Artemis is one of the twelve Olympian gods in Greek myth, the daughter of Leto and Zeus. Unlike her twin brother, Apollo, who represented civilization and order, Artemis represented the untamed wilderness. Depicted as a young maiden, the goddess was very protective of her chastity and was one of only three virgin goddesses in the Greek pantheon.   Many of the stories told about Artemis are cautionary tales about what happens to those who try to violate her virginity or refuse to pay her the proper respect. Below are ten of the most important stories about Artemis from Greek myth.   1. The Birth of Artemis Latona (Leto) and her Children, Apollo and Diana (Artemis), by William Henry Rinehart, 1874 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.   The Greek goddess Artemis, known as Diana among the Romans, is the daughter of Zeus and Leto and the elder of the divine twins. Most stories relate that Artemis was born before Apollo. Some even claim that after she was born, Artemis acted as a midwife for the birth of her brother.   According to the accounts in Apollodorus’ Library of Greek Mythology and Hyginus’ Fabulae 53, Artemis was born on the island of Ortygia. In some versions of the story, this island was formed when the goddess Asteria turned into a quail and cast herself into the sea to escape Zeus’ advances. In other versions, she was turned into a quail and cast into the sea by Zeus because she rejected his advances. Either way, it is on this island that Leto gave birth. It was later renamed as Delos.   However, in the Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo the poet mentions Ortygia and Delos in a way that implies they were separate islands. The Roman geographer Strabo also believed that the two islands were distinct from each other and that Ortygia was most likely Rheneia, a small island nearby where the Delians buried their dead.   2. The Nymph Callisto Jupiter (Zeus) in the Guise of Diana (Artemis) and Callisto, by François Boucher, 1763 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.   Artemis was always accompanied by a retinue of beautiful young nymphs. One of these nymphs was named Callisto. Unfortunately, the nymph’s beauty gained her the attention of Zeus, who raped and impregnated her. Like Artemis herself, all her nymph companions were meant to remain virgins.   When Artemis found out that Callisto was pregnant, she became furious. Accounts differ on the punishment. Some claim that Artemis turned Callisto into a bear, while others claim that a different god turned her into a bear, and that she was then shot and killed by Artemis.   In the most well-known version of the story from Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Artemis only banished Callisto, and it was then Hera who transformed her. Callisto was eventually killed by her own son, Arcas, who was out hunting one day and didn’t realize that the bear was his mother.   3. The Death of Orion Blind Orion Searching for the Rising Sun, by Nicolas Poussin, 1658 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.   Orion was a hunting companion of Artemis, but she killed him when he offended her. The nature of the offense is disputed, with some sources claiming that he challenged her to a discus contest, while others claim he tried to rape her. Yet others say that he fell in love with Eos, goddess of the dawn, and Artemis killed him out of jealousy.   In yet another account, Artemis was in love with Orion. Apollo worried that this would cause her to break her vow of chastity, so when Orion was out swimming, Apollo bet his sister that she couldn’t hit the black object out at sea. Artemis accepted the challenge and shot an arrow that hit Orion square in the head. When his body washed ashore, she realized what she had done, and turned him into a constellation.   4. Niobe and Her Children The Punishment of the Arrogant Niobe by Diana (Artemis) and Apollo, by Pierre Charles Jombert, 1772 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.   Niobe was the daughter of Tantalus. One day, she boasted of how she was more blessed with children than Leto since she had twelve children, or fourteen depending on the account, while Leto only had two. The goddess was so insulted that she asked her children to avenge her honor. They killed all of Niobe’s children with Apollo killing the males and Artemis killing the females.   Niobe was so heartbroken by the deaths of her children that her tears became a river, and she turned to stone. On Mount Sipylus, modern Spil, there is a stone that, if looked at from the correct distance, looks like a woman weeping.   5. The Transformation Actaeon Diana Surprised in Her Bath, by Camille Corot, 1836 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.   Actaeon was a grandson of Cadmus and was trained as a hunter by Chiron. In Hyginus’ Fabulae, the story is told over two entries, 180 and 181. The first entry relates that Actaeon watched Artemis bathe and tried to rape her, inciting the goddess’ anger. The second says that Actaeon came upon Artemis bathing by accident. One day, after a particularly arduous hunt, he stopped at a spring to get a drink for himself and his dogs. Unbeknownst to him, Artemis had done the same and was bathing in the spring. To prevent him from speaking of what he saw, she turned him into a stag. He was chased down by his own hunting dogs and mauled to death.   Other versions do not attest to an attempted rape, but in the Dionysiaca by Nonnus of Panopolis, it is written that Acteaon was a servant of Artemis and purposefully spied on her. He was then caught by the goddess’ attendants and metamorphosed into a stag.   6. Aloads, the Sons of Aloeus Red-Figure Krater featuring Gigantomachy: Zeus and Giants, Southern Italy, c. 350 BCE. Source: State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.   The Aloads, named Otus and Ephialtes, were sons of Poseidon and the mortal woman Iphimedeia. They were referred to by the patronymic Aloads (or Aloadae) because their mother was the wife of a Thessalian prince named Aloeus.   Otus and Ephialtes were unique in that every year, they grew more than a foot wider and six feet taller. By the time they were nine years old, they were five stories tall, and the two boys sought to overthrow the gods. They piled mountains on top of each other to climb to the heavens, and they threatened to throw so many mountains into the sea that the sea would become land and the land would become sea. In Book 11 of the Odyssey, Homer wrote that Apollo killed them, but other sources add more to the story.   In Apollodorus’ Library of Greek Mythology, they also tried to seduce Hera and Artemis. Cleverly, Artemis disguised herself as a deer and jumped between the two giants. They each tried to skewer the goddess with their spears but missed and killed each other instead.   7. Hippolytus and Phaedra Hippolytus, Phaedra, and Nurse, wall painting from Herculaneum, c. 1st century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons.   Hippolytus was the son of Theseus by Antiope, sister to the Amazonian queen Hippolyta. Phaedra was the sister of Ariadne, the princess of Crete who helped Theseus to overcome the Labyrinth and the Minotaur. Like he did with Ariadne, Theseus eventually lost interest in his wife, Antiope, and sought to remarry. He became infatuated with Phaedra, and she became his new wife.   Recounted and dramatized in 5th century BCE playwright Euripides’ Hippolytus, the titular character is a young man who loves to hunt and has no interest in marriage. This goes against cultural norms, as teenage boys would transition from worshiping Artemis, the virgin goddess, to worshiping Aphrodite, as a rite of passage from childhood into manhood.   Aphrodite took offense to this, so she cursed Phaedra, now Hippolytus’ stepmother, to lust after him. Hippolytus rejected her, and in her shame, she committed suicide. But Phaedra left a note for Theseus as a final revenge on her stepson. In it, she claimed that he raped her. In grief and anger, Theseus prayed to Poseidon to take revenge on Hippolytus. The god obliged.   While Hippolytus was riding his chariot, Poseidon sent a bull up from the sea that scared Hippolytus’ horses. He was thrown from the chariot and dragged to his death.   Head of Artemis, Roman copy of Greek original, c. 1st century CE. Source: State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.   There’s an alternative ending to the myth given in Hyginus’ Fabulae. Artemis saved Hippolytus by taking him to Asclepius to be revived from death. She then took him to Italy where he lived out the rest of his days.   8. The Death of Adonis Adonis, by Antonio Corradini, c. 1723-25 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.   By the end of Euripides’ play, Artemis vows to avenge Hippolytus’ death by killing one of Aphrodite’s loves. She chose the mortal Adonis. According to Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Adonis was the son of Myrrha and her own father, King Cinyras of Cyprus. Like with Phaedra, Aphrodite cursed Myrrha to lust after her father. The incestuous relationship ended with a pregnant Myrrha being transformed into a tree. From that tree sprouted the beautiful baby Adonis.   Aphrodite instantly fell in love with the youth and would spend all her time with him. They would go hunting in the mountains just like Artemis, except Aphrodite would steer him clear of any dangerous animals and warn him of the dangers of facing any predators. One day, when Aphrodite was away, Artemis exacted her revenge by sending a boar that skewered Adonis with its tusks.   9. The Sacrifice of Iphigenia The Sacrifice of Iphigenia, by Gaetano Gandolfi, 1789 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.   When the Greeks were setting out for war against the Trojans for the abduction of Helen, queen of Sparta, they were waylaid at Aulis due to unfavorable winds. The seer Calchas divined that Artemis was unhappy with King Agamemnon because once, while on a hunt, he declared after shooting a deer that not even Artemis could have made such a shot. She was also angry that his ancestor Atreus failed to sacrifice a golden lamb to her as he had promised.   To remedy the goddess’ displeasure, Agamemnon was told that he had to fetch his most beautiful daughter and sacrifice her on the altar like a lamb. The king sent Odysseus to get his daughter, Iphigenia, and bring her back by telling her that she had been promised in marriage to Achilles. The ploy worked, and when Iphigenia arrived she was taken up to the altar where her own father killed her.   Or so he thought. At the last moment, Artemis replaced her with a deer and whisked her away to Tauris where she became the goddess’ priestess.   10. Artemis in Homer’s Iliad Terracotta lekythos (oil flask) depicting Artemis shooting her bow, attributed to the Providence Painter, c. 480 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.   Artemis did not play as major of a role in the events of Homer’s Iliad as the other Olympians. But she does make a few appearances on the side of the Trojans. In Book 5, the hero Aeneas is whisked away from the fighting by Apollo and brought to a sanctuary in Pergamus. Once there, he was healed by Artemis and her mother, Leto.   Later, in Book 20, when Achilles comes forth to fight against the Trojans, Zeus gives permission to the gods to go down among the armies and aid whichever side they wish. Of the Olympians, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Hermes, and Hephaistos sided with the Greeks. Ares, Apollo, Artemis, and Aphrodite sided with the Trojans. The only Olympians that didn’t participate were Zeus, Hades, and Demeter.   Each god faced off against another from the opposing side. Poseidon battled with Apollo, Athena with Ares, Hermes faced Leto, Hephaistos fought the river god Xanthus, and Artemis battled with Hera. When Apollo and Poseidon eventually came to terms with each other, Artemis chastised her brother as a coward.   Hera then chided Artemis, offering to give her a demonstration in warfare of the difference in their power. Hera took both of Artemis’ wrists in one hand and with the other she stripped her of her bow and quiver. With bow and arrows in hand, Hera smacked Artemis upside the head with her own weapons. Weeping, Artemis fled from the battle, leaving her weapons there. The final image of the goddess is her crying on the lap of Zeus as a young girl might, seeking comfort from her father.

  Skyscrapers weren’t always the shimmering glass-and-steel giants we know today. In the late 19th century, the idea of building upward wasn’t just a necessity. It was a statement. Cities were swelling, land was expensive, and new engineering feats made it possible to defy traditional limits. The first skyscrapers were bold, intricate, and unapologetically grand.   Many of these pioneering structures still stand, their ornate facades and groundbreaking foundations a reminder of where it all began. Here’s a look at the ten oldest skyscrapers in the world, the buildings that first reached for the sky.   1. Ames Building, Boston, Massachusetts (1893) Ames Building, Boston, Massachusetts. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Nestled at 1 Court Street in Boston, Massachusetts, the Ames Building stands as a testament to the city’s architectural evolution. Completed in 1893, it was designed by the esteemed firm Shepley, Rutan, and Coolidge in the Richardsonian Romanesque style. At fourteen stories, it was Boston’s tallest building upon completion and is considered the Beantown’s first skyscraper.   Commissioned by industrialist Frederick Lothrop Ames, the building showcases a façade adorned with granite and sandstone, featuring grand arches and intricate carvings. Its construction marked a significant achievement as the second-tallest masonry load-bearing wall structure globally at the time, surpassed only by Chicago’s Monadnock Building.   Over the years, the Ames Building has undergone several transformations. Initially serving as office space, it was converted into a luxury boutique hotel in 2009. In 2020, Suffolk University acquired the building, repurposing it as a student residence hall.   Visitors to the Ames Building can appreciate its historical significance and architectural grandeur. Situated adjacent to the Old State House and near Faneuil Hall, its location offers a rich blend of Boston’s past and present. While the interior now serves as student housing and is not open to the public, the building’s exterior remains a visual delight for architecture enthusiasts and history buffs alike.   2. Manhattan Building, Chicago, Illinois (1891) The Manhattan Building in Chicago, Illinois. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Located at 431 South Dearborn Street in Chicago, Illinois, the Manhattan Building was designed by architect William Le Baron Jenney and constructed between 1889 and 1891. Upon its completion, the 16-story structure was the tallest building globally and is recognized as the oldest surviving skyscraper with a purely skeletal steel frame.   The building’s distinctive design features bow windows that enhance natural light within its interior spaces. The façade combines a granite base for the lower floors with brick on the upper stories, reducing the load on the internal steel framework. This innovative approach addressed concerns about wind-induced sway, with Jenney incorporating structural elements to ensure stability.   Today, the Manhattan Building continues to serve as a commercial office space, retaining its historical significance and architectural charm. Visitors and architecture enthusiasts can admire its exterior, which showcases the early adoption of steel-frame construction—a pivotal development in skyscraper design. Situated in Chicago’s Loop neighborhood, the building is part of the historic Printing House Row District, offering a glimpse into the city’s rich architectural heritage.   The interior is primarily occupied by businesses and may not be accessible to the general public.   3. Old Chronicle Building, San Francisco, California (1889) Old Chronicle Building, De Young Building, San Francisco, California. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Old Chronicle Building, also known as the de Young Building, is a historic landmark located at 690 Market Street in San Francisco, California. Completed in 1889, it was designed by the renowned Chicago architectural firm Burnham and Root in the Richardsonian Romanesque style. At the time of its completion, the ten-story building, featuring a clock tower reaching 218 feet, was the tallest structure on the West Coast and is considered San Francisco’s first skyscraper.   Commissioned by M. H. de Young, owner of the San Francisco Chronicle, the building served as the newspaper’s headquarters and was a prominent feature of the city’s “Newspaper Row,” sharing the area with other major publications. In 1905, during a mayoral victory celebration, fireworks ignited the wooden clock tower, leading to its removal. Despite suffering significant damage during the 1906 earthquake and subsequent fires, the building was rebuilt under the supervision of architect Willis Polk, preserving its historical significance.   Over the years, the Old Chronicle Building underwent several transformations. In 1962, an attempt to modernize its appearance led to the original masonry façade being covered with a contemporary exterior. However, in 2004, efforts were made to restore its historic character, and the building was converted into the Ritz-Carlton Club and Residences.   Today, visitors can admire the restored façade that reflects the building’s original 19th-century design. While the interior now houses private residences and is not open to the public, the exterior stands as a testament to San Francisco’s resilience and commitment to preserving its historical landmarks.   4. New York Times Building (41 Park Row), New York City (1889) The New York Times Building of 1858. Source: jenikirbyhistory   The building at 41 Park Row in Manhattan holds significant historical importance as the former headquarters of The New York Times. Completed in 1889, it stands as a testament to the newspaper’s early prominence and the architectural innovation of its era.   The New York Times was founded in 1851 and initially operated from 113 Nassau Street. As the newspaper’s influence grew, it relocated to a newly constructed building at 41 Park Row in 1858, making it the first structure in New York City designed specifically for a newspaper. By the late 1880s, to accommodate its expanding operations, the Times commissioned architect George B. Post to design a larger Romanesque Revival-style building on the same site. This new 13-story structure was completed in 1889, showcasing advanced construction techniques of the period.   The 1889 building featured a façade adorned with intricate stonework and large arched windows, reflecting the Romanesque Revival style. Its construction was notable for being executed around the existing operations of the newspaper, allowing The New York Times to continue publishing without interruption. This engineering feat demonstrated innovative building practices of the time.   In 1905, The New York Times relocated to a new building at One Times Square, and 41 Park Row underwent modifications, including the addition of four stories. Pace University acquired the building in 1951, repurposing it for academic use. The structure has since been designated a New York City landmark and contributes to the Fulton–Nassau Historic District.   Today, 41 Park Row serves as an academic building for Pace University. While interior access is primarily for university purposes, visitors can appreciate the building’s historical façade and its role in New York City’s rich journalistic and architectural heritage.   5. Wilder Building, Rochester, New York (1888) North and west faces of the Wilder Building, Rochester, New York. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Constructed between 1887 and 1888, this eleven-story structure is considered Rochester’s first modern skyscraper and remains one of the oldest early skyscrapers in the United States.   Designed by the prominent Rochester architectural firm Warner & Brockett, the building showcases a modified Romanesque style. Its original design featured spires at each corner of the roof, which have since been removed.   A notable feature of the Wilder Building is its association with the invention of the mail chute. James Goold Cutler, who received U.S. Patent 284,951 on September 11, 1883, for the mail chute, installed a perfected version in the Wilder Building during its construction. With the demolition of the Elwood Building in 1965, the Wilder Building’s mail chute is currently the oldest surviving example of this innovation.   Today, the Wilder Building continues to serve as a functional office space, housing various businesses and organizations. Its prime location at the Four Corners in downtown Rochester makes it a central and accessible hub for commerce.   Visitors and architecture enthusiasts can appreciate the building’s historical significance and its role in shaping Rochester’s skyline. While interior access may be limited due to its use as private office space, the exterior offers a glimpse into the city’s rich architectural heritage.   6. Rookery Building, Chicago, Illinois (1888) The Rookery Building, Chicago, Illinois. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Nestled at the corner of LaSalle and Adams Streets in Chicago, the Rookery Building was completed in 1888 by the renowned partnership of Daniel Burnham and John Wellborn Root. This iconic structure seamlessly blends masonry and skeletal frame construction, marking a pivotal moment in the evolution of modern architecture.   The building’s name, “The Rookery,” harks back to a time when the site housed a temporary city hall teeming with crows and pigeons, as well as politicians, leading locals to dub it a “rookery.” Embracing this moniker, Root incorporated bird motifs into the building’s ornamental design, adding a whimsical touch to its grandeur.   One of the Rookery’s most captivating features is its central light court. Originally designed to flood the interior with natural light, this two-story atrium was reimagined in 1905 by the legendary Frank Lloyd Wright. Wright’s renovation introduced white Carrara marble, intricate Persian-inspired patterns, and elegant bronze chandeliers, transforming the space into a luminous blend of form and function.   Beyond its aesthetic appeal, the Rookery was an engineering marvel of its time. Root devised a “grillage foundation,” a network of iron rails encased in concrete, to support the building’s weight on Chicago’s challenging soil. This innovative approach ensured the structure’s stability and longevity.   Today, the Rookery Building continues to function as a vibrant office space, housing various businesses while welcoming visitors to explore its historic halls. Guided tours offer insights into its rich past, architectural nuances, and the visionary minds behind its creation. As a designated Chicago Landmark and a listing on the National Register of Historic Places, the Rookery remains a cherished emblem of the city’s architectural heritage.   7. Sun Building, Washington, DC (1887) The Sun Building, Washington DC. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Nestled at 1317 F Street NW in Washington, DC, the Sun Building stands as a testament to architectural innovation and historical significance. Designed by Alfred B. Mullett, its construction spanned from 1885 to 1887, originally serving as the Washington bureau for The Baltimore Sun.   Upon completion, this nine-story edifice was among the city’s earliest skyscrapers, showcasing a steel-frame structure, a pioneering feature at the time. Its façade is adorned with sun motifs and sunflowers, an early example of corporate branding through architecture.   The building was equipped with steam-powered elevators, later upgraded to hydraulic systems in 1909 and electric elevators in 1922. In 1904, architect B. Stanley Simmons oversaw modifications for the American Bank, including the addition of a ninth floor in 1907 to accommodate the Interstate Commerce Commission’s hearing room.   Throughout its history, the Sun Building has housed notable tenants, including Woodrow Wilson’s law firm and the early offices of the Federal Bureau of Investigation under J. Edgar Hoover.   Recognized for its architectural and historical value, the Sun Building was added to the National Register of Historic Places on March 27, 1985.   8. Osborne Apartments, New York City (1885) The Osborne Apartments, New York City. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Osborne Apartments, located at 205 West 57th Street in Manhattan, New York City, was constructed between 1883 and 1885, and stands as one of the city’s oldest luxury apartment buildings.   Designed by architect James Edward Ware, the Osborne showcases a Romanesque Revival style with a façade clad in rusticated brownstone. The building’s southern section facing 57th Street rises 11 stories, while the northern section extends to 15 stories. The interior is notable for its elaborate lobby, adorned with stuccoed and mosaic-tiled walls, reflecting the opulence of the Gilded Age.   Commissioned by stone contractor Thomas Osborne as a speculative investment, the building’s construction cost of $2 million led to financial difficulties, resulting in its acquisition by the Taylor family in 1889. Throughout its history, the Osborne has been home to numerous artists, musicians, and professionals, contributing to its reputation as a cultural hub. In 1991, it was designated a New York City landmark, and in 1993, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places.   Situated at the northwest corner of 57th Street and Seventh Avenue, the Osborne is directly across from Carnegie Hall and in close proximity to Central Park. This prime location places it within Manhattan’s “Billionaires’ Row,” a stretch known for its luxury real estate and cultural institutions.   Today, the Osborne operates as a cooperative residential building, maintaining its historic charm while offering modern amenities. Its enduring architectural beauty and cultural significance continue to attract residents and visitors alike, preserving its legacy as a quintessential New York City landmark.   9. Hotel Chelsea, New York City (1884) The Hotel Chelsea, New York City. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Hotel Chelsea, often simply referred to as the Chelsea Hotel, is a historic landmark located at 222 West 23rd Street in Manhattan, New York City. Constructed between 1883 and 1884, it was initially designed as one of the city’s first cooperative apartment complexes by architect Philip Hubert in a style described as Queen Anne Revival and Victorian Gothic. The 12-story red brick building, adorned with wrought-iron balconies, was, for a time, the tallest structure in New York City.   In 1905, the building transitioned into a hotel, quickly becoming a haven for artists, writers, musicians, and actors. Its bohemian atmosphere attracted a plethora of notable residents and guests over the decades. Literary figures such as Mark Twain, O. Henry, Arthur C. Clarke, and Jack Kerouac, who penned “On the Road” during his stay, found inspiration within its walls. The hotel also hosted musical legends like Bob Dylan, Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, and Patti Smith. Andy Warhol filmed his iconic movie “Chelsea Girls” at the hotel in 1966, further cementing its status as a cultural landmark.   Throughout its history, the Chelsea Hotel has been a backdrop for both artistic creation and tumultuous events. The poet Dylan Thomas fell ill at the hotel before his death in 1953, and in 1978, punk rock musician Sid Vicious was implicated in the death of his girlfriend, Nancy Spungen, in one of its rooms.   In recent years, the hotel has undergone renovations to preserve its historic character while updating its facilities.   10. Temple Court Building, New York City (1883) The Temple Court Building, New York City. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Temple Court Building, located at 5 Beekman Street in Manhattan’s Financial District, is a remarkable example of late 19th-century architecture. Designed by Benjamin Silliman Jr. and James M. Farnsworth, the original structure was completed in 1883, showcasing a blend of Queen Anne, neo-Grec, and Renaissance Revival styles. Its distinctive red-brick façade, adorned with tan stone and terracotta accents, is complemented by two pyramidal towers at the corners.   In 1889, an annex was added to the building, designed solely by Farnsworth in the Romanesque Revival style. This addition features a limestone façade and seamlessly integrates with the original structure. A standout feature of the Temple Court Building is its nine-story atrium, crowned by a pyramidal skylight, which floods the interior with natural light and highlights the intricate iron railings and detailed ornamentation.   After a period of vacancy starting in 2001, the building underwent significant restoration and redevelopment. In 2016, it reopened as part of The Beekman Hotel and Residences complex. This project included the addition of a 51-story condominium tower, known as the Beekman Residences, designed by Gerner Kronick + Valcarcel Architects.   The Temple Court Building’s atrium was designated as an interior landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 2024, recognizing its historical and architectural significance.

  Despite having much of its most valuable territory retaken by the summer of 1864, the Confederacy continued to resist. If it could hold on, perhaps it could win the war by wearing down the Union enough to seek peace terms. Thus, new general-in-chief Ulysses S. Grant needed to crack the heavily fortified defenses around Petersburg and Richmond, Virginia and end the war in a timely fashion.   Victory Goes to the Union A Currier and Ives image of the final Union breakthrough at Petersburg, which occurred on April 2, 1865. Source: American Battlefield Trust   The siege, which lasted for nine and a half months, was finally won by the Union when it broke the city’s strong defenses on April 2, 1865. Twelve major battles were fought during the course of the siege, ending with the Battle of Five Forks. That afternoon and evening, on April 1, 1865, Union forces broke the Confederate lines of General George Pickett, forcing Pickett to flee and opening up Petersburg to capture. This final battle featured the actions of young general George Armstrong Custer, a Union cavalry officer, who later became [in]famous for his “last stand” during the Indian Wars of the 1870s.   Before dawn on April 2, Ulysses S. Grant ordered a general assault on the Petersburg defenses, and they finally broke. At the time of this final assault, Confederate defenders were outnumbered almost four-to-one and were weakened from almost a year of reduced rations. By 5:15 AM, Confederate General Robert E. Lee knew the city would have to be evacuated and that Richmond, the Confederate capital, could not be held. Twenty-four hours later, Union troops entered the battered city and raised the United States flag.   Timeline of the Siege of Petersburg An 1863 map detailing the Confederate defenses of the Dimmock Line, revealing the difficulty that Union attackers would face in besieging Petersburg. Source: Virginia Humanities   The siege began on June 15, 1864 under the command of the Union’s new general-in-chief, Ulysses S. Grant, with a major battle. Unable to take the city, the Union’s Army of the Potomac remained in place, creating a siege. Lee chose to focus on Petersburg rather than Richmond itself, as Petersburg served as the supply depot for the Confederate capital.   Over several months, both the Confederates in the city and the Union forces surrounding them alternated between brief assaults and long periods of construction. The result was trench warfare and entrenched artillery, previewing the destruction of World War I in Europe.   On July 30, after weeks of trenched stalemate, the Union detonated black powder they had placed after digging under Confederate trenches, sparking the Battle of the Crater. Although many Confederates were killed in the blast, they fought hard and prevented a Union breakthrough.   During the autumn of 1864, Union general Ulysses S. Grant made slow, incremental gains in seizing territory around Petersburg, further isolating the city.   After a winter lull, Union attacks began again in February 1865.   By March, the Confederates were almost entirely out of supplies, and the final coordinated Union offensive began on March 29.   On April 2, 1865, Grant’s troops finally breached the city’s defenses.   What Caused the Siege of Petersburg? A rail ticket for showing the close relationship between the Virginia cities of Petersburg and Richmond, which formed the last urban holdout of the Confederacy. Source: Virginia Humanities   The siege was caused by the need to deliver a final, crushing blow to the Confederacy before the 1864 presidential elections. After three years of warfare, many in the North were growing tired of the mounting casualties…and wanted to negotiate an end to the hostilities. This would mean a victory for the Confederacy. US President Abraham Lincoln needed to show that the Civil War could be won, and in a reasonable time frame. Lincoln’s new appointee as general-in-chief, Ulysses S. Grant, was given this difficult task.   Only a few months after taking the reins of the entire Union army, Grant embarked on the offensive against Petersburg, Virginia due to its status as the “key to Richmond.” If Petersburg could be taken, Richmond would be without supplies and access to the remaining (dwindling) Confederacy. Unfortunately for Grant, the initial offensive in June 1864 failed, resulting in the need for a lengthy siege. The siege continued for months to apply continuous pressure on Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia and keep it trapped in the Petersburg-Richmond area, giving other Union armies easier access to retake the South.   Why Was the Siege of Petersburg Significant? A photograph of the historic rail station in Petersburg, Virginia, highlighting the city’s importance to the Confederacy as a military and commercial hub. Source: Historic Petersburg Foundation   The Siege of Petersburg was effectively the endgame of the American Civil War. Once Petersburg was taken, Richmond would fall…and the war would effectively be over. All other major cities in the Confederacy had already been retaken by the Union, leaving the Confederate government with no other suitable base of operations. The nine-month siege showed the grit and determination of both armies, which dug in and built tremendous defenses between brutal attacks.   In the longer term, the trench warfare and massive use of artillery during the Siege of Petersburg helped prepare the United States for the horrors of World War I. When the US entered that war in 1917, Germany felt it would be unprepared for the rigors of modern warfare. However, whereas Europe had not suffered a major conflict since the Napoleonic era, the American Civil War had been industrialized. Thanks to the Civil War and the Siege of Petersburg, the US was not unprepared for industrialized war as Germany had thought.   5 Facts About the Siege of Petersburg An October 1864 photograph of the “Dictator” siege mortar that fired 200-pound shells at Confederate fortifications during the Siege of Petersburg. Source: Virginia Humanities   1. Casualties   The casualties during the nine-and-a-half-month siege were tremendous: up to 70,000 total. As the attackers facing entrenched defenses, the Union suffered considerably more casualties—some 60 percent of the total. The Confederates suffered about 40 percent of the total casualties, which was still substantial. Thanks to its industrial advantage, the Union could regularly attack Southern defensive works with massive siege guns.   2. Commanders   Union forces were led by General-in-chief Ulysses S. Grant and several of Grant’s subordinates, including General George Meade, who led the final breach on April 2, 1865. Meade was a longtime officer who was given command of the Army of the Potomac just before the Battle of Gettysburg in the summer of 1863. Although Meade stopped Robert E. Lee’s assault on the North, he was criticized for not aggressively pursuing Lee’s retreating army. Meade and Grant together commanded the Army of the Potomac after Grant was appointed general-in-chief, with Meade being largely overshadowed by his more aggressive superior.   Confederate forces were led by Robert E. Lee, commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, and P.G.T. Beauregard. During the siege, Lee was named general-in-chief of all Confederate armies on January 31, 1865. This created a powerful dichotomy: the opposing generals at Petersburg were now the respective generals-in-chief of their nation’s armies. Similar to Meade, Beauregard’s role at Petersburg was overshadowed by his superior officer.   3. Number of Forces Involved A postcard depicting the July 30, 1864 Battle of the Crater, which was part of the ongoing Siege of Petersburg in Virginia. Source: Historic Petersburg Foundation   Roughly 180,000 men participated in the Siege of Petersburg, which included eight significant battles. At the beginning, about 62,000 Union troops faced 42,000 Confederates. By the end, however, about 63,000 Union troops significantly outnumbered only 20,000 Confederate defenders. Due to its reduced condition, the Confederacy could no longer rebuild its forces. The Union, however, could easily replace battlefield losses.   4. Visiting Petersburg Fortifications Today   Today, the Petersburg National Battlefield in Virginia gives visitors historical tours of the longest engagement of the Civil War. The national park hosts many events conducted by park rangers, such as informational tours. For those who want to learn more before they go, the Petersburg National Battlefield website has several educational videos about conditions during the siege. Visitors who stay in Petersburg, Virginia can see historic sites from both the Civil War and Revolutionary War eras!   5. Trivia: Trench Warfare Predating World War I   The Siege of Petersburg was unique during the American Civil War for featuring trench warfare, which would become widespread fifty years later during World War I. When Union attackers were unable to breach Confederate lines, they simply dug in and created their own trenches that ran parallel to those of the defenders. This resulted in months of exhausting stalemate, where artillery and sharpshooters targeted any movement on the other side. Attempts to attack the opposing side were made deadly by various obstacles created to slow down or ensnare attackers. Additionally, defenders were made extra effective due to their ability to pre-sight their weapons on landmarks, giving them a high degree of accuracy.   Aftermath of Petersburg: Robert E. Lee on the Run A photograph of Confederate prisoners being guarded on April 3, 1865 after the capture of Petersburg, Virginia by the Union. Source: US Department of Defense   When the Confederate defenses at Petersburg broke on April 2, 1865, Confederate general-in-chief Robert E. Lee had no choice but to evacuate both Petersburg and Richmond. With no city around which to base his Army of Northern Virginia, Lee had to go on the run. He hoped to link up with fellow Confederate general Joseph Johnston in North Carolina. Union forces moved faster than anticipated, however, and blocked Lee’s path. This set the stage for the Battle of Appomattox, often considered the de facto end of the American Civil War.   The cities of Petersburg and Richmond were severely damaged by warfare. Most citizens, unaware of the true conditions of the nearby war, were surprised by the sudden collapse of the Confederate defenses. Many were only alerted that the city would soon be seized by the Union by the sight of Confederate government offices burning documents! Chaos seized Richmond as citizens sought alcohol and other valuables to keep them out of Union hands, which soon turned to looting as many hungry citizens realized that some upper-class families had been hoarding goods during the war. Order was only restored on April 3, 1865, when Union troops occupied both cities.

  In Greek mythology, Hera was the goddess of women, marriage and married life. She was the queen of the gods by her marriage to Zeus. In art, she was generally depicted wearing a crown and a peplos, a long sleeveless robe that was customary for women in ancient Greece. She was a powerful and clever goddess, yet her role in mythology is mainly as Zeus’ jilted wife. Though capable of benevolence, she is mostly remembered for her vengeful nature and the punishments she inflicted on those who had slighted her. Below are nine of the most important stories about Hera from Greek mythology.   1. Birth of Hera and Marriage to Zeus Black-figure hydria showing the wedding procession of Zeus and Hera, Attica, Greece, c. 520 BCE. Source: State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.   Hera was the daughter of the Titan gods Cronus (spelled Kronos in Greek) and Rhea. Her father had received a prophecy from Gaia that one of his children would overthrow him as he had overthrown his own father. To avoid this fate, he took each of his children as they were born and swallowed them whole, including Hera. When Zeus was born, Rhea saved him by tricking Cronus into swallowing a stone instead. The god grew and eventually saved his siblings by forcing Cronus to regurgitate them.   After she was freed, Hera participated in a decade-long war known as the Titanomachy between the Titans, the older generation of gods, and the Olympians, the newer generation of gods led by Zeus. The Olympians were ultimately victorious and Zeus was made king of the gods. After this, he took many wives, the last of which was Hera.   In order to seduce Hera, Zeus changed himself into a cuckoo bird and let Hera catch him and keep him as her pet. Zeus then revealed himself and Hera agreed to marry him. Their wedding was a luxurious affair, attended by all the gods and presided over by the Fates. The gods gave them wondrous gifts, such as a garden of golden apples that were guarded by a dragon.   2. Birth of Hephaestus Terracotta amphora depicting the return of Hephaistos, attributed to the Orvieto Painter, c. 540 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.   When Zeus birthed Athena from his head, Hera became enraged. She didn’t appreciate her husband having children that weren’t by her. Since Athena was considered to have been born of Zeus alone, Hera decided to punish Zeus by having a child of her own in the same manner. Without prior intercourse, Hera gave birth to Hephaestus (Hephaistos in ancient Greek), the god of the forge and fire. But he was born lame, which shamed the goddess, so she cast him down from Mount Olympus.   In revenge, Hephaestus built Hera a throne with invisible chains and sent it to Mount Olympus as a present. When Hera sat in it, she was bound fast to the seat and he refused to let her go. It was only with the intervention of Dionysus, who got Hephaestus drunk, that Hera was finally released.   3. Semele and Dionysus Jupiter Descending in All His Grandeur to the Palace of Semele, by Louis-Marin Bonnet, 1783 CE. Source: State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.   Semele was one of Zeus’ mortal lovers and the mother of Dionysus. Zeus tried to hide the affair, but Hera knew of his infidelity. To get her revenge, she disguised herself as Semele’s elderly nurse. In this disguise, she convinced Semele to ask Zeus to prove that he was truly a god by revealing his true form to her.   The next time Zeus came to her, she asked him for a gift. Hoping to impress, Zeus swore an unbreakable vow on the river Styx that he would grant her anything she wanted. Semele asked that he reveal his true form as Hera had cunningly suggested. He didn’t want to, but he couldn’t break his oath. Zeus revealed his divine form and Semele was instantly burned alive by his magnificence. Other sources relate that he appeared to her with a chorus of thunder and lightning, and Semele was so surprised that she died of fright.   Learning that she was pregnant with his child, Zeus rescued the unborn fetus and stitched it to his thigh to continue growing. When the child came to term, Zeus undid the stitches and Dionysus was born. Zeus gave the child to Hermes and had him take Dionysus to Ino and Athamas to raise. But Hera drove them mad, causing them to murder their own children. Zeus saved Dionysus and brought him to Mount Nysa in Asia. When Dionysus was grown, Hera drove him insane as well.   4. Hera Terrorizing Io Jupiter and Io, by François Lemoyne, 1726-1727 CE. Source: State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.   Io was another of Zeus’ lovers. According to Ovid’s Metamorphoses, so that the affair would not be exposed to Hera, Zeus transformed Io into a cow. But Hera wasn’t deceived. She asked for the cow as a gift, to which Zeus had no reasonable excuse not to oblige her. He gave her the cow Io and Hera placed her on top of a mountain to be guarded by a hundred-eyed giant named Argus. Zeus eventually tasked Hermes with rescuing Io from the giant. Hermes lulled the giant to sleep by playing the flute, then decapitated him and threw his head down the mountainside.   Despite being freed from the giant, Io continued to be tormented by Hera. The goddess sent a gadfly to constantly pester and bite her,  and she even sent one of the Furies to drive her mad. Trying to escape from her suffering, Io wandered the world until she eventually came to Egypt. On the banks of the Nile she pleaded with Zeus to put an end to her suffering. The king of the gods heard her and implored Hera to turn her back to normal. Hera reluctantly obliged when Zeus promised never to be unfaithful with Io again.   5. Hatred of Heracles Limestone statues of Herakles, Cypriot, c. 530-520 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.   Hera’s hatred of Heracles is the most well-documented of any myth to come out of ancient Greece. From the moment of his birth and through all of his labors she opposed his every step. Heracles was the son of Zeus and Alcmene, the queen of Tiryns. Zeus disguised himself as her husband, who was away at war, and spent three nights with her resulting in her pregnancy with Heracles.   As with all of Zeus’ infidelities, Hera expressed her anger at Zeus by exacting revenge on his lovers. With Heracles in mind, Zeus declared that the next child born from the line of Perseus would be king of Mycenae. To foil his plans Hera delayed Heracles’ birth so that his cousin, Eurystheus, was born first. Zeus’ decree came to pass and Eurystheus became the king.   When Heracles was born, his mother feared Hera’s wrath, so she left the baby out in a field to die of exposure. Athena happened by this field with Hera, and she convinced her to breastfeed the baby. Hera was unaware that this baby was Heracles so she gave him her breast. The baby nursed so violently that he caused her pain. When she could no longer endure it, Hera cast the child aside.   Athena, seemingly aware of the child’s identity, snatched him up and brought him back to his mother, urging her to raise him. When he was barely eight months old, Hera sent snakes to murder him in the cradle. Her plan failed when baby Heracles strangled them both with his bare hands.   Hera’s vendetta against Heracles continued throughout his adulthood. After a battle with the Minyans, she caused him to go insane and murder his own wife and children. To atone for this crime, Heracles was tasked with serving his cousin Eurystheus and performing the famous twelve labors. Hera antagonized him for a number of them and even orchestrated some, such as the Nemean Lion and the Hydra. She incited the Amazons to attack him by spreading a rumor that he was trying to abduct their queen. When he was driving the Geryon cattle back to Greece, she sent a gadfly to scatter them and forced him to corral them again.   Terracotta neck-amphora depicting Hera sending Iris with the Nemean Lion, attributed to Diosphos Painter, c. 500 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.   After his labors, Heracles sacked the city of Troy because their king, Laomedon, had at an earlier time refused to pay Heracles for rescuing his daughter from a sea monster. When he was sailing away, Hera sent a terrible storm that nearly killed him. Zeus was so furious that he bound his wife with chains, tied anvils to her feet, and then suspended her from the sky.   6. Coup Against Zeus Bust of Hera/Juno, Rome, c. 2nd century BCE. Source: State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.   In a brief few passages in Homer’s Iliad there is mention of a coup attempt against Zeus perpetrated by some of the other Olympians. The members of this coup were Poseidon, Apollo, Athena, and Hera. Zeus punished Poseidon and Apollo by forcing them to serve the Trojan king, Laomedon, and Athena seems to have faced no punishment at all. Hera’s punishment was more severe. Zeus again strung her up by the wrists and hung anvils from her feet.   7. Favor for Jason Terracotta Column-Krater showing Jason seizing the Golden Fleece, attributed to the Orchard Painter, c. 470-460 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.   Hera was a consistent ally of Jason during his quest to retrieve the Golden Fleece. There are two reasons why she helped him. Firstly, she was angry at the current king of Iolchos, Pelias, for usurping Jason’s father, Aeson. Secondly, as told in Hyginus’ Fabulae 22, Hera had once come down from Olympus disguised as an elderly woman to test the minds of men and see if they would help carry her across a river. Everyone who crossed ignored her, except for Jason. To show her gratitude, she blessed Jason with her favor.   In his quest to retrieve the Golden Fleece from king Aeëtes of Colchis, Hera provided Jason with aid on several occasions. When sailing past the Clashing Rocks, a sea passage bounded by cliffs on either side that crashed together with the force of the wind, Hera helped them make it through without being crushed. She also summoned Thetis to steer them around two active volcanoes called the Wandering Rocks. When they arrived in Colchis, Hera asked Aphrodite to make the princess, Medea, fall in love with Jason. Medea then helped him get past the tasks king Aeëtes demanded he perform. He was able to retrieve the fleece and sail away unharmed, with a new bride in tow.   8. Apple of Discord and the Judgment of Paris Feast of the Gods (The Marriage of Peleus and Thetis), by Johann Rottenhammer, 1600 CE. Source: State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.   Recounted in Hyginus’ Fabulae 92, all the gods were invited to the wedding of Peleus and the goddess Thetis, except for Eris, goddess of strife. Feeling rejected, Eris threw a golden apple into the middle of the party. Written on the apple was the message, “To the most beautiful.” Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite all proclaimed themselves the most beautiful and fought over who deserved the apple. To settle the dispute, Zeus selected a neutral judge, a mortal by the name of Paris.   Paris was the long lost son of Priam, king of Troy. When asked to judge the contest, he accepted, and each goddess offered him a bribe if he picked them. Hera offered him dominion over every kingdom; Athena offered him great military victories and skill in all crafts; and Aphrodite offered him the most beautiful mortal woman in the world. Paris chose Aphrodite and she promised him Helen of Sparta. Hera was furious at Paris’ choice and vowed revenge on every Trojan alive.   9. The Iliad Hector Lying on his Funeral Pyre, by Giovanni Maria Benzoni, c. 19th century CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.   Hera was a major and active participant in the events of The Iliad. Unlike some of the gods who aided one side or the other depending on their whims, Hera was a staunch ally of the Greeks. Still furious with Paris over choosing Aphrodite as the most beautiful goddess, Hera did everything in her considerable power to punish the Trojans. Throughout the narrative, Hera rouses the Greeks to fight harder, instilling courage and ferocity in them. Her zealous support of the Greeks and hatred for the Trojans repeatedly brings her into conflict with Zeus and other gods.   An example is in Book 14. Zeus had forbidden the gods from interfering in the war and the Trojans gained the upper hand in battle, so Hera seduced Zeus and lured him to bed. She then persuaded Hypnos, the personification of sleep, to keep him asleep. Hera returned to the battle and convinced Poseidon to help the Greeks turn the tide. When Zeus finally awoke, he was furious at Hera’s deception and threatened to punish her if she ever deceived him again.   Her wrath against the Trojans didn’t end with the Trojans themselves, but even extended to the gods who aided them. In Book 21, Hera faced off against Artemis, goddess of the hunt and sister of Apollo. She humiliated the arrogant younger goddess with ease, stripping off the bow and quiver from Artemis’ shoulder and knocking her across the head with them.   In all her stories, Hera is the archetype of a woman scorned.

  Located in the South Atlantic, directly between Cape Town in South Africa and Buenos Aires in Argentina, the island of Tristan da Cunha is the most remote inhabited place on the planet. It is a windswept place of natural beauty that has been home to a unique community for more than 200 years.   From its discovery to the tumultuous events of the 20th century and beyond, Tristan captures our imaginations and the hearts of those who live there.   Geography Tristan da Cunha. Source: Google Earth   A British Overseas Territory, Tristan da Cunha is an archipelago that consists of Tristan da Cunha, Inaccessible Island, Nightingale Islands, and Gough Island far to the south. Only the main island of Tristan Da Cunha is permanently inhabited, while Gough Island is frequented by personnel from South Africa who operate a weather station.   Tristan lies 1,732 miles (2,787 kilometers) from Cape Town, South Africa, to the east and 2,454 miles (3,949 kilometers) from the coast of Argentina to the west. The nearest island to the north is Saint Helena, which is 1,514 miles (2,437 kilometers) away.   The Tristan da Cunha archipelago. Source: The Pew Charitable Trusts   The main island is 38 square miles (98 square kilometers) and is home to a population of 250 people who live there permanently in a settlement called “Edinburgh of the Seven Seas.” The main island is also an active volcano, Queen Mary’s Peak, which stands 6,765 feet (2,062 meters) above sea level and has threatened the lives of the islanders, most notably when it erupted in 1961.   Inaccessible Island, 25 miles (40 kilometers) southwest of Tristan da Cunha is the remnant of a volcano, long since dormant. It is an inhospitable place with a few rocky beaches that host colonies of penguins and fur seals.   An albatross on Nightingale Island. Source: James Glass/pewtrusts.org   To the south of Tristan and Inaccessible are three islands known as Nightingale Islands. The largest of the three, Nightingale Island, measures just 1.5 square miles (4 square kilometers). To its north lie two islets, Stoltenhoff Island and Middle Island (also known as Alex Island), which are little more than rocky outcrops.   Tristan has a mild oceanic climate with temperatures rarely exceeding 77°F (25°C). However, it is a windy place that often experiences gale-force winds and dangerous waters that have claimed many ships throughout the centuries.   Discovery Fur seal colony on Nightingale Island. Source: Brian Gratwicke/animalia.bio via Flickr   The islands were first spotted in 1506 by Portuguese sailors under the captaincy of Tristão da Cunha. Strong winds and fierce seas, however, prevented these explorers from landing. Some sources claim that the Portuguese landed there in 1520 in order to obtain water, but these sources are disputed in the historical record.   The first official expeditions to the islands were mounted in 1650 and 1659. The Dutch wanted to turn the islands into a supply base for ships, but the absence of natural harbors convinced them to abandon their efforts.   In the 18th century, the island became popular for the whaling and sealing industries. The island was claimed for Austria by the Société Impériale Asiatique de Trieste, a company founded in 1775. The company, however, did not last long and had to sell its assets, including non-existent real estate on Tristan da Cunha. In 1780, Joseph II, the Holy Roman Emperor, became the sole monarch of the Austrian Habsburgs, and it is very likely he had no idea about Austria’s claim to Tristan.   Either way, the claim went ignored.   In the summer of 1790/91, the island got its first resident in the form of Captain John Patten, an American involved in the seal fur and whale oil industries. Operating from a base of tents, he supplied passing ships with trade items, mostly furs. At this time, Patten and others like him made temporary homes here and never intended to stay.   Early Settlement British islands in the southeastern Atlantic. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica   The first true settler on Tristan da Cunha was an American named Jonathan Lambert, who, along with two others, intended to build a refreshment station. They were joined by a fourth, but three of the men, including Lambert, died in 1812 after drowning in a fishing accident. The sole survivor of this group was Tomasso Corri, an Italian from Livorno. Lambert had claimed the island as his own independent nation, but the British disregarded this claim (especially since he was dead) and annexed the islands on August 14, 1816.   The pretext for this annexation was that Napoleon had been defeated in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo and was exiled to Saint Helena, arriving there in October of that year. Stationing a garrison on Tristan da Cunha would significantly weaken Napoleon’s (already slim) chance of escaping as he had done before on the island of Elba in the Mediterranean.   HM late Sloop Julia, off Tristan da Cunha by Charles W. Browne, 1818. Source: Royal Museums Greenwich   Americans had also used the base during the War of 1812 for American cruisers to prey on British shipping. By annexing the islands, the threat of this happening again was mitigated.   By 1817, however, the British Admiralty had decided the garrison on Tristan was no longer necessary and recalled the marines who were stationed there. Corporal William Glass, with his wife and two children, requested to stay on the island. His wish was granted. He and his family were joined in his decision by two others, Samuel Burnell and John Nankivel, who were stonemasons, both originally from Plymouth. The latter two did not stay long, but they left their mark on the buildings, some of which are still standing.   This little community grew over the years as settlers and shipwrecked sailors joined, and a colony began to grow. However, there was a problem in that the majority of the community was made up of men who desired wives. In 1827, five mixed-race women from Saint Helena were convinced to stay on Tristan, and later, African women from the Cape Colony arrived on Tristan and stayed.   In 1836, the community was joined by Peter Groen, a Dutchman who anglicized his name to Peter Green. In 1837, Thomas Rogers joined the colony, and in 1849, Andrew Hagan joined, too, both of whom were American whalemen.   Dwindling Numbers The approach to Edinburgh of the Seven Seas. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In 1853, William Glass died, and 25 of his family members decided to leave the island. Four years later, another 45 people left the island and settled in the Cape Colony. With only 28 people left on the island, the colony had gone from a thriving community to a lonely handful of people.   In the latter half of the century, the whaling and sealing industries were in decline, and the Suez Canal opened. Tristan was out of the way but not forgotten.   In 1867, Prince Alfred, the second son of Queen Victoria, visited the islands. As he was the Duke of Edinburgh, the settlement on Tristan was named “Edinburgh of the Seven Seas” in his honor.   In 1875, the islands were formally declared part of the British Empire, and the British Navy implemented plans for annual resupply. The population recovered but was hit with disaster in 1885. A harsh winter had caused a poor harvest, and a boat that was sent to trade with a ship offshore was lost, with all 15 islanders on board being lost to the waves.   Stamps from Tristan da Cunha commemorating British ships throughout the 19th century. Source: Commonwealth Stamp Store   To make matters worse, a plague of rats, survivors from an earlier shipwreck, wreaked havoc in the colony, ruining the few food supplies that were left. The British government was concerned about the settlers’ survival and planned to have them all evacuated to the Cape Colony. However, they decided to send supplies to support the colony instead.   In 1897, the population was just 64 people, but the years that followed brought an end to the food shortage, and the population began to grow once again. In 1892, the colony was joined by two shipwrecked Italian sailors, Gaetano Lavarello and Andrea Repetto. Lavarello brought with him valuable carpentry skills, and in the years that followed, the islanders were able to build seaworthy boats that could take them on fishing and hunting trips to Nightingale Island.   Gaetano Lavarello (main image) and Andrea Repetto (inset). Source: Museo Marinaro Camogli   The islanders became so self-sufficient during this time that they still survived even when 400 head of cattle were lost due to overgrazing in dry weather, which coincided with a significantly reduced potato crop.   The first half of the 20th century was a period of isolation for the islanders, with the period of the First World War being particularly significant, as the Admiralty had no ships to spare for supplying Tristan.   Global Attention The Tristan Times, January 7, 1945. Source: eBay   In World War II, Tristan da Cunha became an important asset for the British. German U-boats operated throughout the Atlantic, and the British set up a station to monitor their movements. The islanders helped construct the station and were paid in naval goods, as the only currency used on the island was potatoes.   During the war, the island’s first newspaper, the Tristan Times, was founded. Paid employment was introduced in the 1940s with the introduction of a commercial fishery and, in 1949, a canning factory. The plentiful numbers of crayfish that began to be harvested in large quantities were of great importance to the new economy on Tristan.   The South African weather station on Gough Island. Source: South African National Antarctic Programme   In the 1950s, the Tristan islanders reached an agreement with the South African government to allow the South Africans to build a weather station on Gough Island. With this agreement came annual visits from the South African Navy.   Evacuation Satellite photo of Edinburgh of the Seven Seas with the lava field on the right. Source: Google Earth   In August 1961, Tristan’s volcano began to rumble. A fissure opened up in the ground between the settlement and the canning factory, while earthquakes and landslides threatened the town.   The entire population of 264 people was in luck and had enough boats to take them to Nightingale Island on October 10, where they spent an uneasy night. The following day, luck was still on their side, and a Dutch ship, the Tjisadane, arrived at a fortuitous time and was able to ferry everyone to Cape Town. From there, the evacuees were taken on board the RMS Stirling Castle, which then sailed to Southampton.   They were housed at a former RAF camp, and the islanders would have to spend the next two years away from their homes on Tristan. Pressured by the Tristanians’ requests, the UK government eventually sent an exploratory party to the island to assess whether it was safe to return.   When the group of six landed, they set up a base in the house of the island’s administrator. After a few days, a helicopter appeared and landed in the garden. Several Russians exited the vehicle and were surprised to find they were not alone. They promptly got back in the helicopter and left without a trace!   After the island was declared safe again, 198 islanders left England and arrived home on November 10, 1963. A large field of solidified lava covered the area east of the settlement, and the canning factory had been lost, but Edinburgh of the Seven Seas had been virtually untouched.   Tristan da Cunha Today Edinburgh of the Seven Seas from the vantage point of the Infrasound Station IS49. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Throughout the decades following the resettlement, the island became modernized. From 1965 to 1967, a new harbor was built. Roads, a hospital, and sewerage facilities were constructed, and electricity generators were brought in.   The diesel generators were housed in the fishing factory. In 2008, after a fire caused extensive damage, consultants and contractors from South Africa were hired to upgrade the system to modern standards with enough power to provide for settlement growth.   Settlement growth even included a 9-hole golf course established in 1977, which was built mainly for a homesick expat living there at the time. The grass is kept short by cattle as the course is principally a pasture! There are no greens, and the fairways are frequented by live hazards such as cows and chickens.   As of May 1, 2024, there are 238 Tristan da Cunha Islanders. Forty-one of them live overseas, but 26 expatriate workers, families, and other visitors also live on the island, bringing the total to 223. This number fluctuates constantly as visitors and residents come and go.   The entire permanent resident population consists of only ten last names: Bredell, Collins, Glass, Green, Hagan, Lavarello, Repetto, Rogers, Squibb, and Swain.   Today, the community on Tristan thrives. The main crop is potatoes, while sheep are raised for local consumption. The backbone of the economy is the fishing trade, and lobsters from Tristan da Cunha are highly sought after as a delicacy.   Tristan da Cunha. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Living on a windswept island in the South Atlantic is not an easy life. The community on Tristan has undergone many challenges over the centuries and has emerged stronger than ever before. Unphased by their remote situation, many Tristaners revel in the rugged beauty of their home and their lives away from the bustling metropolises.   Hardy survivors, the people of Tristan are always welcoming of outsiders and eager to promote their love for their very special home at the edge of human civilization.

Supported by thrash metal royalty, Chicago’s nu metal stars will play their debut album in full at some of the biggest venues they’ve ever headlined

Marilyn Manson built a career on pushing boundaries, turning shock into spectacle and controversy into cultural commentary. Born Brian Hugh Warner on January 5, 1969, in Canton, Ohio, his early fascination with music and the darker corners of American culture led him to Florida, where he studied journalism and began interviewing musicians. But instead of just writing about them, he became one. In 1989, he formed Marilyn Manson & the Spooky Kids with guitarist Scott Putesky (Daisy Berkowitz), crafting a stage name that blended Hollywood glamour with infamous violence—a signature theme that would define his work. The band’s early performances The post Complete List Of Marilyn Manson Songs From A to Z appeared first on ClassicRockHistory.com.

War has always been unavoidable. Evidence of warfare stretches from ancient times to at least 10,000 years ago. Anyone who wants to learn about history or humans has to know about the series of wars that shaped our civilization. Most people generally avoid thinking, seeing, and reading about such things. But sometimes, we’re urged to […] The post 10 War Relics with Fascinating Stories appeared first on Listverse.

Drugs are a double-edged sword. On the one hand, they mitigate intense physiological problems, allowing sick, injured, or impaired individuals to function with the rest of society. On the other, some substances have adverse side effects. Extreme cases lead to addiction, constantly leaving you craving an unhealthy amount. Such overdoses then pave the way for […] The post 10 Fictional Drugs We’re Glad Aren’t Real appeared first on Listverse.