NASA’s Perseverance has spent over 1‚000 sols – Martian days – inside Jezero Crater. The location of an ancient impact‚ the crater was for a time a lake with a river carrying water into it. A prominent delta has been sculpted in the rocks and it is there that the rover has been exploring. And now‚ it has enough information to paint a picture of what this location has gone through over eons.It all started 4 billion years ago. An asteroid slammed into Mars and created a large crater which we now call Jezero. The crater floor is made of igneous rock‚ evidence of either volcanic activity on the surface post-impact or magma formation that raised up. Hundreds of millions of years later‚ water came to Jezero.Perseverance found sandstone and mudstone‚ indicating that water flowed into the crater that long ago. Above those rocks though‚ there are others. More mudstones‚ but these are rich in salt. From the flowing water‚ a shallow lake formed. It is estimated that it grew to have a diameter of 35 kilometers (22 miles) but it was at most only 30 meters (100 feet) deep. The evaporation of the lake left behind the salt.But the watery history of the place doesn’t end there. The final chapter saw‚ at a later time‚ the flowing of fast water across the delta that Perseverance is exploring. Boulders were carried by this powerful river and they were spread over the surface of the delta."We picked Jezero Crater as a landing site because orbital imagery showed a delta – clear evidence that a large lake once filled the crater. A lake is a potentially habitable environment‚ and delta rocks are a great environment for entombing signs of ancient life as fossils in the geologic record‚" Perseverance's project scientist‚ Ken Farley of Caltech‚ said in a statement. "After thorough exploration‚ we've pieced together the crater's geologic history‚ charting its lake and river phase from beginning to end."While the region is a prime candidate for possible ancient life‚ the rover has not found any signs yet. The suite of instruments on board Perseverance can detect both ancient fossil-like structures and the chemical alterations brought forth by ancient life. It has been investigating the many collected samples thoroughly but nothing so far.The current region being explored has carbonate material indicating an ancient water environment where life might have evolved. Iron phosphates have also been found‚ and phosphorus is a key ingredient in life. It is also rich in silica‚ which is seen as an ideal substance to preserve ancient life."We have ideal conditions for finding signs of ancient life where we find carbonates and phosphates‚ which point to a watery‚ habitable environment‚ as well as silica‚ which is great at preservation‚" added Morgan Cable‚ the deputy principal investigator of Pereseverance’s Planetary Instrument for X-ray Lithochemistry.The rover is not standing still after crossing the 1‚000th sol mark. It is now going to explore the rim of Jezero crater.

Depending on your point of view‚ raisins are either a tasty lunchbox treat‚ or an evil catfish just waiting to lure you into taking a bite of what you thought was a lovely chocolate chip cookie. Love them or hate them‚ though‚ you’re probably fairly confident in what a raisin actually is. But what happens when we throw some similar dried fruits into the mix? Do you know the difference between raisins and their sultana sisters or currant cousins? Fear not: IFLScience is here to clear up any confusion.Raisins vs sultanasBelieve it or not‚ raisins‚ sultanas‚ and currants are all different dried varieties of the same fruit: grapes. We’ll start with raisins and sultanas‚ probably the ones you’ll come across most often – currants have a few extra complexities that we’ll get to in a minute.“Raisin” is really an all-purpose name for any dried grape. Because any grape variety can be used‚ there’s some variation in the color and flavor of raisins‚ but they’re always dried for about three weeks to produce a dark‚ sweet product with a soft texture.According to Healthline‚ US raisins are generally made from Thompson seedless grapes‚ but there’s some international variation. In Australia‚ larger Muscat‚ Lexia‚ and Waltham Cross grape varieties are usually to thank/blame for the raisins in your cookie.Sultanas‚ on the other hand‚ are only made from seedless green grapes. They can be treated with an oil solution to speed up the drying process‚ and they’re generally lighter in color than raisins. Now‚ here’s another potential source of confusion. UK-based readers will be very familiar with sultanas‚ and you’ll typically find bags of them in the supermarket right next to the raisins. However‚ our friends across the Atlantic may not come across them as frequently‚ and that’s because sultanas in the US are often referred to as golden raisins. Which is actually much more descriptive and helpful‚ when you think about it. What are currants?That’s sultanas and raisins dealt with; what about those tricky little currants?Currants are once again a type of dried grape. And again‚ readers in the UK will be very familiar with the sight of a big bag of the things‚ right next to the sultanas and raisins (aren’t we spoiled for choice?). There’s a huge variety of traditional UK recipes that call for currants‚ from the ever-festive mince pies to “squashed fly” biscuits (they’re real‚ we promise). To produce a smaller‚ more intensely flavored dried end-product‚ small seedless grape varieties are chosen‚ such as the Black Corinth cultivar. Confusingly (but it’s about to get even worse‚ so buckle up)‚ these grapes are often marketed in the US as “Champagne grapes”‚ despite the fact that they’re most definitely not used to make Champagne.Currants are sometimes called Zante currants‚ referring to the fact that the trade in these grapes shifted to the Greek Ionian islands – notably Zante – in the early 1700s. This naming is also quite helpful for confirming that what you’re buying is in fact a dried grape‚ and not a dried version of one of several types of bush-grown fruits known as… you guessed it‚ currants.We told you it was going to get confusing.The genus of flowering plants Ribes can be divided into two broad groups: one produces gooseberries; the other produces currants‚ including blackcurrants and redcurrants.While you may well be less likely to come across dried redcurrants or blackcurrants in your local grocery store‚ it’s not impossible‚ so it does pay to double check what fruit you’re buying if you pick up a package simply labeled “currants”.If something is labeled Zante currants‚ you can rest assured that what you’re buying is‚ in fact‚ dried grapes. In places where "currant" is used by default to refer to dried grapes‚ you’ll probably find that dried black- or redcurrants‚ if available‚ are much more clearly labeled. These packages from the USA make it very clear which variety you're choosing.Image credit: Sheila Fitzgerald/Shutterstock.comSo‚ there you have it. Raisins‚ sultanas‚ and currants are all different variations of the same thing: dried grapes. Currants can be a slightly trickier customer than the other two‚ but if in doubt most recipes will probably be just fine with whichever one you can easily get hold of. But if you are getting stuck into some raisin-tastic holiday baking‚ just be aware that all fresh and dried grapes are toxic to dogs‚ and keep them well away from your furry friends. Raisins‚ sultanas‚ and currants – a treat (or trauma) reserved just for humans. 

Zookeepers worldwide know that many of their animals appreciate herbs in the diet‚ or sometimes just to play with or roll in. One zoo has decided their charges will like it even better if the herbs are fresh and in season‚ and have built a garden of 200 types to keep them happy.Most zoos have come a long way from the days when they stuck animals in cages so small‚ frustration and boredom shortened their lives. Now keepers spend as much time worrying about the mental health of the animals as their physical needs‚ constantly seeking ways to keep them stimulated‚ known as enrichment. That’s easier for Werribee Open Plains Zoo than for most. Built on the outskirts of Melbourne‚ the enclosures are larger than for inner-city zoos were land is more expensive. Nevertheless‚ this is one zoo not interested in merely being good enough‚ and their latest step for continual improvement is to provide fresh‚ locally grown produce from their own herb garden.Giraffes are more used to eating up than down‚ but when presented with a herb posy this one got so excited it took a foot off the ground to angle itself.Image credit: Zoos Victoria“Fresh herbs have amazing fragrances and flavours‚” Sue Jaensch‚ an animal behavior specialist‚ said in a statement. “But each individual animal and species response and preference can vary. Our goal is to provide experiences that are beneficial for each animal‚ so understanding individual preferences helps to inform how we can specially tailor these experiences.” Jaensch added to IFLScience that there are physical benefits as well‚ with herbs being “concentrated in essential vitamins and minerals.”Matching the herb to the animal gives keepers a form of enrichment of their own. Jaensch told IFLScience it’s not all guesswork. There is an abundance of information from zoos and other sources on what herbs certain animals like‚ and can consume safely. “We also use information from natural history and observe the animals’ curiosity‚ expanding their choices‚” she said. What is novel is the freshness of the produce‚ not the items given.There’s enough information around about herbs’ effects the team are not worried they will accidentally poison any of their precious beasts. However‚ Jaensch told IFLScience some foods are given with care. “Mint and rosemary may be stimulating for some animals‚ so we choose the timing. Similarly for catnip‚ which we give intermittently.”Speaking of catnip‚ the zoo’s serval is just as keen as other members of the cat family. Research has shown the plant deters mosquitoes‚ explaining why cats big and small evolved an appreciation of it‚ but Jaensch admits to not knowing why other animals are not similarly fond of its protection.It's not just mammals that like some fresh herbs in their diet‚ so does this shingleback.Image credit: Zoos VictoriaSo many of the herbs have flowers that need insect pollinators that beds will boost the ecosystem all year round. Jaensch hopes visitors to the zoo will be similarly inspired. “Planting umbels‚ a family of herbs including parsley‚ coriander and dill‚ is a fantastic way to encourage and attract pollinators and insects into your backyard‚” she noted in the statement.Not all the animals are similarly keen‚ with one white rhinoceros turning up its substantial nose at an entire posy of herbs. There’s little the keepers can do in this case – you try changing a rhino’s mind when it's made up.On the other hand‚ as the film below shows‚ one giraffe was so keen on some herb pesto it made the considerable effort of leaning down and balancing on three legs to get its enormous tongue around it. The shingleback lizard seems enthusiastic as well. So far‚ the zoo has no plans to sell the herbs in their gift-shop‚ but if they do‚ they could market some lines with animal endorsements.   The strangest reaction so far came from a camel‚ who responded by showing off the astonishing dexterity of its lips to their full extent. Jaensch admitted to IFLScience‚ “We don’t know exactly‚” what the reaction means‚ but she added‚ “In this case he didn’t go back to the food. He may have tasted something he didn’t like or found irritating. This could be the camel equivalent of someone pulling a face.”

In the year 2000‚ the draft of the human genome was completed. Scientists were finally ready to tread into what had been the dark matter of human DNA. Even with a single reference map to work with‚ everything changed‚ as the age of human genomics was born. Drawing the map of DNA was a decades-long project whose aim was to enable researchers to plunge into terra incognita. But the reason you watch history unveil before you — rather than being confident of its outcome — is that you can’t always predict it. It is true that mapping the human genome has been a boon for basic research scientists. But unexpectedly it has also allowed for the explosion of a massive consumer genomics market‚ led by companies such as Ancestry.com and 23andMe‚ consisting of nearly 50 million Americans in 2021. As the 21st century unfolds‚ personal genomics will both expose the human past and guide us into the biotechnology waters of the human future. The methods of genetic inference will spotlight the human family tree‚ which is actually more like a gnarled tangle of vines‚ and allow for the next steps in genetic engineering. This will first be geared toward curing a host of medical illnesses but will likely lead to more radical modification of what it means to be human. The rate of change in genomics has been incredible over the last twenty years. Between 2007 and 2014 it surpassed even the rate of Moore’s law‚ the famous biannual doubling in computing power. While the first human genome cost $3‚000‚000‚000 in today’s dollars‚ in 2021 we can obtain a high-quality readout of DNA for $300. Whereas in 2010 a single Excel spreadsheet could list all the humans who had been whole-genome sequenced by name (a list that would include luminaries like James Watson and Steven Pinker)‚ by 2020 there were hundreds of thousands‚ if not millions‚ of whole-genome sequences. By 2030 there will almost certainly be tens of millions of whole genomes in the United States alone. A radical shift This transformation was not driven by basic science and universities but by the economies of scale powered by firms catering to consumer demand. In the year 2000 the field of genetics was dominated by research in “fruit flies‚” and our own species was an afterthought. Human genetics usually meant an analysis of pedigrees of families with congenital diseases. When the geneticist L.L. Cavalli-Sforza published his magnum opus‚ "The History and Geography of Human Genes‚" in 1994‚ he surveyed data on over a thousand humans explored through a few hundred genes. This was the culmination of five decades of research. But by 2021 there were 50 million humans genotyped at hundreds of thousands of genetic positions. What had been a lifetime’s worth of work for a scientist assaying a piddly few hundred genes was transformed through personal genomics into an afterthought of historical interest. When the National Geographic Society launched its “Genographic Project'' in 2005‚ the scientist leading it‚ Spencer Wells‚ was told that it was unlikely to recoup its costs by his superiors. It was a blue-sky pilot project‚ and they were skeptical about public interest in citizen science and personal genomics. The reality is that it made back its investment within a week‚ and the project continued for fifteen years. In the wake of National Geographic’s success‚ the Silicon Valley startup 23andMe entered the space and brought a certain marketing panache‚ transforming what had been a genealogical hobbyist’s enterprise into a sexy Silicon Valley consumer product that provided “news you can use.” While National Geographic and its small privately owned competitor Family Tree DNA focused on genetic genealogy‚ 23andMe returned medical results as well as ancestral ones. Co-founded by Anne Wojcicki‚ then married to Google’s Sergey Brin‚ 23andMe showcased its genetic technology by disclosing that Brin carried a marker associated with Parkinson’s disease. Though 23andMe has had its ups and downs‚ including a 2013 FDA decision that made it shut down much of its medical testing results‚ it kicked down the door first opened by National Geographic and made viable by the sequencing of the human genome. When new results in the scientific literature are published‚ millions of Americans can check their 23andMe results. Want to know your risk for Parkinson’s‚ Alzheimer’s‚ and macular degeneration? Check your 23andMe results. If a new risk factor for COVID-19 hospitalization is discovered‚ check your 23andMe raw data and see if you have it. You have the power to know or to remain ignorant. Genetics in the 21st century has mutated from a matter of antiseptic laboratories distant from the concerns of the average American to something that injects itself into our daily lives as a matter of course. Most of the sales for consumer genetic kits occur between Thanksgiving and Christmas‚ and the results from these tests are fodder for family discussions during the holidays. While 23andMe has focused both on medical tests and more “recreational” genomics‚ its rival Ancestry has been laser-focused on genealogy and ethnicity‚ and the two companies have totally transformed the self-conceptions of millions of Americans. Though in the abstract most black Americans were aware that they had white ancestry‚ genetics can now tell them individually their exact proportion. New Jersey Senator Cory Booker now knows he’s 47% African‚ 45% European‚ and 7% Native American. Even white Americans‚ who usually think they know their own genealogy‚ can be in for a surprise. Fantasy author George R.R. Martin discovered that he is one-fourth Jewish‚ rather than one-fourth Italian. His paternal grandmother had an affair with a Jewish man‚ after which her Italian-American husband left her. More generally‚ personal genetics problematizes one of the more prominent chestnuts of wisdom promoted by the American intelligentsia in the late 20th century: that race is a “fiction.” In 2003‚ PBS‚ that arbiter of elite American culture‚ showed “Race: The Power of an Illusion‚” which argued that the concept has no biological basis. And yet within ten years‚ tens of millions of Americans were getting results from DNA kits telling them they were “84% African‚ 16% European‚” and geneticists were documenting that our ancestry is strongly correlated with geography. People in East Asia are more related to each other than they are to people in South Asia‚ while Brahmins in South India are more closely related to Brahmins in North India. Understanding who we are JuSun/Getty While Americans wrestle with the semantics of race‚ which has both a genetic and social basis‚ the reality is that genomics has transformed our understanding of our past and the statistical patterns that define our present. We now know‚ for example‚ that the Khoisan hunters of Southern Africa are more genetically distant from the Yoruba people of Nigeria than the Yoruba are from some living in China. In other words‚ genetics has altered our understanding of human variation in surprising ways but also confirmed other intuitions about correlations between regional heritage and physical ancestry and race. But whereas in the 20th century these assertions and analyses were filtered through the intelligentsia in their ivory towers‚ today consumer genomics companies cater to a customer base fascinated by their own individual heritage and interpreting in whatever way suits their own tastes and preferences. Market demand and interest dictate the outcomes of science. Spencer Wells‚ at National Geographic‚ had a democratizing vision from the get-go. 23andMe and Ancestry were in the game to make money. But all these consumer genomic efforts decentralized the production and dissemination of knowledge so that in 2022 we are faced with a schizophrenic landscape where elites in academia deny the biological basis of race‚ while millions of American consumers interpret pie charts and bar graphs that they believe inform them on their racial heritage. In some ways‚ this genomic revolution reflects the same dynamics highlighted by Martin Gurri in "The Revolt of the Public and the Crisis of Authority in the New Millennium." Though 20th-century genetics is often viewed as a lab science‚ it was‚ and today is‚ also part of information technology‚ telescoping into one’s past and interpreting the patterns elucidated by one’s pedigree‚ just as in Gurri’s telling‚ the public is revolting against the implausible nostrums promulgated to them by their betters‚ the scientific elite. This democratization also applies to medicine and diagnosis. In the near future‚ a proliferation of applications and tools are likely to be able to interpret whole-genome data and provide interpretations to individuals. This threatens professionals‚ who in the past few centuries have become the guardians of the health of the public. Consumer genomics allows for a level of disintermediation that threatens their licensing cartels. More concretely‚ it allows for greater personal ownership of health. However‚ its ultimate utility may be in the synergies of genomics with bioengineering. If the 2010s have been the decade of reading the genome‚ the 2020s will become the decade of writing it. It will begin with medical illnesses‚ sickle cell‚ cystic fibrosis‚ and ALS. A child will be sequenced at birth‚ and a small minority will be found to have a genetic condition that might benefit from genetic engineering. Sequencing the whole genome not only targets the risk variant but allows for the construction of more effective genetic engineering targeting elements. Such new technology will initially produce a miraculous revolution in many adult illnesses. Cystic fibrosis‚ sickle cell‚ and ALS will likely be cured. But what was initially used for medical applications will be leveraged in other contexts. In the 20th and early 21st century‚ body modification spread across the population‚ and genetic engineering presents the possibility of early and effective modifications. Want blue skin? That’s possible. How about naturally curly hair? Maybe. These are aesthetic changes that are comprehensible‚ but who knows what sort of “designer children” wealthy and perverse individuals may wish to engineer? The upcoming decades will give us the opportunity to transform the body and make it a protean reflection of our inner identities. Who wields and regulates these technologies may turn out to be the most vital question of the 21st century. But we aren’t there yet. In 2023 we see its glimmers and possibilities‚ just like in 2000 we saw the faint shadows of the coming genomics age. Now that we’re in it‚ it is time to consider the reality that we are moving beyond it. The genomics age will end when genomics is no longer magic‚ but routine and basic. Once genomics is interleaved into our lives‚ from monitoring the bacterial character of our household waste to predicting breast cancer risk‚ we’ll begin to move to the next stage‚ the age of genetic engineering. The modern tools of genomics allow us to know ourselves‚ but the future tools will likely allow us to transform ourselves.

Contrary to popular belief‚ the 1773 protest opposed a tax break‚ not a tax hike. And it didn't immediately unify the colonies against the British

The initiatives would repeal Washington’s cap-and-trade system and capital-gains tax and implement a parents’ bill of rights‚ among other reforms.

If the former New Jersey governor is as committed to stopping Donald Trump as he says‚ it’s time for him to retire.

On holiday parties in Boston; crime in D.C.; the nation’s security; a great Broadway show; and more.