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Astrophysicists working with the JWST have found a surprising amount of metal in a galaxy only 350 million years after the Big Bang. How does that fit in with our understanding of the Universe? The origin of the Universe’s first metals is a foundational question in astrophysics. Shortly after the Big Bang‚ the Universe was made up almost entirely of hydrogen‚ the simplest of the elements. There was a little helium‚ even less lithium‚ and possibly an infinitesimal amount of beryllium. When you look at the periodic table of the elements‚ those are the first four. In astronomy‚ all the elements heavier than hydrogen and helium are called metals. Metals are produced in stars and nowhere else (except for the tiny amount produced by the Big Bang itself.) Tracing the formation of the Universe’s metals from the Big Bang to now is one of astrophysics’ fundamental quests. This illustration shows the “arrow of time” from the Big Bang to the present cosmological epoch. In the early Universe dominated by Population III stars‚ there were almost no metals‚ according to current theory. Credit: NASA Metallicity is a fundamental concept in our study of the Universe. Without metals‚ rocky planets can’t form. Neither can life. Over successive generations of stars‚ the Universe’s metallicity has increased. So there’s an underlying trajectory that stems from the first metals and leads directly to us. The study of ancient galaxies is one of the James Webb Space Telescope’s primary quests. The JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES) examined a region of the sky looking for faint‚ early galaxies. By looking so far back in time to the Universe’s early galaxies‚ the JWST is shedding light on ancient metallicity. A team of researchers working with JADES observations examined a galaxy only 350 million years after the Big Bang and found carbon. They may have also found oxygen and neon‚ all metals in astronomy. Their findings are in a new paper titled “JADES: Carbon enrichment 350 Myr after the Big Bang in a gas-rich galaxy.” The lead author is Francesco D’Eugenio‚ a post-doc astrophysicist at the Kavli Institute for Cosmology at Cambridge. The first stars that formed in the Universe are called Population III stars. They’re the most ancient stars‚ and they were massive‚ luminous‚ and hot‚ with almost no metals. The tiny amount of metals they held came from the first supernovae among their numbers. Much of our knowledge about Population III stars is theoretical because these ancient stars‚ in their ancient galaxies‚ are extremely difficult to observe. But the JWST is capable of it. It can’t individual stars‚ but its powerful NIRSpec instrument can detect different elements in the galaxy by their telltale light signatures. Artist’s impression of Population 3 stars born over 13 billion years ago – the earliest‚ oldest and presumably now extinct star types. Population 3 stars were large‚ bright‚ and most had short lives. Credit: NASA. This new research is based on a galaxy at z=12.5 near the Cosmic Dawn‚ a critical era in the Universe’s history. When the researchers studied the JWST’s observations‚ they discovered an unexpected amount of carbon in the galaxy. It’s either in the interstellar medium (ISM) or the circumgalactic medium (CGM.) “This is the most distant detection of a metal transition and the most distant redshift determination via emission lines‚” they explain. It’s also the “most distant evidence of chemical enrichment” found to date. This detection directly collides with our understanding of metal-free population III stars. “The detection of C iii– and its high EW (equivalent widths)– rules out scenarios of pristine stellar populations‚” the authors write. If Webb has ruled out the existence of pristine‚ metal-free population III stars‚ that’s big news. It’s another instance of the powerful space telescope upending our best explanations for the Universe we see around us. But it’s not entirely shocking; the existence of population III stars is theoretical. Considering everything else we know about the Universe‚ their existence made sense. But population III stars were never a certainty. When something like this is discovered‚ scientists take pains to consider every other possible explanation for what they’re seeing. Are they really seeing carbon in the stars in this distant‚ ancient galaxy? Or could something else be behind these emissions? The ancient galaxy has more in it than just stars. It’s also home to a supermassive black hole (SMBH.) When an SMBH feeds on matter‚ it can flare brightly as an active galactic nuclei (AGN.) That light signal could be what the JWST is seeing. This artist’s illustration shows a supermassive black hole and its active galactic nucleus. Image Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Conceptual Image Lab “Moreover‚ a supermassive accreting black hole has been identified in this galaxy‚ suggesting that the peculiar chemical abundances might be primarily associated with its nuclear region‚” the researchers explain. There’s another potential source of carbon in the galaxy. They’re AGB stars—asymptotic giant branch stars. AGB stars aren’t large explosive stars like supernovae progenitors are‚ but they’re large stars that have left the main sequence. Compared to supernovae‚ AGB stars produce metals gently. But takes a long time for a star to evolve into an AGB star. When the Universe was only 350 million years old‚ no stars had lived long enough to become AGBs. “…AGB stars cannot contribute to carbon enrichment at these early epochs‚” the authors write. In the end‚ the researchers report the detection of carbon‚ but they can’t tell us exactly where it came from. They may be “… the heritage of the first generation of supernovae from Population III progenitors‚” they write. This figure from the research illustrates some of the findings. The JWST has a variety of filters and prism it employs for different applications‚ which can make some of these images difficult to read for the untrained eye. The main takeaway from this image is the CIII spike seen in green. Image Credit: D’Eugenio et al. 2023. The JWST was pushed to its limits to see this early galaxy. “This detection of the most distant metal transition‚ which has provided such precious information about the earliest phases of the chemical enrichment‚ has required a very long exposure‚” the authors explain. It took 65 hours of JWST time to gather this data due to the galaxy’s extreme faintness. Even with all that observing time‚ the researchers can only arrive at tentative explanations for the metallicity they see. It’s not very practical to use 65 hours of JWST time to study a galaxy spectroscopically‚ but that’s what the JWST needs to do for this kind of precise spectroscopy. That may change in the future. “However‚ in the future‚ large-area surveys and gravitational lenses may help identify more high-redshift galaxies that are sufficiently bright for deep spectroscopic follow-up with shorter exposures‚” the researchers write. When and if that happens‚ astrophysicists will have the much sought-after larger sample size. With that valuable data in hand‚ maybe they can arrive at a firmer explanation for this surprising find. The post A Galaxy Only 350 Million Years Old Had Surprising Amounts of Metal appeared first on Universe Today.

After months of waiting‚ SpaceX made its second attempt at an orbital flight this past Saturday (November 18th). During their previous attempt‚ which occurred back in April‚ a fully-stacked Starship (SN24) and Super Heavy (BN7) prototypes managed to make it off the landing pad and reach an altitude of about 40 km (25 miles) above sea level. Unfortunately‚ the SN24 failed to separate from the BN7 booster a few minutes into the flight‚ causing the vehicle to fall into an uncontrolled tumble and forcing the ground teams to detonate the onboard charges. Things went better this time as the SN25 and BN9 prototypes took off at about 7:00 AM local time (8:00 AM EDT; 05:00 AM PDT) from the Starbase launch complex. The SN25 successfully separated from its booster two minutes and fifty seconds later – at an altitude of 70 km (43 mi) – and reached an altitude of about 148 kilometers (92 miles)‚ just shy of SpaceX’s goal of 150 km (~93 mi). However‚ the booster stage was lost about 30 seconds after separation‚ exploding over the Gulf of Mexico. The SN25 also exploded about eight minutes into the flight‚ reportedly because its flight termination system was activated. Elon Musk chimed in on X after the launch‚ reposting the company’s live video of the flight test (as well as a shorter slow-motion closeup video taken from the launch tower). Musk also posted pictures of the launch pad the day after the launch to confirm that there was no damage this time around. “Just inspected the Starship launch pad and it is in great condition!” he shared on his X page. “No refurbishment needed to the water-cooled steel plate for next launch. Congrats to @Spacex team &; contractors for engineering &; building such a robust system so rapidly!” Post-launch images of the landing pad at Boca Chica. Credit: SpaceX This is a big improvement over the first launch attempt‚ which caused significant damage to the landing pad and sent debris in all directions‚ causing collateral damage to the facility. This was avoided thanks to the water-cooled steel plate‚ a deluge system installed after the last test. This was one of dozens of corrective measures recommended by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)‚ which engineers at Boca Chica have spent months integrating. This included the addition of a forward heat shield interstage to the Starship and expanding the Area of Potential Effects for cultural resources. Another improvement over the previous test flight was that all 33 of the booster’s Raptor 2 engines ignited this time‚ whereas 31 ignited the last time. “The real topping on the cake today‚ that successful liftoff‚” said SpaceX commentator John Insprucker. The successful separation of the Starship from the Super Heavy was another major success‚ as was the altitude achieved‚ just two kilometers shy of the goal of 150 km (93 mi). “We got so much data‚ and that will all help us to improve for our next flight‚” added commentator Kate Tice. After the launch‚ the FAA released a statement about the test‚ saying that a “mishap” led to the loss of both the spacecraft and booster. “The anomaly resulted in a loss of the vehicle. No injuries or public property damage have been reported‚” they said. They also reported that an investigation was underway to determine what went wrong‚ which is standard procedure whenever a spacecraft is lost. Like the last test flight‚ SpaceX will not be cleared for more launch tests until the review is complete and corrective measures are taken. The Starship and Super Heavy is the biggest and most powerful launch system in the world‚ standing 121 meters (400 feet) tall‚ weighing 5 million kg (11 million lb)‚ and capable of generating 75.9 meganewtons (MNs) or 17.1 million pounds thrust (lbf). This exceeds the three-stage Saturn V rocket that was the workhorse of the Apollo Program and (until recently) the most powerful rocket ever developed. It also exceeds NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS) that will send the Artemis astronauts to the Moon in the coming years. The launch vehicle will also play a vital role in the Artemis Program in the form of the Starship Human Landing System (HLS). In April 2021‚ NASA awarded SpaceX a $3 billion contract to develop the human landing system that will land astronauts on the Moon by 2025 as part of the Artemis III mission. This will consist of four astronauts in an Orion spacecraft launching atop an SLS and rendezvousing in lunar orbit with the Starship HLS – which will launch separately. Two astronauts will transfer to the Starship HLS and use it to descend to the surface‚ then return to orbit about a week later. Musk has also been clear that the ultimate aim of the Starship and Super Heavy is to conduct regular missions to Mars that will culminate in the creation of the first self-sustaining city there. Other objectives include sending crews and payloads to the Moon to assist NASA’s plans for a “sustained program of lunar exploration and development” and launching batches of Starlink 2.0 satellites to provide high-broadband internet access to the entire world. With this latest test‚ SpaceX has taken a significant step in that direction. On the downside‚ the booster and spacecraft were lost before the ground teams could attempt the all-important retrieval phase. This is vital for the “entirely reusable” Starship and Super Heavy launch system and Musk’s long-term vision for conducting regular flights to orbit‚ the Moon‚ and Mars. On the plus side‚ this test flight lasted twice as long as the first attempt‚ and the launch system managed to make it past the Karman Line: 100 km (62 mi) above sea level‚ the official boundary of “space.” This essentially demonstrated that the Starship and Super Heavy are capable of orbiting flight. Granted‚ the rockets need to stop exploding first‚ but such has always been the way with SpaceX’s rapid prototyping and testing approach. Every launch‚ even the ones that go “kaboom” – no‚ especially the ones that go “kaboom” – is another step towards success. Further Reading: Phys.org The post SpaceX Tested Its Starship Again. Successful Launch But Both Vehicles Were Destroyed appeared first on Universe Today.

Last year‚ astronomers warned that a large piece of debris was on a collision course with the Moon. Initially‚ they speculated that it was a SpaceX booster but later zeroed in on a Chinese Long March 3C rocket booster that launched the Chang’e 5 mission. When it did impact on March 4‚ 2022‚ astronomers noted a strange double crater. A new paper suggests that it couldn’t have been a single object breaking up since there’s no atmosphere on the Moon. Instead‚ the booster must have been carrying an additional‚ undisclosed payload. The object was originally discovered on March 14‚ 2015 with the Catalina Sky Survey. At first‚ it was thought to be a near-Earth asteroid and was provisionally named WE0913A. However‚ further study of the object’s orbit revealed it was in a geocentric orbit rather than heliocentric‚ suggesting it could be space junk. Additional observations showed that the object had a lunar flyby on February 13‚ 2015. Working backwards‚ astronomers thought that since NASA had launched the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) spacecraft on a Falcon 9 rocket on February 11‚ 2015‚ WE0913A was initially thought to be the Falcon 9 rocket body.  Astronomers continued to monitor this object and in late 2021 it became apparent that the object would impact the Moon by March 2022. Still further observations and study of the object when it made several Earth flybys‚ however‚ revealed it likely was NOT the Falcon 9 booster and that instead‚ its orbit and timeline coincided with the launch of the Chinese Chang’e 5-T1 mission to the Moon on October 23‚ 2014. “This led us to believe that the object that would impact the Moon on 2022 March 4 was likely the Long March 3C [rocket body] from the Chang’e 5-T1 mission‚” wrote Tanner Campbell‚ Adam Battle‚ Bill Gray and several other astronomers who had been analyzing data on this object. “Adding to the confusion‚ after this realization‚ the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a press release on 2022 February 21 saying that the object impacting the Moon was not the Long March 3C upper stage from the Change 5 mission.” But in the new paper by Campbell et al‚ they said that their trajectory and spectroscopic analysis of the object from ground-based telescope observations during several Earth flybys shows conclusively that WE0913A is the Long March 3C rocket body from the Chang’e 5-T1 mission. This animated GIF confirms the location of the newly formed rocket body double crater. The before image is LRO’s view from Feb. 28‚ 2022 (M1400727806L). The after image is from May 21‚ 2022 (M1407760984R). The width of the frame is 367 meters‚ about 401 yards. Credit: NASA/Goddard/Arizona State University But there’s another mystery in this crazy space debris story. Using Campbell and team’s predicted impact location‚ NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter was able to image the crater site approximately 7.5 km from the prediction. Surprisingly‚ the crater was actually two craters‚ an eastern crater (18-meter diameter‚ about 19.5 yards) superimposed on a western crater (16-meter diameter‚ about 17.5 yards). The double crater was unexpected and lunar impact experts said the twin craters indicated that the rocket body must have had another payload as part of the booster.   “Typically‚ a spent rocket has mass concentrated at the motor end; the rest of the rocket stage mainly consists of an empty fuel tank‚” wrote Mark Robinson‚ principal investigator with the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera‚ back in June of 2022 when the LRO images were released. “Since the origin of the rocket body remains uncertain‚ the double nature of the crater may indicate its identity.” These four images show craters formed by impacts of the Apollo SIV-B stages: crater diameters range from 35 to 40 meters (38.2 to 43.7 yards) in the longest dimension. Credits: NASA/Goddard/Arizona State University. Robinson also pointed out that no other rocket body impacts on the Moon created double craters‚ and offered images of craters from four Saturn rocket boosters from Apollos 13‚ 14‚ 15‚ 17. “The results from the Bayesian analysis imply that there may have been additional mass on the front of the rocket body‚” Campbell and team wrote. “Comparing the pre- and post-impact images of the location shows two distinct craters side by side that were made by the Chang’e 5-T1 R/B. The double crater supports the hypothesis that there was additional mass at the front end of the rocket body‚ opposite the engines‚ in excess of the published mass of the secondary permanently affixed payload.” The researchers noted that Chinese foreign ministry officials denied that the space junk is from their rocket‚ insisting that the Chang’e 5 rocket already burned up on its return trip to Earth in 2014. However‚ on March 1‚ 2022‚ the U.S. Department of Defense’s Space Command‚ which tracks low-Earth orbit space junk‚ released a statement saying that China’s 2014 rocket never deorbited. Additionally‚ Chinese officials have never commented on the nature of the double crater. While the origins of the rocket don’t really matter — it was going to impact the Moon no matter who launched it — many have said that the confusion surrounding the object’s identity highlights the need for space agencies and private launch companies to develop better procedures for tracking their rockets. This would keep such objects from being mistaken for Earth-threatening asteroids. It is also hoped that confusion like this — and subsequent denials of responsibility — would prompt space agencies and launch providers to readily disclose the number of payloads on board. The post A Chinese Booster (and Additional Secret Payload) Caused a Double Crater on the Moon appeared first on Universe Today.

In the search for dark matter particles‚ there are two main approaches. The first is to look for particles that happen to decay naturally as they pass by. This typically involves neutrino observatories such as IceCube where a dark matter particle particle colliding with a nuclei might trigger a faint burst of light. So far this has turned up nothing. The second approach is to slam particles together in a particle accelerator. This approach has also failed to find dark matter particles‚ but there have been enough interesting hints that CERN is having a go. Their latest run is looking for what are known as dark photons. Dark photons are part of some generalizations to the standard model of particle physics. The idea is that if dark matter exists‚ it must be some entirely new form of matter from the quarks and leptons that make up the protons‚ neutrons‚ and electrons of regular matter. And if dark matter can interact with itself‚ then it should have a force carrier boson‚ just as photons allow charges to interact and the strong force has gluons to hold nuclei together. The hypothetical carriers for the dark matter force are called dark photons. In the standard model‚ the electromagnetic and weak forces are connected‚ so photons are connected to radioactive decay. In the generalized model dark photons have a similar connection‚ so they should affect the decay of certain particles such as muons. Dark photons should also have an effect on the magnetic moment of the muon‚ and earlier this year a study suggested exactly such an effect. A hypothetical dark photon interaction. Credit: APS/Alan Stonebraker This latest run of the Large Hadron Collider is the third run of the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment. It began in July 2022‚ it is looking for an effect known as displaced muons. This is where muons are seen coming from the general region of a high-energy particle collision‚ but not from the point of collision itself. This would be due to the fact that the initial collision generated dark photons undetectable by CMS‚ which then decayed into detectable muons. The initial data of this run found no such events‚ meaning there was no evidence for dark photons thus far. Further observations may find something‚ but if they don’t the results will place further constraints on the existence of dark photons. This continues to be the pattern with dark matter. Indirect evidence for it is good‚ but direct evidence continues to be lacking. For now‚ all we can do is to keep trying studies such as this one in the hopes that we’ll find more clues to solve this mystery. Reference: Tumasyan‚ Armen‚ et al. “Search for long-lived particles decaying to a pair of muons in proton-proton collisions at sqrt[s] = 13 TeV.” Journal of High Energy Physics 2023.5 (2023): 1-58. The post CERN Has Joined the Search for Dark Photons appeared first on Universe Today.

'His main goal in life was to make sure that nobody noticed anything'

'The ceasefire requires an immediate cessation of military hostilities by both sides‚' said Jeff Merkley