold. As before, the Japanese executed or dismissed the envoys.   Both sides knew a sequel was inevitable. By 1279, the Khan’s forces routed the Song Dynasty of Southern China. An anxious Japanese Shogunate built better defenses on Kyushu, close to the first attempt. The defenses included the Genko Borui, a 6-foot-high, thick wall running 12 miles.   The Second Mongol Invasion  Mounted Japanese Samurai. Source: British Museum   In June 1281, the Mongols launched a two-pronged attack. Hakata Bay bore the brunt of this attack for a second time. This armada dwarfed the first invasion, involving some 3,500 vessels and 140,000 troops. Sources on actual numbers vary wildly, however. Despite fierce fighting at Hakata, the Japanese halted the Mongols’ Eastern army. The stout Genko Borui blocked them. The Mongols withdrew to wait for the Southern Route army.   Why Did Only One Mongol Army Attack? Chinese Junk Used by Mongols. Source: NPR   The landings at Hakata Bay came from the Eastern Route arm commanders’ impatience. Reinforced by the massive Southern Route force sailing from China, the Mongols struck again in July. Landing on Shikanoshima Island, the Mongols made no headway. Using night raids and guerrilla tactics, the samurai continually harassed the invaders.   Despite a numerical advantage, the Mongols couldn’t get a decisive win. The samurai refused open battle when possible. Hit-and-run attacks (on land and sea), defensive fortifications, and their superior hand-to-hand fighting abilities contributed to the stalemate. The fighting dragged on into August 1281.   Why Did the Fighting End? Mongols at the walls of Vladimir 1238, the Mongol army besieges the city of Vladimir by Vassily Maximov, c. 1900. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Mongol invasion came to a sudden end on August 15, 1281. Again, Japan’s fate was determined by a chance typhoon. Anchored in Hakata Bay, this massive storm struck, wrecking the fleet and drowning thousands, upwards of half of all the invaders. Only a remnant of the Khan’s fleet returned to port. The samurai ruthlessly hunted down and exterminated the survivors. The surprised Japanese called these winds “kamikaze” or divine winds. Luckily for Japan, Kublai Khan turned his attentions elsewhere, ignoring Japan.

  Athena, a goddess of wisdom and warfare and the patron goddess of Athens, was one of the most popular deities in the Greek pantheon. The Olympian goddess was frequently represented and associated with symbols drawn from her complex mythology. From the wise little owl to the terrifying Gorgoneion head of Medusa, Athena’s symbols reveal much about her mythology and her importance in Greek religion.   Symbols of Athena: The Owl Statue showing detail of owls on Athena’s Corinthian helmet, Greece, c. 4th century BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Perhaps one of the most enduring symbols associated with Athena is the owl. It is unclear exactly where this connection originated, but a popular theory is that Athena has her origins in Minoan culture. In the early 20th century, Martin Persson Nilsson and David Kinsley suggested that Athena’s roots go back to a Minoan palace goddess associated with birds. Meanwhile, Lithuanian archaeologist Marija Gimbutas suggested that Athena is descended from a European bird and snake goddess.   It is also suggested that Athena may have actually been an owl, or just a bird in general, before shedding her avian form. In classical artwork, she was sometimes depicted with feathery wings.   Silver coin featuring the owl of Athena, Athens, c. 6th/5th century BCE. Source: Cleveland Museum of Art   While Athena is also associated with snakes, her association specifically with owls has generated other theories. Professor William Geoffrey Arnott suggested that the link was due to the high number of owls in Attica where Athens is situated.   Whatever the reason for the association, Athena was and has always been associated with the little owl (Athene noctua), a small species of owl common to the temperate zones of Europe and Asia from Portugal to the Korean Peninsula.   The little owl (Athene noctua). Source: Wikimedia Commons   The little owl was adopted as the symbol of Athens to show the city’s loyalty to its patron goddess. They often included owl imagery on coins, works of art, banners, and shields.   As it does now, the owl is believed to have symbolized knowledge, wisdom, shrewdness, and insight, common motifs throughout Athenian society, and the perception the Athenians wanted to present.   Athena and Her Symbols of War Athena attacks the giant Enceladus, reproductive print, c. 1844-1861. Source: New York Public Library.   As both a warrior goddess and a goddess of wisdom, Athena became associated with strategic warfare rather than the brute-force side of war represented by the god Ares. She was often depicted with a shield, a spear, and wearing a helm. Athena was thought of as a warrior goddess who accompanied soldiers and heroes in their combative pursuits.   According to Greek mythology, Athena was born in full armor, ready for battle. She was the daughter of Zeus and Metis, an Oceanid, one of the 3,000 sea nymphs born to the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. Associated with wisdom and skill, Metis was an advisor and the first wife of Zeus.   Zeus, fearful that his children born of Metis would become more powerful than their father,  turned Metis into a fly and swallowed her whole while she was pregnant. Metis and her unborn daughter lived in Zeus’ mind, and gave him such a terrible headache that he asked Hermes for aid. Hermes instructed Hephaestus to split Zeus’ skull open to ease the pain. When Hephaestus struck, Athena sprang from Zeus’ skull, fully grown, wearing armor, and wielding a spear. Thus depicted, Athena was symbolically linked to resistance and victory, and not just physically. Born out of the mind of her father, her warrior element was linked to intellect.   The symbolic effect of war and the philosophy behind it were part of ancient and classical Greek culture. While Ares symbolized brute force and bloodlust, Athena was symbolically linked to the intellectual and civilized aspects of war. Restraint, pragmatism, and good counsel were considered hallmarks of this aspect.   Whatever aspect of war and combat she represented, however, Athena was often depicted with the gear of a soldier or a warrior, guiding combatants to victory, and providing protective aid.   The Olive Tree The sacred olive tree beside the temple of Erechtheion (Temple of Athena) atop the Acropolis of Athens. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In Greek mythology, when Athens was founded, Poseidon and Athena disputed who would be the city’s patron god. They decided that whoever could provide the most useful gift would have the honor. Poseidon struck the ground of the acropolis with his trident, and a spring burst forth from the ground. The people of Athens were elated until they tasted the water. It was as salty as the ocean and completely useless.   Athena then pierced a boulder with her spear, splitting it in two. From the rock sprouted a beautiful tree with silvery leaves. This was the first olive tree, and the Athenians found many uses for it. The olives were consumed, along with olive oil, which was also used for illumination and perfume amongst many other things. The wood was carved into votive statues.   To add insult to Poseidon’s injury, the olive tree proved to be hardy and resistant to brackish water. Thus, Athena became the patron goddess of Athens and has been associated with the olive tree ever since.   Today, there is an olive tree atop the Acropolis that is associated with the Athenian myth. It is said that this tree stands in roughly the same spot where the first olive tree, revered by the Athenians thousands of years ago, stood.   The Head of Medusa Modern statue of Athena with a shield featuring the head of Medusa at the Museumsberg, Flensburg. Source: Wikimedia Commons   One of the many symbols associated with Athena is the head of the gorgon, Medusa. The hero Perseus, in his quest to kill Medusa, turned to his half-sister, Athena, for aid. The goddess gave Perseus a finely polished shield that became instrumental in Medusa’s defeat. The gorgon’s powerful attribute was that she could turn anyone who looked upon her to stone. Athena’s shield gave Perseus the opportunity to fight Medusa by looking at her reflection in the polished metal.   Victorious, Perseus presented Medusa’s severed head to Athena, who attached it to her aegis. It is unclear what exactly an aegis is. It has been variously described as a breastplate, a cloak, or a shield. A shield is considered the most likely suggestion. Regardless, the aegis is a symbol of defense, and upon Athena’s aegis is a symbol of Athena’s power of victory and the destruction of her enemies.   Snakes A statue of Athena with a snake, by Alessandro Algardi, c. 17th century. Source: Boncompagni Ludovisi Collection   Many depictions of Athena also include her accompanied by a snake, and her association with the serpent can be interpreted in many ways. One of the most common interpretations is that snakes symbolize rejuvenation and rebirth because they shed their skin and are symbolically reborn.   The snake is a versatile symbol that can represent many things associated with Athena. Snakes were symbolic of cunning, an attribute represented in Athena. They also represented fertility in the earth, and because of their fangs and venom, were representative of danger, and were powerful symbols of protection.   Other Symbols Myrtle flowers. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Many other minor symbols have often appeared in depictions of Athena. Roosters, doves, and eagles have been associated with the goddess, but none of these birds are as ubiquitous as the little owl. Athena is also associated with the flute. In myth, it is said that she invented the flute but cast it aside because when played, it made her face look ugly.   In addition to being the goddess of war and wisdom, Athena was also seen as a fierce protector of the earth and nature. As such, plants aside from the olive tree were associated with her. The acanthus, with its bristle-like blooms, was often seen as a symbol of protection, and thus, it became associated with Athena. Another plant is myrtle, which, above all things, is symbolic of love.   Despite the association of Athena with martial prowess, and military matters, Athena was also the goddess of handicrafts, especially associated with weaving. In Greek mythology, according to the Roman poet Ovid, a woman named Arachne boasted that her weaving skill surpassed that of the goddess. Athena responded by challenging her to a weaving contest. When Athena could not find any fault with her opponent’s finished product, she became enraged and beat Arachne with a shuttle. Arachne hanged herself out of shame, but Athena took pity on her and transformed her into a spider so she could weave webs for all time.   Colors of Athena Detail from a statue of Athena in a Corinthian helmet, Greek, c. 180-190 CE. Source: Liebieghaus, Frankfurt   Apart from symbols that are depicted as tangible objects, there were also colors associated with Athena. She was often represented with yellow and gold, a common motif among the Greek gods. For the ancient Greeks, these colors symbolized the divine and the powerful brightness of the sun. Athena was also depicted with the color blue, which was associated with wisdom, purity, and divinity.   Athena is one of the pre-eminent deities in Greek antiquity. Her symbolic significance and the objects associated with her were powerful symbols that formed part of her character and had a huge impact on the beliefs of the Greeks millennia ago.   These symbols have not been forgotten. Just as she was in ancient times, Athena is a popular subject for artists, who use the same symbols and motifs to express the goddess’s character and nature.

  There have been countless “Crusades” over the centuries. In today’s world, the word crusade has been used several times by extremist groups who wish to profit from the emotion and extreme connections to that word. Read on to learn more about the battles of one particular crusade that have made it the most famous of all: the Third Crusade.   Background on the Crusades The Crusaders Reach Jerusalem, designed by Domenico Paradisi, woven 1732-39. Source: The MET, New York   From today’s perspective, it is difficult to fully comprehend the Crusades’ impact on the world and the people of the Middle Ages. One way to grasp its significance is to liken it to some individuals’ fervor and dedication to their favorite celebrity. The appeal of the Crusades extended not only to nobles and kings but also to ordinary individuals who were driven by their passion to fight for Christ.   Map: Third Crusade (1189-1192). Source: TheCollector.com   Joining the Crusades meant that your earthly sins would be forgiven and your journey to Heaven would be easier. For many, this reason was enough to abandon their life and loved ones and travel thousands of miles away to join the cause.   The purpose of the Third Crusade was to retake Jerusalem, which the Muslim ruler Saladin had recently conquered. Jerusalem held great importance to Christians as a pivotal location throughout Jesus Christ’s life. Now that it had been conquered by the enemies of God, convincing the masses to go and reconquer the city proved to be an easy task.   1. The Siege of Acre Richard the Lionheart Embarks on the Third Crusade, by Glyn Warren Philpot, 1927. Source: Art UK   Acre was a strategically vital port city along the Mediterranean coast, crucial to controlling access to the Holy Land. Two years before the Siege of Acre began, the Muslim leader Saladin had conquered Jerusalem and, as a result, conquered Acre and put his defenders around the city. The city of Acre was in desperate need of rescuing by Christians.   The Siege of Acre began in 1189, led by the former King of Jerusalem, Guy de Lusignan. Unfortunately for Guy, he did not have a large garrison force to help him retake the city, and Saladin had thousands of soldiers at his disposal and was well-supplied, ensuring his forces could stay in position for a long time. Due to the small size of Guy’s army, the siege of Acre lasted two long years before reinforcements from the West began to arrive. Among the leaders from the West were King Richard I of England, Philip II of France, and Leopold V of Austria.   The arrival of help from the West meant that the incoming ships could create a naval blockade of Acre, cutting off supplies and reinforcements to the city defenders and eventually weakening their forces. After two long years of siege, Acre finally fell to the Crusaders on July 12, 1191. The Crusaders were able to take large amounts of treasure and many Muslim prisoners.   The capture of Acre gave the Crusaders another crucial foothold in the Holy Land, allowing them to continue reconquering it from Saladin. The capture also revitalized the Crusader cause, providing a much-needed success. However, the ultimate goal of recapturing Jerusalem still needed to be fulfilled.   2. The Battle of Arsuf Battle of Arsuf, by Gustave Dore, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Battle of Arsuf, fought on September 7th, 1191, was crucial during the Third Crusade. Following the capture of Acre in July of 1191, Richard the Lionheart started to advance his troops south along the coast to recapture the city of Jaffa, which would serve as a starting point for a future attack on Jerusalem. Arsuf was located between Acre and Jaffa, and this would be the point where Saladin began to confront Richard’s advancing army. This battle would be crucial as the victor could control the coast, which would secure the supply lines for the troops.   Richard led an army of 10,000 soldiers, including heavy cavalry, infantry, and crossbowmen. They marched in a disciplined formation along the coast, with the sea and the Crusader fleet providing protection. Saladin, on the other hand, continuously bothered the Crusaders with light cavalry and skilled horse archers in an attempt to wear them down and demoralize them before a confrontation.   Saladin hoped to lure Richard into a hasty attack or scatter his forces. However, Richard demonstrated patience and maintained strict discipline among his troops, holding them back until the time was right.   Richard the Lionheart on a Medieval floor tile, 1250s. Source: The British Museum   Finally, after hours of enduring harassment from Saladin’s troops, Richard signaled for the attack to begin. Richard’s heavily armed knights quickly broke through Saladin’s lines, with Richard leading the charge. The shock of Richard’s forces proved too much for Saladin’s troops, who were swiftly routed. The victory at Arsuf uplifted the Crusader’s morale and secured control of the coastal route to Jaffa. However, this would not be the end of Saladin, as his forces remained intact following their defeat at Arsuf. Saladin was able to avoid an absolute defeat by promptly retreating from Arsuf.   The Battle of Arsuf is unique in that it was one of the few total victories for the Crusaders during the Third Crusade. It demonstrated the importance of maintaining discipline in the face of harassment and the effectiveness of heavy cavalry in medieval warfare.   3. The Battle of Jaffa Saladin’s Cavalry Charging the Crusaders, by Richard Canton Woodville, 1892. Source: Art UK   After Richard and his troops had won the Battle of Arsuf, Richard led his troops to the coastal city of Jaffa and conquered it. However, the victory was short-lived when Saladin launched a surprise attack on Jaffa in July 1192.   Saladin’s forces overwhelmed the city’s defenses, and all that remained under Crusader control was a small garrison in the citadel. The Crusaders inside the citadel were able to hold off Saladin’s forces and send word to Richard, who was in Acre, to come and relieve them.   Richard wasted no time answering the call of his fellow Crusaders in trouble. He hurried to Jaffa to assist in retaking the city despite his small army of just 2,000 men. Perhaps knowing the risk he was taking attacking Jaffa with just 2,000 men, Richard did something daring: he led his forces in an amphibious landing directly onto the beaches near Jaffa. Understandably surprised by this tactic, Saladin’s troops were caught off guard by this sudden appearance of Richard and his forces.   Richard I at the Battle of Jaffa, 1873. Source: The British Library   Richard led a fierce charge against Saladin’s forces, driving them back from the city and causing significant casualties. The heavily armored and disciplined Crusader knights broke through Saladin’s lines, ultimately forcing the Muslim forces to retreat. Much of the fighting occurred in the streets of Jaffa, where the Crusaders engaged in close-quarters combat and successfully reclaimed Jaffa under Crusader control. Realizing the difficulty of holding Jaffa against Richard’s determined assault, Saladin ordered a strategic retreat, withdrawing his forces smartly to avoid complete defeat.   Although Jaffa was a significant victory for Richard, both rulers knew a decisive victory in the overall conflict was improbable. After all, they had both been fighting this conflict for five years, with neither side winning more than the other. Jaffa’s outcome led to subsequent negotiations between Richard and Saladin for peace. These talks would lead to the eventual Treaty of Jaffa.   End of the Third Crusade: The Treaty of Jaffa King Richard I and Soldan Saladin, by Soloman Alexander Hart, 19th century. Source: Art UK   Two primary reasons for drafting the Treaty of Jaffa were stalemates and mutual exhaustion. It is a testament to both leaders, Richard and Saladin, that neither could totally defeat the other throughout the Third Crusade. When Richard won one battle, Saladin won another; on and on, this was the pattern. That pattern led both rulers to become exhausted with the entire conflict. Richard also faced problems back home in England while Saladin’s resources were stretched thin after years of continuous warfare.   There were three terms to the Treaty of Jaffa:   1.) The Status of Jerusalem Jerusalem would remain under Muslim control, but unarmed Christian pilgrims were allowed to visit the city and other holy sites without harassment from Muslims. 2.) Territorial Arrangements The Crusaders would keep their control over key cities along the coast, such as Acre. A neutral zone would be created between Jaffa and Jerusalem, and both Crusader and Muslim forces agreed not to occupy or fortify this area. 3.) Truce and Peace The treaty established a three-year peace between the Crusaders and Muslims, which allowed both sides time to recover from the lengthy and costly conflict.   With both Saladin and Richard agreeing to these terms, the Treaty of Jaffa was signed, and the Third Crusade ended. While the primary purpose of the Third Crusade was to retake Jerusalem from Saladin, Richard did get the next best thing: ensuring that Christian pilgrims had guaranteed safe passage throughout the Holy Land.