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The RetroTINK 2x Pro allows you to connect classic consoles via composite‚ S-Video and Component Video outputs to flat-panel TV’s.  It’s easy to use‚ but has quite a few extra features and still hold up well‚ even with all the newer scalers being released!  Even though we’ve covered the TINK 2x quite a bit over […]

Mary Mallon‚ nicknamed “Typhoid Mary”. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the 19th century‚ typhoid fever was just one of many public health concerns doctors struggled to understand. Understanding of sanitation and immunity was still in its infancy‚ but one case of typhoid shattered existing theories and led to one woman’s notoriety and christening as “Typhoid Mary.” Her life would be changed forever in order to preserve the health and safety of others.   Typhoid Terror Electron micrograph of salmonella bacteria‚ via Lab Roots   Typhoid fever is a bacterial infection caused by salmonella typhi‚ spread through food‚ drink‚ and water sources contaminated with the bacteria. The illness causes fever‚ abdominal pain‚ severe diarrhea‚ chills‚ severe fatigue‚ and even death. It is also known as enteric fever‚ and today is rare in the United States. However‚ it still affects millions of people globally each year and is responsible for the death of hundreds of thousands.   Historically‚ typhoid fever was an even larger threat‚ more fatal than it is today with the impact of modern medicine. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries‚ doctors had just begun to figure out how typhoid spread and still weren’t fully aware of the disease’s action. At the beginning of the twentieth century‚ typhoid fever had a fatality rate of approximately 10%.   Mary Mallon’s World Mary Mallon in quarantine‚ foreground‚ via CNN   During this time period‚ Ms. Mary Mallon was building her life in America. Mary emigrated to the United States from Ireland in either 1883 or 1884 as a teenager. She lived in New York and began making a living as a domestic‚ most frequently as a cook. Mary was a talented cook and popular with her employers‚ who were generally folks who might hire her to work at their summer homes. Her signature dish was said to be peach ice cream‚ carefully curated with the freshest peaches.   For several years‚ starting in 1900‚ people in the homes where Mary worked began to get sick with typhoid fever. In all‚ about two dozen people fell ill. However‚ by the time the disease was traced to a particular household‚ Mary had moved on to other employment‚ so she and her meals were never considered to be a common factor in the mini-epidemic.   The Investigation Begins Sagamore Hill‚ Theodore Roosevelt’s home in Oyster Bay‚ via Money   In 1906‚ Mary was working in a home of eleven people in Oyster Bay‚ a popular area for the elite to spend their summers‚ as President Theodore Roosevelt had declared his home there the “summer White House.” Six individuals in the home became ill with typhoid‚ and wanting to get to the bottom of the matter‚ the homeowners contracted George Soper‚ a sanitary engineer who specialized in tracing disease outbreaks‚ to locate the origination of the disease in their home.   Little did Soper know‚ he was about to undertake his most famous investigation. Originally‚ Soper believed freshwater clams that had been served at the home to be the culprit for the bacterial outbreak. However‚ further investigation revealed that not all the stricken patients had consumed the clams‚ and he had to turn his attention to other possibilities. After more research‚ Soper came up with an interesting theory: Would it be possible for someone to carry the bacteria without actually becoming sick?   A Groundbreaking Conclusion Old fashioned peach iced cream‚ via Beyond the Chicken Coop   Soper believed that he was on the way to solving the case. Cook Mary Mallon had not only been contracted at the Oyster Bay home‚ but her peach ice cream‚ made from raw‚ uncooked ingredients‚ was a common denominator among the sick patients. The first death associated with the Oyster Bay outbreak hastened Soper’s work. Eager to test his theory that Mary may be to blame for the illness‚ Soper located her in early 1907 and explained to her that she may be spreading disease in her line of work. He asked for samples of her feces‚ blood‚ and urine in order to prove his theory. Mary was wholly taken aback by his perceived accusations and requests. She likely felt that he was accusing her of being unsanitary in her food preparation‚ and the idea of an asymptomatic disease carrier was ludicrous to the average person in early 20th-century America. Mary chased Soper out of her home‚ furious.   Further Probes Dr. Sara Josephine Baker‚ via Encyclopedia Britannica   Soper decided to take a different approach and began combing through Mary’s employment records for the past few years. What he found confirmed his ideas that Mary was spreading the typhoid bacteria in her work. Typhoid outbreaks had seemed to follow Mary’s path of employment for years: seven out of eight households had become ill.   He enlisted the help of Dr. Josephine Baker‚ assistant commissioner of health and one of the most successful early female doctors‚ to help him deal with Mary. Perhaps a fellow woman could appeal to Mary. This would not be the case‚ and Mary would avoid the team’s efforts to gather health samples once again. Feeling that the evidence they had gathered proved Mary to be a threat to public health‚ Soper and Baker once again went to Mary’s home‚ this time with a police presence.   Unwillingly Quarantined Mary‚ fourth from right‚ under quarantine with other patients‚ via National Geographic.   In March 1907‚ Mary was detained by Soper’s team and sent to North Brother Island. Located on the East River near the Bronx‚ North Brother Island was originally constructed as a smallpox quarantine location in the 19th century and was later converted to hold anyone with what was considered a communicable disease.   Mary was not allowed to leave the island in the name of public safety. She was forced to give samples of her bodily fluids‚ which tested positive for salmonella typhi bacteria. Mary was interviewed repeatedly while on the island to help trace potential and past outbreaks and determine where she may have contracted the disease.   Doctors came to believe that Mary’s mother had contracted the disease while pregnant‚ and that was how Mary came to be infected. However‚ Mary never suffered from symptoms of typhoid and just couldn’t wrap her head around the possibility of being a carrier if she wasn’t sick. She refused to believe the accusations of Soper and the other doctors‚ regardless of what the tests said.   The doctoral team attempted to get Mary to consent to gallbladder removal surgery. It was believed that the offending bacteria colonized the gallbladder and that this removal could potentially prevent Mary’s superspreader status. However‚ Mary was firmly against this idea‚ refusing as much invasion of her body as she could. Not to mention‚ surgery was not a simple undertaking in those days; even routine procedures were potentially deadly.   Soper wrote a book about the investigation‚ via Rakuten Kobo   Mary was not allowed to leave the island but was not officially under arrest or facing any sort of charges. After two years on the island in forced isolation from the world‚ Mary engaged the services of a lawyer and attempted to invoke the writ of habeas corpus in order to initiate her freedom.   Her bid failed‚ but it certainly brought more public attention to her case. Her case became of special interest to newspaper tycoon William Randolph Hearst. Realizing it was a potential public relations nightmare to keep her locked up against her will‚ the health department finally agreed to release Mary in 1910 but forced her to agree to never again work as a cook or in a similar capacity‚ lest she begin spreading typhoid again. She threatened to sue the health department as a result of her treatment but never followed through with a suit. Mary Mallon disappeared back into the crowds of twentieth-century New York.   Free to Infect Headline of Mary’s obituary‚ 1938‚ San Diego Union‚ via San Diego Union Tribune   It seems that Mary never intended to hold up her end of the bargain. She soon began working as a cook again‚ a profession she knew she was good at‚ still not believing she was a health risk. However‚ she managed to evade the detection of the health department until 1915‚ when she was found working at a hospital in the midst of a typhoid outbreak. She had been working under an assumed name‚ and soon‚ additional recent outbreaks were linked to her past employment. Since she had failed to follow the agreed-upon protocol‚ the health department again remanded Mary to North Brother Island‚ where she would remain for the rest of her life. She had a stroke in 1932‚ leaving her paralyzed until her death six years later.   The Aftermath Slaying the Typhoid Dragon‚ 1908‚ via Pacific Standard   Fifty-one cases of typhoid were directly attributed to Mary Mallon during her lifetime‚ not including those that were indirect or secondary. Three of these cases ended in death‚ including the first at Oyster Bay. Though some military members were immunized at the turn of the century‚ effective public vaccination for typhoid would not become available until 1911‚ and productive antibiotic therapy would not be in place until after World War II. Mary was the first confirmed “healthy” or asymptomatic carrier in the United States. Her plight also highlighted the problematic ways that the healthcare system handled disease carriers and how they were treated by the public‚ a problem that‚ in some ways‚ persists today.   Typhoid Mary: Echoing Questions Typhoid Mary propaganda‚ via Lab Roots   The case of Typhoid Mary left many questions‚ both in an ethical and biological sense‚ questions that still persist into the modern era. Many people still question the validity of the public health department forcing Mary to stay on North Brother Island for the remainder of her life. There is no doubt that she was a threat to public health‚ but was it worth ruining her life and forcing her to live in misery?   She was isolated from the world‚ unable to live how she wished or among people she knew and loved. People also had questions about the idea of an asymptomatic carrier. Mary Mallon had appeared perfectly healthy and did not feel sick. How was it possible for her to be spreading illness and death?   Today‚ scientists estimate that between 1-6% of those who are infected with salmonella typhi develop into asymptomatic carriers without even knowing it. This is a huge public health risk that is still not fully understood and impossible to monitor. Mary herself was frustrated by her situation and was essentially turned into a monster in the public consciousness when in reality‚ all she wanted was to be a “good plain cook.”

  World War II spanned six years and many different battles across all theaters. Many conflicts are well documented or endlessly speculated about‚ like Stalingrad. However‚ the following three in our list stand out: The Battle of Britain‚ The Battle of Guadalcanal‚ and the Battle of Kursk. Each battle permanently altered the campaign or forced a reluctant decision upon the opposing‚ whether Axis or Allies.   The Battle of Britain in 1940: The First Defeat Evacuated British troops arrive in Dover from France.   By mid-1940‚ Germany’s mighty Wehrmacht had defeated France and forced the British evacuation at Dunkirk in only six weeks. Worldwide speculation was when Germany would cross the Channel to defeat Britain from Occupied France.  Being an island nation‚ Britain had not been invaded since the 1066 Battle of Hastings.   Besides the Royal Navy‚ Germany needed to defeat the Royal Air Force (RAF) and achieve air superiority for a seaborne invasion to occur. On July 10th‚ 1940‚ the Battle of Britain began with raids on airfields and ports. Except the Luftwaffe faced the RAF – an organized force backed by the newly invented radar‚ an observer corps watching for raids and equally capable aircraft.   Aircraft spotter on roof London. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Luftwaffe outnumbered the RAF by 2 to 1. In a four-month intensive campaign‚ with targets including military‚ economic‚ and terror bombing of London and other cities‚ the Germans exhausted themselves. Carefully using radar‚ the RAF selected when to fight‚ ravaging the bomber streams. Still‚ the Luftwaffe nearly overwhelmed the RAF in July. But by October 1st‚ the raids dwindled to night bombing as the Germans couldn’t sustain such immense thrashings. Hitler lost interest‚ ordering the bulk of his forces East for the upcoming attack on Russia in 1941.   Why is this Battle so important? This bloody nose was Nazi’s Germany first defeat. Britain later became a base for D-Day‚ which led to Germany’s May 1945 surrender.   The First Pacific Landing: The Battle of Guadalcanal Walking Wounded in Guadalcanal.   The August 1942 landing on Guadalcanal marked America’s first amphibious invasion. A hastily gathered Marine Division landed‚ attempting to block Japanese expansion towards Australia. A seven-month seesaw campaign ensued‚ that damaged Imperial Japan’s offensive capability.   Both sides lost many men‚ planes‚ and especially ships – the seas around earned the name “Iron Bottom Sound.”  Resupply proved hardest for Japan – so many ships were sunk‚ and the Americans resupplied their forces faster. By January 1943‚ the starving Japanese troops faced defeat as the Americans fought their way up the island. On February 7th‚ in a skillful night maneuver‚ the Imperial Navy evacuated all their forces before their enemy realized they’d left.    The Allied victory on Guadalcanal became necessary for several reasons. First‚ Japan couldn’t replace the losses suffered – 24‚000 men‚ seventeen ships‚ and sixty-four planes in six months. Expansion had become too costly – Imperial Japan switched to the defensive. All islands and Occupied Territories like Singapore were transformed into a fortified ring the Allies needed to punch through to reach the Home Islands.   After Guadalcanal‚ Japan permanently lost the initiative‚ unable to keep up this attritional warfare. The Allies took Okinawa in June 1945. Japan only surrendered after Nagasaki and Hiroshima were obliterated by atomic bombs developed by the Manhattan Project.   The Battle of Kursk in 1943 Kursk Salient map. Source: Bundesarchiv   1943 proved to be a pivotal year for Germany. The year started with the Stalingrad surrender in February‚ ending the Wehrmacht’s eastward expansion with the loss of 250‚000 troops. The Red Army drove the Germans west. Several months of fluctuating fighting ended with a 150-mile bulge into the Wehrmacht’s line based on Kursk. Because of Stalingrad‚ Hitler knew he needed a victory to regain the initiative from the Red Army. The Kursk salient provided that opportunity. The German dictator knew his Axis partners waited too‚ aware of their fate should the Soviet Union win the war.   Russians attack at Kursk. Source: Bundesarchiv   Hitler ordered his generals to organize a two-pronged attack to re-capture Kursk. The Germans garnered all available units. The Russians observed this and received intelligence from the British. With that warning‚ the Red Army built a three-tiered defense with strong tank forces. The Wehrmacht attacked on July 5th‚ 1943. Despite ferocious attacks‚ the Germans made little progress.    The Russians counter-attacked‚ igniting the world’s biggest tank battle involving thousands of tanks. Soviets resisted stubbornly‚ throwing in reserves the Germans couldn’t match. The fighting ground on‚ and by July 12th‚ Hitler called off the attack. Troops were desperately needed to counter Allied landings in Italy. Much like Guadalcanal diminished the Japanese‚ the Battle of Kursk shattered Germany’s war making on the Eastern Front. Only the path West remained to Berlin‚ and defeat in May 1945.

Body counts for Season 2 have been relatively low through eight episodes. That's about to change. Continue reading…