A sharpened stick was probably the first weapon invented by humans. Since then, the spear has been the most important weapon on most battlefields until the widespread introduction of gunpowder and firearms. However, owing to the limitations of early firearms technology, it would be centuries before armies could do away with “pointy sticks” altogether. Ranged infantry remained vulnerable against cavalry or melee infantry at close quarters. The solution was to make early firearms capable of becoming the trusty “pointy stick” at a moment’s notice. Thus, the bayonet was invented!   The Era of Pike and Shot Battle of Rocroi, Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau, 2011. Source:Wikimedia Commons   Although the introduction of firearms radically changed the nature of warfare, the pace of transformation was slower than one might expect. The earliest firearms were inaccurate, temperamental, and slow to reload. Moreover, troops armed with muskets and arquebuses were extremely vulnerable in hand-to-hand fighting. They typically lacked armor and had only the clubbed stock of their firearms or cheap melee weapons to fend off attackers in close combat. Thus, musketeers and harquebusiers were dependent on supporting melee infantry to protect them if the enemy got too close.   Between the late 15th and mid-17th centuries, the pike and shot formation was the prevailing way of European warfare. Formations consisted of a mixture of firearm-bearing troops and pikemen, often with the addition of various other melee-armed soldiers who might carry halberds, zweihanders, or swords and bucklers. Soldiers equipped with muskets or other firearms provided ranged offense whereas the pikemen could deal with other infantry and protect the musketeers who were especially vulnerable to cavalry charges.   The ratio of pike to shot varied across time, with firearms achieving greater prevalence in later periods. During the late 1400s and throughout much of the following century, pikemen accounted for a greater proportion of the formation and played a decisive offensive role. However, as firearm technology improved, pikemen were increasingly relegated to a defensive role and exchanges of volley fire played a more decisive role in most battles. Naturally, the proportion of pike and shot shifted in preference for the latter over time.   Invention of the Bayonet Depiction of a plug bayonet attached to a breech loader in the Binglu Manuscript, 1606. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The inventor of the bayonet remains a mystery. It is not even known on which continent the invention originated. One of the earliest depictions appears on the Chinese Binglu manuscript dated to 1606. The manuscript contains an illustration of a plug bayonet attached to breech loading rifle. However, there is no further evidence of the use of bayonets in Ming Dynasty China.   A popular origin story is that the bayonet originated from the French town of Bayonne in the mid-17th century – hence the name – although there is no conclusive evidence. Since the bayonet is a relatively simple device, consisting of a bladed weapon affixed to a firearm, it is possible that early versions were improvised by soldiers in need of a melee weapon at various different places independently at roughly the same time.   Whatever the case, the introduction of bayonets to the battlefields of Europe in the mid-1600s would contribute drastically to the shifting composition of the pike and shot formation until it was done away with altogether in favor of linear line formation. With the addition of an attachable bladed weapon to firearms which were becoming increasingly deadly at long range as well, musketeers were no longer so vulnerable in close combat and pikemen became irrelevant.   Plug Bayonets Spanish plug bayonet, 18th Century. Source:Royal Armouries   The “plug” bayonet was the first widespread iteration of the weapon. As historian John Stone explains, it “was designed to be pushed into the muzzle of a musket creating an extemporized spear.” This enabled troops equipped with firearms to engage more confidently in close quarters fighting, negating the need for dedicated melee units. Indeed, many encounters on the battlefield during the 18th and 19th centuries would be decided by daring bayonet charges after exchanges of volley fire.   The conversion of the musket into an improvised spear at moments of need also finally meant that musket-armed infantry were not entirely at the mercy of cavalry in cases where the latter were able to close the distance and engage in hand-to-hand fighting. In the words of Bruce A. Elleman, “With guns and bayonets, foot soldiers could not only compete with cavalry, they could dominate them.”   Development and Design Prussian Infantry Advance at Leuthen, Carl Röchling, c. 1890. Wikimedia Commons   Plug bayonets varied in design, with the earliest iterations essentially being improvised knives or daggers shoved down the muzzle of the firearm. Standardization appears to have occurred in the mid or late-1600s, at least in parts of Europe. In 1678, French historian Louis de Gaya described the design of French plug bayonets in the Traité des armes, des machines de guerre. According to de Gaya, they were almost as long as a dagger, lacked a guard and grip, and had a wooden shaft that was about eight or nine inches long with a blade that was one inch wide. By the 1680s, plug bayonets were designed with a tapered handle that terminated in a spherical section to prevent the bayonet from falling down the muzzle of the musket. The addition of crossguards also became more common.   Disadvantages of the Plug Bayonet The Earl of Angus’s Regiment (The Cameronians) at the Defence of Dunkeld, 1689, Richard Simkin, 1840-1926. Brown University Library   The plug bayonet had a major drawback: because the bayonet was pushed into the muzzle, it prevented the user from firing or reloading. This meant that soldiers could not quickly alternate between the ranged and close combat modalities their weapons were capable of.   This could have dire tactical consequences as the Scottish Royalists found out at the Battle of Killiecrankie in 1689. When the Jacobite forces charged the Royalist lines, the latter had delayed fixing their bayonets in the hope that they could fire more volleys. This delay cost them dearly as the Highlanders succeeded in rushing their position before they could fix bayonets. The Highlanders, who were armed with swords, axes, and targes decimated the Royalists and won the battle despite being outnumbered.   Socket Bayonets The Battle of Großbeeren, 1813, Carl Röchling, 1907. Wikimedia Commons   As explained by historian Bill Harriman, “The inability to discharge a firearm with a plug bayonet inserted in its muzzle soon led to the search for a design that would not only alleviate this basic deficiency but which would also allow the soldier to use his rammer without injuring his hand while loading.” The solution was the socket bayonet “which slipped over the barrel to keep the bore clear for firing and loading while the bayonet was fixed. The blade was attached to a short, curved bar which put it well to the side of the barrel, allowing the soldier to use his rammer without fear of piercing his hand on the point.”   An Incident in the Rebellion of 1745, David Morier, c. 1705-1770. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Owing to its inherent advantages, the socket variety was the bayonet of choice in European armies for about two centuries. Soldiers no longer had to fumble fixing their bayonets at the last minute to repel an enemy charge. Indeed, at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, the British Army – armed with muskets and socket bayonets – successfully repelled the charging Jacobite Highlanders. According to former soldier and military historian Stuart Reid, the British developed a doctrine for defeating the Highland charge whereby each soldier would thrust his bayonet at the adversary to his right, thus bypassing the targe which would otherwise have shielded the Highlander.   Other Types of Bayonet Battle of Mars-La-Tour, August 16, 1870, Emil Hünten, 1870. Wikimedia Commons   Socket bayonets tended to be of the “spike” variety, meaning that the weapon had no sharp edges to cut with and was used exclusively for thrusting like a spear or short pike. However, knife and sword bayonets were also developed and became especially popular in Prussia and France during the 19th century. Generally, the advantage of knife and sword bayonets was that they could prove useful as weapons and tools when not attached to a musket or rifle. Some contemporary bayonets still in use with modern militaries have additional functions integrated into their designs, such as wire cutters or small saws, often attached to the bayonet’s scabbard.   Decline in Use Photograph of German soldiers practicing with bayonets, Oscar Tellgmann, 1914. Wikimedia Commons   As modern warfare evolved and technology became more advanced, the outcomes of battles were increasingly determined by the ability to overwhelm the enemy by generating tremendous amounts of firepower. The wide scale replacement of muskets with rifles enabled soldiers to deliver more accurate fire at longer distances, thus rendering bayonet charges riskier. This trend was compounded further with the development of long-range artillery, magazine-fed small arms, and machine guns which made ranged combat deadlier still.   Statistics cited by John Stone illustrate the diminishing importance of bayonets in combat. Between 1800 and 1850, bayonets and sabers were responsible for between 15 percent and 20 percent of casualties. However, after 1860, these same weapons accounted for only between six and eight percent of casualties. In the First World War, just 0.1 percent of the US expeditionary force personnel admitted to hospital sustained wounds caused by bayonets.   Contemporary Usage Photograph of Coldstream Guards on parade, 2022. Forces.Net   Despite the decline in the use and utility of bayonets, they were not done away with altogether. The trench warfare of the First World War did sometimes necessitate hand-to-hand fighting, although some soldiers preferred smaller improvised weapons like sharpened shovels, knives, daggers, and clubs which were easier to handle in the confined spaces of a trench. Still, the First World War-era manual, read: “The bayonet is the weapon for hand-to-hand fighting, and its use, or the threat of it, finally drives the enemy from his position or causes him to surrender.”   Later instances of bayonet fighting were recorded during the Second World War from 1939 to 1945, the Korean War from 1950 to 1953, and the Falklands War in 1982 during the Battle of Mount Tumbledown. One of the most recent recorded occurrences took place in 2004 during a confrontation between British troops and the Mahdi Army in Iraq when the British used bayonets to engage the enemy at close range. However, the use of bayonets in modern warfare remains incredibly rare.   Despite the diminishing importance of the bayonet on the modern battlefield, many regiments across the world still march with bayonets fixed to their rifles during ceremonial events. As such, the bayonet remains a symbol of the valor and courage of the common soldier, and in particularly dire situations, the contemporary soldier may still put his or her faith in the “pointy stick” as a last resort when all other arms have failed.

  SUMMARY Smallpox was introduced by Europeans and drastically reduced indigenous populations due to lack of immunity, significantly altering the demographic and cultural landscapes. The disease spread rapidly across the Americas, reaching even isolated communities through networks of native trade and European exploration, exacerbating its deadly impact. Despite initial lack of containment measures, later efforts included quarantine and the introduction of variolation and vaccination, though control was limited until modern campaigns against the disease.   Christopher Columbus landed in 1492 on a still unidentified island. It may have been San Salvador, named in 1925, an island the Lucayan people once called Guanahani. Columbus christened it San Salvador at the time, but its exact location today remains a matter of debate. Its shadowy identity makes it a fit introduction for looking back at the peoples inhabiting what Europeans referred to as “the New World.” Many of their cultures disappeared into the mists from the intentional destruction of their conquerors and the ravages of disease, most notably smallpox.   Smallpox Strikes the Caribbean Columbus’s first encounter with the Taíno, in Christopher Columbus arrives in America by Johann Theodor de Bry, 1594. Source: Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam   In 1493, Columbus brought 1300 men to colonize Hispaniola. By 1503, eleven years after invading the Caribbean islands, the Spanish began a long history of importing enslaved Africans to work in the farms and mines of the New World. The first group arrived in Hispaniola, currently the Dominican Republic and Haiti. The new rulers likewise enslaved the native people. In 1507, the first smallpox epidemic struck, wiping out whole tribes on the island. It subsequently died out, but the labor pool was far smaller. The Spanish brought more and more enslaved people in to replace the native workers, and each ship carried the risk of another epidemic. Colonists arrived at a slower rate and in better condition, but they too contributed to seeding the disease among the Amerindians.   In December 1518, smallpox appeared again, initially among the enslaved Africans in the mines of Hispaniola. One-third of the remaining native people died of smallpox that year, but the disease did not remain on the island this time. It spread to Cuba and then Puerto Rico, killing half the indigenous populations on those islands.   The Physical Effects of Smallpox Variola virus, the smallpox virus, magnified about 370,000 times, by transmission electron micrograph. Source: Wikipedia   Smallpox, which is now extinct due to mass worldwide vaccination programs, was a particularly unpleasant disease. The characteristic scars that permanently marred the survivors’ faces were the least of it. A virus incubated and spread only by human beings, its origin is unknown, and it may never be because there remain only two places in the world retaining the original lethal version of the Variola virus. Access is limited, if not impossible, for further studies, as it is far too lethal.   Spread easily through the air or from contaminated objects, about twelve days pass between acquiring the germ and developing the initial symptoms, which are deceptively benign. The first stage of the disease mimics the flu as the body tries to fight off the initial invasion. In the second stage, the temperature falls to almost normal. The microbe journeys through the lymph system, replacing cells in the liver and spleen by commandeering the human DNA and adapting it to its own use. Finally, the virus leaks out or bursts from the cells, enters the bloodstream, and appears on the skin as a rash.   Illustration of smallpox from Dr. John D. Fisher’s “Description of the Distinct, Confluent, and Inoculated Small Pox, Varioloid Disease, Cox Pox, and Chicken Pox,” 1836. Source: Connecticut Explored or Google Books   The most common type of smallpox which most people in Europe were infected by, often as children, had a fatality of 30%. The rash became leaky pustules which eventually deflated, forming scabs. When the scabs fell off, scars remained. In two to three weeks after first becoming sick, the patient began to recover if he would survive.   Smallpox Strikes Mexico   The Aztecs encountered smallpox at a critical time in their defense against the Spanish. Cortes and his small army entered Tenochtitlan in 1519 and held Moctezuma II captive. At the same time, the governor of Cuba, suspicious of Cortes, had sent ships led by Panfilo de Narvaez after him. Onboard one of the ships was an enslaved African, Francisco de Bagua, who fell ill. A short stop at the island of Cozumel deposited smallpox there, and on April 23, 1520, the ship arrived on the coast.   Cortes left a contingent in Tenochtitlan and went to stop the incoming ships from deposing him.  He, his men, and his Native allies took Narvaez by surprise, overcame them, and returned to Tenochtitlan, gathering allies among the indigenous tribes who the Aztecs had harshly treated. Upon his return, he found that the foothold he had gained over the Aztecs had disintegrated.   Having been killed by his own people, Moctezuma II was succeeded by his brother, Cuitlahuac. The latter was, by all accounts, a capable, charismatic leader and unwilling to capitulate to the Spanish. He and the people of Tenochtitlan fought and forced out the Spanish. Upon retreating from the city, Cortes discovered that many of his allies had been struck by smallpox. The leaders of both Tlaxcala and Chalco Province died of it. Cortes chose their replacements.   Smallpox in the New World Florentine Codex 16th century. Source: National Library of Medicine   In the meantime, smallpox began its attack on the capital of Tenochtitlan. The death toll was staggering. Fray Toriba Motolinia described it in The History of the Indians of New Spain:   “In many places it happened that everyone in a house died, and, as it was impossible to bury the great number of dead they pulled down the houses over them in order to check the stench that rose from the dead bodies so that their homes became their tombs.”   When Cortes returned, he besieged the city, and between starvation and disease, he completed the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.   Smallpox Strikes the Mayans The Mayan Temple of Kukulcan, in Chichen Itza, Mexico. Source: Glenn Arthur Ricci   When a lieutenant in Cortes’ army entered Mayan territory, he discovered that half of the Native population, the Kaqchikel, had already died from smallpox. The Mayans have a record that the first epidemic occurred in 1518 from trade expeditions from Hispaniola. The second epidemic raged from 1520 to 1521. While Cortes was busy overcoming the Aztecs with the help of the disease, the virus was hard at work further south.   The disease seemed to favor the arrivals to the New World because both the Europeans and the enslaved people who accompanied them had often already had smallpox as children. For those who believed in divine intervention among human affairs, which was almost everyone at the time, the evidence was overwhelming that God, or gods, favored the invaders and their religion. The missionaries who followed the invaders reinforced this idea.   Smallpox Strikes South America Execution of the Incan Emperor Atahualpa Ordered by Pizarro by Edouard Chapelle, 1859. Source: Wellcome Collection   The Inca territory ranged along the Andean mountains, including most modern-day Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and part of Ecuador. Connected by a network of roads, the emperor, Huayna Capac, commanded a vast territory. While leading an army in the northern part of his empire, he received word of a terrible illness that had slain his brother and sister, an uncle, and other family members. Huayna Capac returned home to his palace near Quito and immediately fell ill himself. When he decided that he would not recover, Huayna Capac had his attendants seal him in a stone room. Eight days later, they unsealed the entrance and removed his body. During his reign of 31 years, Huayna Capac had doubled the size of the empire.   The epidemic continued to ravage Quito, the capital. Many of the military officers died, including the king’s immediate successor. Huayna Capac’s second son, Huascar, and an illegitimate son, Atahualpa, began a five-year civil war, with Atahualpa eventually emerging as the victor. When Francisco Pizarro arrived in 1532, both the epidemic and the Civil War were over. Pizarro executed Atahualpa. In 1533 and 1535, smallpox raged again in Quito.   The Araucanian Indians in Chile encountered smallpox in 1554 brought by Spanish soldiers. It was written that out of 12,000 Amerindians, only 100 survived.  In Brazil in 1555, the French Huguenots brought the dreaded disease to the place that was to become Rio de Janeiro.   Smallpox Strikes the English Colonies in North America Smallpox Epidemic from 1179 to 1785 featured in an article by Paul Hackett, “Averting Disaster: The Hudson Bay Company and Smallpox in Western Canada during the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries,” in the Bulletin of History Medicine, Vol. 78, No. 3. Source: JSTOR   While the rest of the Western Hemisphere suffered through repeated smallpox epidemics, there was no known occurrence of the disease north of Mexico until the 17th century. From 1617 to 1619, ninety percent of the indigenous population of Massachusetts was struck down, including the Iroquois.   In 1630, the Mayflower landed with twenty infected people, but it wasn’t until 1633 that a severe epidemic rose among the Native Americans. The following year, Dutch traders began a seven-year disastrous sweep of the disease from the Connecticut River to the St. Lawrence River. This, the smallpox epidemic almost completely wiped out the Huron tribes.   Jesuit missionaries arrived in Canada and tried to baptize as many people as possible, but many of the Native people believed that the baptisms were causing people to die. They may not have been entirely mistaken. The baptisms certainly may have helped spread the virus as it entailed missionaries traveling from house to house and converts kissing a crucifix. When the Native Americans met with the Jesuits in the late 1600s, they explained their position:   “This disease has not been engendered here; it comes from without; never have we seen demons so cruel. The other maladies lasted two or three moons; this has been persecuting us more than a year. Ours are content with one or two in a family; this, in many, has left no more than that number and in many none at all.”   When smallpox struck down the indigenous peoples, although the missionaries were genuinely dismayed, the general attitude, as attested to by letters at the time, was that smallpox helped clear the land for the incoming colonists. While New Spain tried to alleviate the spread of the disease if only because the death tolls cut into their economy and required more slave labor to be shipped in, the colonists of the future United States and Canada actively supported its spread. Infecting “gifts” to be delivered to the Native Americans was not a common practice but did occur by both individuals and military commanders.   Smallpox Epidemic Lakota Winter Count 1779-1781 by Battitste Goode. Source: Network in Canadian History and Environment   Nevertheless, smallpox did affect the colonists themselves. It became obvious that the recurrent epidemics arrived on ships from Europe and the West Indies or Africa. The colonial populations were likely not numerous enough to maintain the disease endemically, but the death tolls skyrocketed whenever a ship arrived with an ill passenger. The coastal towns with ports were vulnerable. Quarantines and isolations of ships became standard.   The rapid rise of the universities on the east coast was largely due to smallpox. The wealthy had been sending their sons back to England to be educated, but that was, too often, a fatal choice.  In fact, Queen Mary II established the William and Mary College in 1693. Coincidentally, she herself died of smallpox the following year.   In the meantime, smallpox continued to spread west among the original inhabitants of the land.  The Quapaw in Arkansas, the Biloxi in Mississippi, and the Illinois were viciously depopulated. The current area comprising New Mexico first experienced smallpox in the early 1700s, probably brought by the Spanish missionaries. In 1775, both California and Alaska experienced epidemics. Canada and the Midwest experienced epidemics from 1779 to 1783.   The following decades brought numerous epidemics among all the nationalities inhabiting the Western Hemisphere until variolation and eventually vaccination arrived. Nevertheless, despite vaccines and antibiotics, it would be a mistake to underestimate the power of the microbial world over the human body. Awareness begins with understanding the horrific impact that the smallpox virus has had on history and people.   FAQs What was the impact of smallpox on indigenous populations in the New World? Smallpox devastated indigenous populations across the New World, leading to high mortality rates and significant cultural disruption. The disease was introduced by European explorers and colonizers and spread rapidly due to a lack of immunity among native peoples. In many areas, the arrival of smallpox predated significant direct contact with Europeans, causing widespread death and weakening societies, which facilitated European conquests.   How did smallpox spread throughout the Americas? The spread of smallpox in the Americas was facilitated by the movement of people, including European colonizers, African slaves, and indigenous traders. The disease first arrived in the Caribbean with Columbus’ men and then traveled to mainland regions like Mexico and South America. It reached as far north as present-day Canada, often transmitted through direct contact or via contaminated items, devastating native populations well before substantial European settlements were established.  

  There is a common misconception that life in the Middle Ages was extremely harsh and depressing. This couldn’t be further from the truth! While it is true that, at times, war and disease spread across the land, not all was doom and gloom. People (including peasants) had plenty of free time to enjoy life, and there were many ways to enjoy it. Here is the entertainment that was on offer during this time.   1. Board Games Detail from Children’s Games by Pieter Brueghel the Elder, depicting a game of Knucklebones. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Board games were a very popular form of entertainment in the Middle Ages. They challenged the mind, requiring deep thought within a competitive environment. Many of these games are still popular today, such as Chess and Checkers.   Modern Backgammon is a direct descendant of a game called “Irish,” played throughout Britain, and was, in turn, a direct descendant of a game called “Tables,” with various versions of the game going back to Greco-Roman times. Other board games, such as Nine Men’s Morris and Fox & Geese, were also extremely popular.   Nine Men’s Morris was a popular board game during the Middle Ages. Source: The Historic Games Shop   Games involving dice, bones, and other paraphernalia were played besides board games. Of particular note was “knucklebones,” especially popular among children. The object was to throw a knucklebone (or a substitute) into the air and manipulate other knucklebones before the thrown object landed.   Mentioned in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, “Hazard” was a dice game that was popular as well as complicated.   Naturally, many of these games involved a fair amount of gambling!   2. Eating! A scene of a royal feast. Source: British Library   Contrary to popular belief, the Middle Ages was not a time of poor nutrition. Everybody, from peasants to lords and ladies, had, for the most part, access to plenty of food. While the peasantry was a bit more conservative in dealing with their supplies, the wealthy could afford to eat extravagantly, and many did so with great enthusiasm.   Feasts and banquets were an excellent way to enjoy life and display wealth, impressing guests by procuring the fanciest foods with the most exotic herbs and spices. These dinners were large affairs and required a tremendous amount of preparation, with teams of cooks working many hours and even days to make things ready.   The main difference between feasts and banquets is that feasts were generally large dinners for any occasion, often accompanying religious ceremonies. In contrast, banquets were feasts held to honor a special guest or guests. Whether a banquet or just a regular feast, the dinners were often accompanied by entertainment, such as jugglers and jesters who would amuse the guests with their antics.   An interesting note about medieval dinners is that there was no separation between the courses. Everything was brought out at the same time, which required many more servers than was actually necessary. Although the idea for separating dinner into courses originates in Spain with a Persian man named Ziryab, who insisted his food be brought out in separate stages, the modern three-course service originated from Russia and is known as service à la russe.   3. Hunting and Hawking Illustration from the Codex Manesse, 14th century. Source: Public domain via World History Encyclopedia   For the peasantry permitted to hunt, the activity was a way of sustaining oneself and one’s family. For the nobility, however, it was a sport that involved a great deal of socializing.   Horses and hounds were used to find and chase down prey, and the art of hunting was closely associated with military training. Hunting required skillful horseback riding, an essential part of being a nobleman during the Middle Ages. Large tracts of land were set aside for the nobility, where peasants were not permitted to hunt. These forests were kept populated with game and tended to by gamekeepers.   Hunting in this fashion is still prevalent among the English nobility practicing fox hunting. This has led to a massive backlash from the public, and a widespread campaign in the early 2000s saw the sport banned. Despite this ban, there is little enforcement of the law, and foxes are still being chased and killed by terriers, hounds, horses, and human beings.   The use of birds of prey in hunting was also popular in medieval Europe and was a widespread pastime among the nobility. Admired for their agility and speed, falcons were the most popular bird used. Small prey such as squirrels, rabbits, and birds constituted the quarry for this form of entertainment.   Hawking or falconry is still a popular sport today, although along with traditional horseback hunting, it has received a lot of negative attention in that it is regarded by many as a bloodsport, as well as being inhumane to keep falcons and other raptors caged.   4. Minstrels, Music, Mummers, and Medieval Plays Marginal image from the Goreston Psalter. Source: British Library   Music, dance, and song were extremely important parts of medieval culture. Group singing was especially prevalent, and traditional songs would be learned and sung by families and groups of people on all occasions.   The Peasant Wedding Dance by Pieter van der Heyden after Pieter Bruegel the Elder. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   Traveling minstrels were popular and would journey to villages and towns, taking their music with them and putting on performances for the locals. Troupes of theatrical actors also took their shows on tour. Different types of plays were presented for various occasions. There were religious plays, often produced by the church, as a way to teach the Bible to the masses. There were pantomimes performed by mummers, morality plays, mystery plays, and a host of other styles of theater, enrapturing audiences from all over.   The first work of theater criticism in English, the Treatise of Miraclis Pleyinge. Source: British Library   Plays were written down and disseminated; many were available for different troupes to perform. Of course, playwrights and their skills were in high regard during the Middle Ages, as were the services of writers and poets. Storytelling was an essential part of medieval life and need not have been done by trained actors. Family members entertained one another by telling tales, made-up or memorized!   5. Fairs and Festivals Village Fair by Gillis Mostaert, 1590. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Medieval fairs were huge socio-cultural events that served as a way to break the monotony of everyday life and to provide a way for merchants to sell their wares. Originally beginning as far back as Roman times, fairs were held by French royalty during the early Middle Ages, and by the 7th century, they had become a regular event, being held in churchyards and usually on the feast days of certain saints.   The heyday of Medieval fairs was the 12th and 13th centuries. Traveling merchants made good use of these fairs, which served as a way to introduce and spread exotic items from far and wide. As such, fairs attracted people from all classes, from peasants looking to buy a pig to middle classes interested in procuring wool or linen to nobles fawning over expensive jewelry.   Children’s Games by Pieter Brueghel the Elder, 1560. Source: Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna   Of course, fairs weren’t just about buying and selling. They were also a way for people to socialize and experience life outside their often insular state of existence. Fairs also drew their own entertainment, with minstrels busking for music and troupes of actors putting on productions to catch the people’s attention.   Festivals were regularly held and were celebrated in the name of famous religious figures or events. Every month, there was a festival with a different theme, such as spring harvest or veneration of the dead. Many forms of entertainment were included in these festivals, which were held across much of medieval Europe.   In June, the Midsummer Eve festival included much fire and celebrated the tale of Saint George and the Dragon in England. A big pyre was lit in which bones would be thrown. This practice resulted in the term “bonfire.”   6. Medieval Sports Modern jousting re-enactment. Source: Pseudopanax / Public domain, via World History Encyclopedia   Various sports were played throughout Europe during the Middle Ages. While children played made-up games as well as ones with established rules, much like today, adults played sports that were associated with their status in society.   The noble classes engaged in sports that required a great deal of preparation and equipment that the lower classes could ill afford. Martial games such as jousting and armored combat required armor that cost a fortune and was the preserve of the exceptionally wealthy.   Archery, however, was a sport practiced by all men, especially in England, where it came to be an important part of English culture. These sports served an important function in honing skills that would be used in warfare. They could be the difference between life or death and the kingdom’s safety. Apart from the martial sports, the forerunner of tennis was popular. This medieval version is known as “real tennis” and was played with a glove instead of a racquet.   For the less wealthy folk, simpler games involving balls and skittles were popular. Many of the sports played by the lower classes were particularly violent. Games similar to rugby or soccer were played. These games had few rules and could involve entire villages and utilizing vast tracts of land as the playing field.   Boxing and wrestling were also very popular and were practiced in various forms throughout the medieval world.   The Laughing Fool by Jacob Cornelisz van Oostsanen, ca. 1500. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Unlike today, where we can entertain ourselves in front of the television or computer screen, the people of medieval Europe had a generally more social outlook on entertainment.   It helped create and maintain the bonds of family and friendship while also providing happiness and meaning to life. In a world that could often be brutal, entertainment in the Middle Ages was a great source of love and laughter.

  With the spread of Islam to the East, Sufism became a leading folk religion among Muslims. In the Indian subcontinent and Indochina, Sufism often mingled and merged with Hindu and Buddhist ideas, adding a distinctive Dharmic element to Islamic orthodoxy.   How Islam Spread Through India The Mughal ruler Aurangzeb, by Bichitr, c. 1660, Source: Wikimedia Commons   Islam came into contact with the Indian subcontinent very early. The first contact between Muslims and Indians was made through the northwestern Indian province of Punjab. A considerable number of Sufi sheiks and their followers also moved to the Punjab and established tekkes and Sufi orders in the Indian subcontinent.   Islam came to India during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad. Muslim traders came and spread Islam through trade. The first mosque in India was built in 629 and Islam spread to coastal cities through immigration and conversion. In the 11th century, Islam firmly took root on the soil of India; its bearers were the Turkmen dynasties.   The Turkmen conquest of Northern India began with Mahmud of Ghazni, who conquered the Punjab. His conquests were continued by Muhammad of Ghor, who conquered Hindustan and Bengal (1192–1202). In 1206, his general Qutbuddin Ajbak founded the Delhi Sultanate.   During the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–51), the sultanate almost encompassed all of present-day India by 1335, except for the southern part of the Deccan, where the only major Hindu state, Vijayanagar (1336–1646), emerged. In the second half of the 14th century, the sultanate gradually disintegrated into a number of smaller states, and its last remnants were conquered by Timur Lenk in 1398.   Next, the first phase of Mongol rule in northern India was short, but the second phase of Mongol rule (the Moguls) began with Babur, the great-grandson of Timur Lenk. He founded the Muslim Mughal state in 1526 with the “Great Mughal” at its head in the capital of Delhi. His descendants extended Mughal rule to almost all of India. Babur’s grandson Akbar (1556 – 1605) conquered all of northern Hindustan, Kashmir, and the Indus region in protracted battles.   Discourse between Muslim Sages, Mughal miniature, c. 1630, Source: Wikimedia Commons   Art and science experienced a considerable uplift at this time, and antagonism between Muslims and Hindus was almost completely removed. A hundred years later however, Aurangzeb (1658 – 1707) conquered the Deccan, Kandahar, and Kabul, but he also contributed to the disintegration of the state, because as a fanatical follower of Islam, he cruelly persecuted Hindus.   Expanding to the south, he clashed with the Marathas, whose ruler Śivaji founded an independent kingdom in 1674. Although they were conquered by Aurangzeb in 1689, after his death and during the first half of the 18th century, the Marathas established their own state; until the end of the 18th century, the Great Mughal became a protégé of the Maratha rulers. The further expansion of the Maratha state was prevented by Ahmad Shah Durani, who defeated them in the battle near Panipat in 1761 and thus ended their political supremacy in India.   India has a long colonial history but gained independence in 1947. Pakistan and India have been in conflict since 1947, especially over the disputed country of Kashmir, where many Muslims live. India still holds this region under its control except for a region called Azad-Kashmir which is an autonomous province under the control of Pakistan.   Muslims in India today make up the second-largest group of Muslims in the world. At the same time, extreme nationalist groups have wrought discord among Muslim and Hindu communities in modern India.   Characteristics of Sufism in South Asia  Dervish residence, Nadir Divanbegi Sufi Khanqah, photo by Ymblanter, 2015, Source: Wikimedia Commons   Within an Islamic structure, Sufism emerged as a formidable force in India, quite a contrast to the very orthodox Muslim ulama. Sufi orders were welcomed especially by local populations, as they established and managed khanqahs (lodges), community centers, hospices, and shelters. Many such khanqahs were under the financial care of local noblemen or they were communal enterprises.   Khanqahs had a dual role. On the one hand, they were quite similar to Sufi tekkes in the Ottoman Empire, places where Sufi sheiks would gather their students and teach them about the mystical way of Islam. However, they were established in a country with a large Hindu population, known for their caste system. Therefore, khanqahs also took on the role of community shelters, where many could find refuge and refreshment beyond any caste system.   Many Sufis in the Indian subcontinent exercised a syncretistic understanding of religion. Their rituals include shaving the head of a new person entering a khanqah, using a special bowl (“zanbyl” or “kushkul“) to collect food for alms, treating visitors with “sherbet” (sweet water with incense), and forty-day-long “chilla-i-macus” rituals.   Their practice of controlled breathing (“khabs-i-dam“), which transforms the physical body, is believed to have been taken from the Hindu or Buddhist system of yoga, and the Hindu concept of Bhakti (devotion) is also part of South Asian Sufism. There are several notable Sufi orders (tariqas) stemming from the Indian Subcontinent.   Madariya: Sufism in Northern India States of India, by Cacahuate, Ravikiran Rao, and Nichalp, 2009, Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Madariya tariqa comes from northern India, found in Uttar Pradesh, the Mewat region, Bihar, Gujarat, and West Bengal, as well as Nepal and Bangladesh. It is known for its break from conventional traditions, its relaxation of external religious practices, and its emphasis on self-reflection.   This Sufi order was founded by the famous Sufi saint Syed Badiuddin Zinda Shah Madar (died 1433) and it is centered around his shrine at Makanpur in Kanpur district of Uttar Pradesh. He arrived in India in the thirteenth century with Ashraf Jahangir Semnani. The Madariya Tariqa gained particular glory during the Mughal period between the 15th and 17th centuries, through the disciples of Shah Madar. It spread to various regions including the northern parts of India.   There are many legends surrounding Shah Madar. He was vehemently against some very orthodox Islamic teachings, and his life was notable for some strange occurrences. Some historical sources say that he used to live in the sea and that he did not eat for twelve years. He did not take his clothes off to wash and he often used to cover his face with a cloth. It is still unclear if Shah Madar was a descendant of the Prophet Mohammad.   Chishti: Sufism During the Mughal Empire Chishti Sufis engage in Qawwali singing, photo by Kumarvimal, 2016, Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Chistian order is known for its emphasis on love, tolerance, and openness. It operated primarily in Afghanistan and the Indian subcontinent. It was one of the first four major dervish orders (which include the Qadiri, Suhrawardi, and Naqshbandi orders) that were established in the area. Moinuddin Chishti introduced the Chishti tariqa and spread it to the territory of India in the middle of the 12th century. The name derives from a small town of Chisht near Herat, in modern western Afghanistan. It was the first Sufi order in the Indian subcontinent and still exists in several branches.   Chishti disciples were expected to follow their sheiks and never take on worldly power. They distanced themselves from any ruler. Still, they are seen as an orthodox Islamic Sufi order for not denouncing any Islamic rule. Despite this orientation, many sheiks were close to the rulers of the Delhi, Bengali, and Bahmani Sultanates. The Mughals, especially the ruler Aurangzeb were Chishti devotees and sponsored many of their places of worship.   The Chishti Order is famous for its use of music and poetry, known as Qawwali. Through music and singing, they evoke the presence of God and surrender to his love. Some scholars challenge the idea of the permissibility of music in the early Chishti tariqa, which was always clear on the rule that the singer must be an adult male, while the listener should only listen with Allah on their mind. Furthermore, musical instruments were forbidden. Today, however, many Chishti ceremonies are accompanied by musical instruments such as the tabla drum.   Shaikh Salím Chishtí of the Chishtiyya Order, 19th century, Source: The British Museum   Some Chishti ceremonies include reciting the names of Allah while sitting in a particular position, reciting the names of Allah silently, regulating one’s breath, the practice of mystical contemplation, and exercising forty days of solitude and meditation annually.   The tariqa has two major branches. One is the Chishti Nizami branch, following the work of Nizamuddin Auliya. His disciples succeeded in spreading the Chishti Sufi Order throughout contemporary India and Bangladesh. The other major branch is Chishti Sabiri, and they follow the traditions of Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari. In the course of their history, both branches merged with other orders present in South Asia, including various faqiri Sufi groups, consisting of wandering dervishes and solitary sheiks.   Suhrawardiyya: Sufism of the Persian Cultural Elite Shah Jahangir Chooses a Sufi over others, by Bichitr, 1620, Source: Wikimedia Commons   A very prominent Sufi order in India followed the work of Persian Sufi master Abu al-Najib Suhrawardi. Many Iranian notables were disciples of this tariqa, among them the Persian poet Saadi Shirazi. It was a very developed Sufi order in Persia before the invasion of Mongols. After that historical event and the coming of the Mongol dynasties of the Persian Empire, many Suhrawardis escaped to India, bringing with them their teachings.   There was a need for solid Sufi teachings based on science and theology. Shaykh-ul-Islam Bahauddin Zakaria Multani left India in search of a perfect mentor and while traveling around the Islamic world, he reached the Suhrawardi disciples in Baghdad. Upon his return, Sheik Bahauddin Zakaria Multani had great success in the promotion of the Suhrawardi chain in India. He established famous monasteries of the Suhrawardiyya tariqa at Multan, Uch, and other places.   The Suhrawardiyya order consists of asceticism, worship, observance of religious duties, and reliance on prayer and remembrance of God’s deeds. It is a highly intellectual and artistic form of Sufism.   Other South Asian Orders of Sufism A group of Sufi saints, date unknown, Source: Wikimedia Commons   Many other Sufi orders established their presence in the Indian subcontinent. Among the most prominent ones are Qadiriyyah (still very much popular in India), the Shadhilliyya (whose many branches are the primary form of Sufism in South India, particularly in Madurai and Tamil Nadu), the Kubrawiyyah (a Sufi tariqa from Central Asia, with recognizable mystical literature and favored in Kashmir), and the Naqshbandiyyah (the most orthodox of all Sufi orders, favored by the early rulers of the Mughal Dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate).   Islam Spreads to South East Asia  Great Mosque in Palembang, Indonesia, photo by fitri agung, 2009, Source: Wikimedia Commons   Islam in Southeast Asia initially spread from Indonesia, especially in the Perlak area, Aceh from the 7th century CE. After developing, Islam spread to other Southeast Asian regions, especially to the Malay Peninsula. Islam in Southeast Asia is present in Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, the Kingdom of Pattani in Southern Thailand, and Brunei Darussalam. Before the emergence of Islam in Southeast Asia, people in the region mostly adhered to animism or believed in Hinduism, or Buddhism.   The Islamization of Southeast Asia was supported by the presence of traders and scholars from the Arabian Peninsula, Greater Persia, and Gujarat in the Malaysian region in the 9th century CE. The spread of Islam in Southeast Asia by traders and clerics took place peacefully without any acts of coercion, violence, intimidation, or war.   Sufism evolved from an elite movement to become a major mode of religiosity. It had a strong appeal because it cultivated devotional piety and mystical experiences, traditions and customs often criticized by mainstream Islamic scholars. Although Indonesia and other areas were strict in following Islamic rule, Muslims still practiced veneration of holy men and pilgrimages to their graves.   Champions of Sufism in South East Asia  Sufi master Nur al-Din Raniri, from Hamzah Fansuri dan Nuruddin ar-Raniry, by Dr. Edwar Djamaris and Drs. Saksono Prijanto, 1995-6, Source: Wikimedia Commons   Among the most widely spread orders was the Rifa’iyya Sufi tariqa, brought to South East Asia by a Malay scholar originally from Gujarat, Nur al-Din Raniri, in the 17th century. Apart from him, the most renowned Muslim Sufi scholars of that time were Abd al-Rauf Singkel and Yusuf Makassar. All three contributed to the chain of transmission (Silsila), while merging Rifa’iyya and Qadiriyya teachings, especially in Aceh.   By spreading knowledge among the local intelligentsia, these Sufi leaders also brought the Silsila for the Naqshbandiyya, Shattariyya, Alawiyya, and Khalwatiyya tariqas. All these Sufi orders created physical institutions, Sufi lodges (khanaqa), associated with their founders (mostly these were princes, governors, rich merchants, or individual sheiks). In the beginning, they were places for every order, but with lines of affiliation emerging, gradually khanaqas were associated with a specific order.   Chains of affiliation were essential for founding distinctive spiritual traditions. The concept of Silsila is central to Sufism in South East Asia, because it constitutes a legitimation of the Sufi master and his teachings, connecting him to saintly predecessors and reinforcing particular ceremonial customs, such as recitation of the divine names of God (dhikr), litanies (ratib), prayers, and various forms of meditation. Based on this, a sheik could ask for loyalty and give licence to spread his teachings to other Sufis.   In general, South East Asian Muslims had very educated leaders, whose erudition was based on solid links with Mecca, Baghdad, and other centers of Islamic education. In the region itself, orthodox teachings held firm among the higher classes and in the cities, but Sufi orders nonetheless started to emerge in a unique local ways.   Sammaniyya Sufism  Palembang, Indonesia, under Dutch rule, by Johannes Ykema (Uitgever), before 1950, Source: Wikimedia Commons   A Sufi Tariqa of South East Asian origin is the Sammaniyya order is based on the teachings of Muhammad bin Abd al-Karim al-Samman from Medina. It spread to Palembang and South Borneo, and later to the whole area. At the same time, this tariqa had fluid membership but coherent khalifa rule, which would later be essential for their anti-Dutch resistance.   It is known for its collective dhikr and ratib which include many popular folk performances, including martial arts, the cutting of iron, and the use of fire. Its teachings were a synthesis of many other Sufi orders, but it also has some syncretistic elements such as certain Buddhist ideas.

  Assassination, the murder of an important figure, is a heinous crime that tends to grip public attention and generally has consequential effects in the region where it occurs. However, some prominent killings have more than just local outcomes, affecting people and places that are far-reaching in miles and time. This may be due to the impact and charisma of the victim or the causes with which they were affiliated. The series of events that occur after a famous death can change the future for millions of people, altering history and humankind.   1. Julius Caesar A portrait of Caesar. Source: Dartmouth Jack-O-Lantern   Although Rome was still labeled as a republic by the time 44 BCE rolled around, it was led with elements of an autocracy. Julius Caesar had recently attained the label “dictator for life,” but despite this, was very popular with the public. Once a triumvirate member, ruling Rome with two others who had since become political enemies or died, Caesar quickly gained popularity with the public. He created opportunities for the poor, demonstrated military prowess, and was an intelligent and charming speaker.   However, his reputation among the populace made him fall out of favor with others in the political schema, particularly the Roman senate, whose power had become limited under his reign. A group of conspirators, estimated to number as many as 60, made a plan to assassinate Caesar and successfully completed their plan on March 15, 44 BCE at a Senate meeting. Through their actions, the group had hoped to restore many elements of Rome’s historical republic, with power distributed among more members of the Senate, many of whom were the killers.   The Death of Julius Caesar, by Vincenzo Camuccini, 1825-29. Source: Art UK   Instead, the death of Caesar had the opposite effect. The majority of the public was angry with assassins who had killed their beloved leader. Several civil wars would erupt after the murder, with the government in turmoil. Eventually, Caesar’s adopted son, Octavian, would seize power and become the first emperor of Rome, officially ending the republic. At its climax, the Roman Empire was the most extensive political and social structure in Western civilization, the height of power militarily. A number of modern conventions in government and culture can trace their roots to this giant of the ancient world.   2. Archduke Franz Ferdinand Franz Ferdinand and Sophie enter their car in Sarajevo not long before their assassination. Source: AP photo via NPR   Largely seen as the catalyst that set World War I into motion, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary set off a domino effect of major events. Killed by Gavrilo Princip, a member of a Serbian Nationalist group, in June of 1914, their heir to the Austrian throne and his wife Sophie were assassinated by gunshot while riding through the streets of Sarajevo.   Princip’s group aimed to unite all ethnic Serbs in a country of their own, removing them from under the hand of Austria-Hungary. These were not new desires but based on ongoing conflict that had populated the area for years. The deaths were not seen as a single attack but an attack on Austria-Hungary as a whole.   Austria thought that the Serbian government was involved in the attack and began developing ideas for retaliation. Both sides began seeking allies, and on July 23rd, Austria-Hungary sent an ultimatum to Serbia, demanding that they admit their involvement and issue a formal apology. Serbia agreed, but on the condition that the Austrian police were not allowed into Serbia.   Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28th, and other countries were gradually pulled into the war over the following weeks due to alliances that were held previously. Russia backed Serbia, so Germany supported Austria-Hungary to fight against Russia. Germany would go on to declare war on France and Belgium, bringing Britain into the war to keep a promise to defend Belgium.   3. John F. Kennedy President Kennedy just before his assassination in Dallas in 1963. Source: Bettmann Archives via ABC News   John F. Kennedy’s presidency was riddled with challenges that would impact the world for decades to come. During his term, he faced a Cold War with the Soviets, the Vietnam War, Civil Rights, the space race, and more. Still, he was incredibly popular, with an average approval rating of 70% during his time in office (the highest of any president), and beloved by the nation.   Kennedy’s assassination traumatized the nation. His popularity, along with the technology of the day, left a mark. Though presidents had been assassinated before, never before had it been in an era of such broad media coverage. Television was becoming pervasive in American homes, and images of Kennedy’s death were broadcast and printed throughout the nation.   The loss of a handsome young president, husband, and father was heartbreaking for many Americans to live through. The desire to understand Kennedy’s death would give way to numerous conspiracies that persist today. Theories range widely from CIA to mafia involvement, but even today, more than 60% of Americans believe that the official story of the Kennedy shooting, that he was gunned down by Lee Harvey Oswald, is not the true version of events.   Jackie Kennedy, right, stands next to Lyndon Johnson as he prepares to be sworn in as president of the United States after President Kennedy’s assassination. Source: The Sun   At the time of Kennedy’s death, the Senate had been working on the 25th Amendment, which clearly outlines the line of presidential succession. Though presidents had needed to be replaced before, the Constitution did not specify the proper way to do so. This amendment had been in the works for many years, but Kennedy’s death and the subsequent ascension of Vice President Lyndon Johnson, who had health issues, highlighted the need to complete this work. The 25th Amendment was then ratified in 1967.   4. Ngo Dinh Diem Ngo Dinh Diem waves to crowds. Source: Frank Waters photo via Newsweek   The autocratic ruler of South Vietnam at the beginning of the US involvement in the Vietnam War, Ngo Dinh Diem was strict in the face of communism. However, the United States officials soon realized he was a difficult leader to deal with, as he was also hard ruling against his own people, particularly the Buddhist majority, and was reluctant to allow the democratic reforms suggested by US advisers. Rumors of a coup against Diem began circulating, and the US faced a dilemma: support the coup or continue to support Diem, who had become increasingly difficult to deal with?   On November 2, 1963, a group of Vietnam army officers assassinated Diem and his brother. The US has never publicly admitted involvement, and officials at the time were divided on whether or not to support the coup.   Image of Diem. Source: US Information Agency via The Vietnamese.org   Diem’s removal did nothing to improve the instability in South Vietnam and the conditions of warfare. Instead, conditions in South Vietnam would become more unstable, with a series of factions gaining and losing power in the government over the next few years. This would lead to greater US involvement in the war, in which 58,000 Americans and 1.5 million Vietnamese were killed. Controversy would consistently increase over the next several years in the United States and abroad, with protests often resulting in violence. How might the outcome of the Vietnam War have been altered with a strong central government in South Vietnam? History will never know.   5. Indira Gandhi Indira Gandhi. Source: Bettmann photo via Biography   In the early 1980s, parts of India were experiencing religious turmoil. Certain sects of separatist Sikhs were campaigning for their own independent homeland. The government responded by attempting to shut down this group amid terror attacks and politically motivated killings. In 1984, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was leading the country and known for her political ruthlessness. She was India’s first female prime minister and, to date, is the second-longest serving.   Gandhi gave military officials the go-ahead to raid the Golden Temple, the holiest of Sikh temples, to flush out separatists hiding there. This action angered many Sikhs, even more moderate ones, around the world, who saw it as a violation of a holy place. In retaliation, on October 31, Gandhi was killed by her Sikh bodyguards.   This assassination led to four days of riots in Delhi and Northern India, in which over 10,000 Sikhs were killed in revenge for the Prime Minister’s death. The mobs executing these revenge killings were supported by the ruling congressional party, provided with lists of Sikh households, paid, and given supplies such as kerosene. Rape and looting were commonplace. Recovery from this period of horror has been slow, with alcohol and drug abuse and high suicide rates common among survivors.   6. Malcolm X Malcolm X. Source: Biography   While Martin Luther King Jr’s assassination is likely the most prominent of the Civil Rights Era, the killing of Malcolm X and its impact cannot be overlooked. Malcolm looked at the Black freedom struggle from a different perspective than King, rejecting the idea of nonviolence as a necessity. He combined his Muslim faith with his political action goals and gathered a strong following. For a while, Malcolm X had strong ties with a group called the Nation of Islam but eventually broke with them after some of his public speaking and other political actions were deemed too outrageous for the movement.   The scene of Malcolm X’s assassination. Source: Stanley Wolfson photo, via the New Yorker   He went on to leak stories about immorality among the group, and others soon defected. Malcolm X was killed as he gave a speech to his new group, the Organization of Afro-American Unity, in Manhattan in 1965. Three men from the Nation of Islam were arrested for the crime. One confessed, but in 2021, two were exonerated. Not only were the lives of these two men and their families destroyed, but their wrongful convictions highlighted the mishandling of the case.   Malcolm X, center, and his family pose with friend Muhammad Ali. Source: Netflix via People Magazine   Malcolm X’s death led to retaliatory attacks on the Nation of Islam by his supporters, including the firebombing of two mosques. Malcolm’s death was a significant loss to the Civil Rights movement. He was one of the most vocal champions of Black rights, but after his death, the chaos surrounding his assassination quickly overshadowed his work. Three years later, Martin Luther King Jr. would be met with a similar fate as a gunman executed him while he stood on the balcony of his motel.

  Cecil John Rhodes is a historical figure who has generated huge amounts of debate, not just in South Africa, where he lived much of his life, but across much of the Anglosphere, where his name continues to bear considerable weight and influence.   He was indeed a powerful man who advanced and industrialized parts of the world, bringing colonial progress, wealth, and success to lands under his influence. However, his legacy in the English-speaking world has come under intense scrutiny as those whose ancestors benefitted from his imperialism are made aware of the dark side of his methods.   He was incredibly racist, and while this was not particularly surprising nor uncommon during his time on earth, his policies resulted in the disenfranchisement and oppression of masses of people who were unlucky enough not to have been born British.   This is the story of his life and legacy.   The Early Life of Cecil John Rhodes Cecil Rhodes by William Nicholson. Source: Cleveland Museum of Art   Cecil John Rhodes was born July 5, 1853 into a family of not inconsiderable middle-class wealth. His father was a clergyman who had inherited valuable estates as a result of a successful brick-manufacturing business.   Cecil was a sickly child and suffered from asthmatic conditions. His father, concerned over the safety of his son, removed him from public school, and he spent much time under the watchful eyes of guardians who took special care of his condition. They believed that he may have contracted tuberculosis. In his teenage years, his father sent him to South Africa, which was popular as a place with a climate better suited to recovering from tuberculosis.   Rhodes Begins His Career in South Africa The Big Hole in Kimberley is the result of extensive diamond mining in the 19th century. Source: TripSavvy / Jess Macdonald   Cecil Rhodes started his career in South Africa in the British colony of Natal. He lived off money provided to him by his aunt Sophia and stayed in the town of Pietermaritzburg with Peter Sutherland, the Surveyor-General of Natal. While there, Rhodes became interested in agriculture and, with his brother, Herbert, attempted to grow cotton. Unfortunately for them, the climate was unsuitable, and the venture failed.   In October 1871, both left the Natal Colony and moved to Kimberley in the Cape Colony. This was the heart of the diamond mining industry, and it is where Rhodes’ success began. With funding from N M Rothschild & Sons, he started buying up the smaller diamond mining operations.   As the top layer of diamond-producing ground had been stripped bare, and water began to flood the strip mining operations, the diamond industry had entered a depression, but Rhodes and his business partner, C.D. Rudd, revived the industry by securing contracts to pump out the water. When he realized that the harder “blue ground” contained diamonds, too, Rhodes and Rudd became incredibly wealthy.   The Rhodes Colossus by Edward Linley Sambourne (1844–1910). Source: Public domain / Store Norske Leksikon   In 1880, Cecil Rhodes entered politics and became a member of the Cape Parliament, representing the predominantly Boer area of Barkly West.   In March 1888, Rhodes and C.D. Rudd founded De Beers Consolidated Mines as an amalgamation of many other smaller claims. The company was named after the De Beers family, who had originally lived on the plot of land where the company began.   By 1890, De Beers held a monopoly over the world’s diamond market. Through an agreement with the Diamond Syndicate based in London, they colluded to maintain high diamond prices by controlling the world supply. This dynamic is still in effect today in the diamond market.   De Beers also launched an aggressive advertising campaign in order to market diamonds to a greater demographic. Before this advertising, engagement rings traditionally held sapphires or rubies. That all changed with the marketing of De Beers, creating a new tradition.   The Cape, published in Vanity Fair. Source: Public domain / rawpixel.com   In the same year, Rhodes’ political career had led him to great success, and he was elected Prime Minister of the Cape Colony. Thus began his legacy as an oppressive imperialist. He took a dim view of Black people and enacted various policies to drive them off their land, believing that this would “stimulate them to labor.” He argued that Black people needed to be treated like “children” and introduced further policies to disenfranchise them, denying them the opportunity and the means through which to own land. Black people who had become successful under previous administrations had their properties taken, and Rhodes began building the land policies on which Apartheid would later build.   Conflict and Imperial Expansion The Charge of the Three Hundred at Doornkop by Captain Thatcher. Source: Creative Commons / Wikipedia / Life Photo Collection on Google Arts & Culture   Britain had imperial ambitions in South Africa beyond the colonies of Natal and the Cape. In the first half of the 19th century, Boers had trekked northwards, out of British-owned territory, and established the Boer republics of the South African Republic (also known as the Transvaal Republic) and the Orange Free State.   Gold was discovered in 1886 in the Transvaal, and Britain began looking for a casus belli in order to take control of the Boer republics. Central to Rhodes’ policies were the prevalent concerns of miners, and the miners who exploited the gold fields in the Transvaal were predominantly British. Arguing that British citizens were being mistreated, Rhodes set in motion the first attempt to wrest control of the Transvaal Republic from the Boers. This attempt was known as the Jameson Raid (so named for its leader, Leander Starr Jameson), which took place on the New Year weekend of 1895 to 1896 and was a complete disaster.   Map of Southern Africa 1884–1905. Much of the British expansion was a direct result of the policies, business practices, and political machinations of Cecil Rhodes. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica   Five hundred police from Rhodes’ British South Africa Company led a raid into the Transvaal, with orders to recruit disenfranchised British miners and provoke insurrection. The action failed, as the British in the Transvaal were not incentivized enough to take up arms. With the raiders captured and the British completely embarrassed by the affair, Cecil Rhodes was pressured into tendering his resignation. The raid also resulted in the imprisonment of Cecil’s brother Colonel Frank Rhodes, who had taken part in the raid.   The raid also had far-reaching consequences in Matabeleland and Mashonaland (now part of Zimbabwe). In 1891, these areas were declared British protectorates. The British South Africa Company, which administered the security of these areas with its own police force, lost control after the Jameson Raid. As the police officers were detained to the south, the Matabele and the Shona tribes rebelled against British control. This rebellion was known as the Second Matabele War, and although it was a victory for the British, it exposed Britain’s lack of control over its territories. Rhodes, who took control of the forces of the British South Africa Company, showed no mercy to his enemies, ordering them to be killed, even if they tried to surrender.   “Long Cecil” was a gun built by the De Beers mining company. Named after Cecil Rhodes, it was used in the defence of the town of Kimberley during the Second Anglo-Boer War. Source: Creative Commons/ Wikipedia   Despite this disaster, during his time in office, Rhodes greatly expanded British influence over Southern African land by establishing treaties and gaining mineral concessions from local chieftains.   The control of territory under the British South Africa Company stretched from the Limpopo River to Lake Tanganyika. This land had been unofficially called “Rhodesia” by the settlers with whom Cecil Rhodes was hugely popular. The southern part became Southern Rhodesia (later Zimbabwe), and the northern part became Northern Rhodesia (later Zambia).   When the Second Anglo-Boer War broke out, Boer forces immediately besieged Kimberley, and Rhodes moved there to rally the defenses and provide support to the British soldiers and citizens.   Rhodes’ Death Rhodes Memorial, which overlooks Cape Town. Source: Tours Africa   As a result of a heart attack, Cecil John Rhodes died on March 26, 1902, at the age of 49. He was staying at his seaside cottage in Cape Town at the time, and after his death, his body was transported by train all the way to Bulawayo in Rhodesia, where it was laid to rest. His imperial ambition of building a railroad from Cape Town to Cairo went unrealized.   #RhodesMustFall A protester in South Africa. Source: AP/Schalk van Zuydam via studyinternational.com   For many white South Africans, Cecil Rhodes was seen as a benign figure, especially to the English speakers who did not know the extent of Rhodes’ crimes or that they even happened at all. For the Afrikaners, he was viewed with animosity as being part of the British who subjugated them. For Black people, his legacy was that of death and misery.   In recent years, the anti-Rhodes viewpoint has been brought to the foreground, and powerful movements to change how Rhodes is viewed have garnered momentum on an international level. The starting point was the “Rhodes Must Fall” movement in Cape Town. Among scenes of repeated vandalism of statues of Rhodes, students at the University of Cape Town demanded the removal of the statue that stood at the main entrance to the upper campus.   Statue of Cecil Rhodes being removed from the University of Cape Town upper campus. Source: David Harrison, Mail & Guardian   After significant protests, the statue was removed. This kickstarted a movement in England to have the same treatment applied to statues of Rhodes there. Debates over the removal of statues continue to this day.   Many of these statues exist at university institutions, as Rhodes left much of his estate to fund education systems. It is for this reason that Rhodes University was established in the Eastern Cape in South Africa and that the Rhodes Scholarship exists.   Decapitated statue of Cecil Rhodes at Rhodes Memorial in Cape Town. Source: Nic Bothma/EPA, via The Guardian   The shift in political expression has seen Rhodes turn from hero to villain in the eyes of the world. While focus used to rest on what he had built – an undeniable achievement – modern views have vilified Rhodes as an agent of imperial conquest.   His legacy remains chequered, but no matter the opinion, it is inarguable that he had a huge effect on the history of Southern Africa and beyond.