Although the Nazca Lines of Peru are the best-known geoglyphs out there‚ there are thousands of other glyphs around the world. Huge geoglyphs in the shape of humans‚ animals‚ and geometric shapes exist on nearly every continent.   1. The Uffington White Horse Geoglyph Uffington White Horse‚ date unknown‚ via World History Encyclopedia   The only known pre-historic geoglyph in Europe‚ the Uffington White Horse‚ is a splendid sight to behold. Nestled on the upper slopes of Whitehorse Hill in Uffington‚ England‚ the horse stretches 360 feet (110 m) across the hill. The striking white chalk makes the horse stand out from the lush green grass.   Historians and archaeologists do not know what people created the glyph or why. Constructed between 1380 and 550 BCE‚ during the late Bronze Age or Early Iron Age‚ references to the White Horse have existed since medieval times. One legend stated that the glyph was carved to celebrate an Anglo-Saxon defeat of a Viking army in 875 CE. However‚ later excavations proved that the glyph is much older.   Other theories state that a pre-historic culture created the glyph to mark ownership of their land or that the horse corresponds to celestial or astronomical events. When viewed from a hill opposite the horse in midwinter‚ the sun rises behind the horse and‚ throughout the day‚ moves past it. Some archaeologists believe that this indicates that the horse represents a sun horse‚ an ancient Indo-European symbol representing the belief that a horse pulled the sun across the sky.   No matter the purpose‚ the White Horse remains a significant cultural and historical artifact. Locals have maintained the site for centuries‚ ensuring the foliage doesn’t cover the horse.   2. The Atacama Giant El Gigante de Atacama‚ photo by Sznegra‚ February 27‚ 2008‚ via Wikimedia Commons   The Nazca Lines aren’t the only geoglyphs in South America. In the Atacama Desert in Chile‚ carved into a hillside‚ stands the Atacama Giant‚ the world’s oldest anthropomorphic geoglyph. This large‚ humanoid glyph stands at 390 feet (119 m) and is surrounded by thousands of smaller glyphs. It was created from stones and dirt and can be viewed from great distances.   The Tiwanaku people created the giant geoglyph over 1‚000 years ago but the purpose of the glyph is unknown. Some believe that it served as an astrological tool because the lines on the head predict the moon’s movement and can help predict the changing of the seasons. Since the glyph is meant to be viewed from a distance‚ people could use it to predict the rainy season — a vital survival tool in the highly arid Atacama Desert.   Similar to the Nazca Lines‚ researchers believe that the glyph may have also served as a map or guide to finding important sites or resources. While the glyph resembles an alien‚ other researchers believe that the glyph represents one of the deities the region’s native cultures used to worship. The being’s right-hand holds a crosier‚ and by its knees are feathered decorations.   3. The Blythe Intaglios Blythe Intaglios‚ photo by Rsfinlayson‚ October 23‚ 2016‚ via Wikimedia Commons   The Blythe Intaglios‚ located in California along the Colorado River‚ are a series of six figures in three locations. Each location features a human figure with a four-legged creature or a spiral. The largest human figure is 171 feet long‚ with the other two being about 100 feet long. The animal glyphs are 50 feet long. The glyphs are dated between 450-2‚000 years old. Natives created the glyphs by removing rock to expose the soil below.   The glyphs are hidden in the desert that hugs the Colorado River and weren’t rediscovered until 1932. A pilot flying from Blythe‚ California‚ to Las Vegas‚ Nevada‚ noticed the glyphs below. Since 1974‚ the Bureau of Land Management has had fences around the glyphs to protect the site’s integrity.   According to natives in the region (the Mohave and Quechans) the human figures represent Mastamho‚ the Creator of all life. The animal figures represent Hatakulya‚ one of two mountain lions/persons who helped in the Creation. They also state that in ancient times‚ the natives held ceremonial dances to honor the Creation. The Blyth Intaglios are best viewed from the air. Although other glyphs exist in the American West‚ the Blyth Intaglios are the most famous.   4. The Great Serpent Mound Great Serpent Mound‚ via Wikimedia Commons   The Great Serpent Mount stretches over 1‚300 feet across a ridge in Adams County‚ Ohio. The serpent is 20 to 25 feet wide and averages heights between 4 and 5 feet. Since the mound does not contain artifacts‚ dating it has proven exceedingly difficult. Some researchers attribute its construction to the Early Woodland Adena culture‚ which occupied the area from 500 BCE to 200 CE‚ or to the Late Prehistoric Fort Ancient culture‚ which occupied the region from 1‚000 to 1‚650 CE. Most current research suggests that the Adena culture built the mound. Still‚ it is possible that multiple cultures maintained and used the site.   Graves and burial mounds nearby suggest the builders intended the structure to serve a burial function. The head faces east‚ and the tail faces west. The head aligns with the summer solstice sunset and the tail with the winter solstice sunrise. The shape of the snake closely resembles the constellation Draco‚ suggesting that the mound may serve an astrological purpose.   One of the most debated parts of the serpent mound is the egg-shaped object at the snake’s mouth. Some believe the shape merely shows the snake consuming an egg‚ while others believe the form represents the sun.   Research continues on the mound as archaeologists study the astrological and cultural significance of the mound. Despite‚ or because of‚ the mystery surrounding the Great Serpent Mound‚ the site remains an important historical‚ archaeological‚ and cultural artifact.   5. The Turgai Geoglyphs The Ushtogay Square‚ via the Astana Times   Some of the most recently discovered geoglyphs are the Turgai Geoglyphs. Located in and named for the Turgai Trough in northern Kazakhstan‚ Dmitriy Dey discovered the glyphs in 2007 while studying satellite images from Google Earth. Dey presented his findings to the European Archaeological Association in 2014.   The site has earned the nickname “The Nazca lines of Kazakhstan” due to the large number of glyphs found. So far‚ researchers have discovered 260 giant glyphs. Unlike the Nazca Lines‚ which the natives created by removing the topsoil‚ the Turgai Geoglyphs were created by using rocks and dirt to build up mounds on the ground.   No one knows who created these glyphs or why but one of the oldest glyphs dates to 8‚000 BCE. The glyphs are designed in geometric shapes‚ including squares‚ rings‚ crosses‚ and swastikas. They range in size from 90 to 400 meters (295 to 1300 feet) in diameter.   Archaeological excavations have found the remains of structures at the geoglyphs. These discoveries suggest that ancient tribes may have performed rituals at the sites. Other research indicates that ancient people may have used glyphs to mark their territory. Of course‚ other researchers hypothesize that ancient peoples used the glyphs as astrological observatories. The glyphs are challenging to see from the ground but are viewable from the sky. Researchers continue to investigate the sites to learn more about their origins and purpose.   6. The Effigy Mounds Effigy mounds‚ via the National Parks Service   While many Native American cultures in North America built effigy and burial mounds‚ only those in the Upper Midwest created mounds shaped like birds‚ turtles‚ lizards‚ and other animals.   Located mainly in Iowa‚ Effigy Mounds National Monument houses around 200 of these mounds. Other mounds lie in the surrounding states. In addition to animal-shaped mounds‚ the mound builders also built linear and conical-shaped mounds.   Some mounds exist on their own‚ while others are organized in groups and one of the most prominent animal mounds is the bear. Native American legends state that the bear is the guardian of the Earth. Because there are so many mounds in the shape of a bear‚ the Natives could have used the mounds to establish a connection between the land and the spirit world.   Effigy mounds with bears‚ by the National Parks Service‚ via Wikimedia Commons   Built during the Late Woodland Period (1‚400-750 BCE)‚ and stretching from the Upper Mississippi River to Lake Michigan‚ the mounds were used for ceremonial and burial purposes. Later cultures continued the tradition of mound building. About 4‚000 mounds exist in the Upper Midwest‚ but estimates indicate there may have been up to 15‚000. Many were destroyed by natural processes and human damage to the land.   Geoglyphs Around the World Blythe Intaglios‚ animal figure‚ via Wikimedia Commons   Although the Nazca Lines are the most well-known geoglyphs in existence‚ there are thousands of glyphs around the world. Many of these glyphs were created hundreds to thousands of years ago by cultures that left no information about the building or purpose of their glyphs. Modern studies  generally agree that most glyphs were created for various reasons‚ including religious ceremonies‚ territorial designation‚ and astrological calendars or guides. While we may never know the true purposes of the glyphs‚ we can enjoy their beauty‚ engineering‚ cultural significance‚ and long-lasting nature.

  The idea of a “gold rush” evokes images of miners with pickaxes striking it rich in the deserts of California. “Forty-niners” hoped to make the American dream a reality as the search for gold brought forth villages‚ then towns‚ and finally‚ cities. Some would survive and prosper; others turned to ghost towns. However‚ the hunt for gold wasn’t limited to the Wild West. Way up north in the barren wilds of Alaska and Canada‚ men and women braved the cold in an attempt to make millions and forge a successful life.   A Unique Region Map of Alaska and the Klondike Gold Fields‚ J.J. Millroy‚ 1897. Source: Library of Congress   The Klondike is not the name of a specific town but the name given to a region of what is now the Yukon Territory. It is in the northwestern corner of Canada‚ near the US border of Alaska. The region gets its name from a river bearing the same name.   The Klondike River is a tributary of the larger Yukon River‚ but it was the smaller tributaries of the Klondike that would be the starring locations of the events that took place beginning in 1896.   Bonanza! Photo of Bonanza Creek by JBrooks85. Source: Encyclopedia Britannica   Knowledge of the existence of gold in the Yukon was nothing new in the late nineteenth century. The Indigenous groups of the area had known of and spoken of this precious metal for years‚ but it had little value to them in their subsistence economy before the arrival of colonizers. However‚ word began to travel‚ and soon‚ prospectors began to travel to the area‚ hoping to make their fortune.   The returns would be meager‚ though‚ until 1896‚ when a man named “Skookum Jim” Mason discovered significant deposits of gold at a place that would become known as Bonanza Creek‚ formerly Rabbit Creek. Mason was accompanied by his sister Kate (born Shaaw Tlaa)‚ who was of Tagish descent‚ her husband George‚ and their nephew‚ later known as Dawson Charlie (birth name Kaa Goox). Quickly‚ the team acquired claims on the area‚ but news spread fast. By the end of the month‚ all of the claims in the area of Bonanza Creek had been occupied.   The Rush Miners working in the Yukon. Source: Adam Smith Institute   Although the initial claims sold out quickly‚ news of the discovery spread rather slowly globally due to the nature of the times. Information had to travel south by ship and telegraph. Still‚ it persisted and spread nevertheless over the next year. As 1897 continued‚ prospectors arrived from all over the world to try their hand at striking it rich in the Yukon. Most of these miners were from the United States‚ but some crossed oceans and continents‚ dreaming of riches and fame. It was not an easy trip‚ as the fortune seekers not only had to adapt to the harsh Arctic conditions but they had to shell out the cash for the arduous journey–the average cost was $1‚200.   Miners hiking to the claims at Chilkoot Pass‚ 1898. Source: Norman B. Leventhal Map &; Education Center   Unfortunately‚ when many arrived‚ they found that there were limited or no claims available or that they lacked the resources necessary to take one up. They were then forced to give up their hopes of striking it rich and instead go to work for the “Klondike Kings”: those who had been around for the initial rush or had capitalized on the new economy springing up around them.  Regardless‚ it is estimated that about one billion dollars of gold was found in the Klondike Rush (adjusted for inflation).   Capitalizing in Other Ways A miners’ tent city. Source: National Parks Conservation Association   Not everyone in the Yukon decided to make their living hunting for gold. Others saw an opportunity to provide goods and services for those searching for wealth. Villages and towns started springing up around the tent cities created by miners.   Joe Ladue and Arthur Harper were two local traders who saw the writing on the wall. They quickly bought up local swampland‚ stocked up on lumber to sell‚ and named their new acreage Dawson City. It would become the center of the Klondike Gold Rush and is still a center of tourism today.   Dawson started out roughly‚ but by the end of the century‚ it was a legitimate city with fire hydrants‚ electric lighting‚ and an excellent police presence. Dance halls‚ bars‚ and supply depots found their demand increasing daily‚ and new businesses began popping up as the rush continued. Some individuals and businesses made money from the Klondike Gold Rush without ever stepping foot in the Arctic. It is estimated the businesses in the Seattle area made about 1 million dollars (not adjusted) during the period selling supplies to prospectors who were setting out on their trip north.   Harsh Reality  Heading up White Pass. Source: National Park Service   Despite the record profits and success some saw in the Yukon‚ this positive outcome was unattainable for many. There were two ways to access the gold-rich area‚ and both had their challenges. Skagway‚ Alaska was the gateway to the White Pass Trail‚ and it was a town of lawlessness and trouble. The Chilkoot Trail was the other option‚ originating in Dyea. It had fewer outlaws but was steeper than White Pass. Regardless of which trail they took‚ few prospectors were truly prepared for the brutal Alaskan environment. Many were not adequately stocked‚ and malnutrition and illness were common.   Panning for gold in the Klondike. Source: History Extra   The supplies that were necessary for prospecting were heavy‚ requiring pack animals or many back-and-forth trips on foot. So many horses died on White Pass Trail that it was commonly known as “Dead Horse Trail.” It is estimated that about 3‚000 animals met their demise there‚ overloaded and overworked‚ with many of their bones still occupying Dead Horse Gulch.   A monument was dedicated to these hapless pack animals in 1929. Writer Martha Ferguson McKeown later said about the trails‚ “There ain’t no choice‚ one’s hell‚ the other damnation.”   Lawlessness Abounds Soapy Smith stands in his saloon in Skagway. Source: Library of Congress   Some saw others’ misery as a chance to profit and took advantage. One of the most prominent swindlers to show up in the Klondike in the midst of the gold rush was Soapy Smith. Born Jefferson Smith in Denver‚ Soapy got his nickname from a scam he ran involving selling bars of soap with cash prizes inside. He started this racket in Denver and ran it in numerous other cities‚ always leaving town when he was caught or was about to be.   He did spend some time in jail but was rarely caught before skipping town with his ill-gotten gains in tow. Soapy ran a gang of men that would often pose as customers that would “win” a big prize‚ thus encouraging others to wile their wealth away in his schemes. At one time‚ his gang numbered 300 men‚ operating out of the town of Skagway‚ where he’d opened a saloon.   One of Smith’s most notable scams involved a fake telegraph system in Skagway. Soapy would take messages from the prospectors eager to reach their friends and family back at home‚ along with a fee for sending the message. The only problem was he never sent them! He went so far as to set up telegraph poles and wires; they just weren’t connected to anything. Smith died in 1898 at age 38 in a shootout at a town meeting‚ bringing his racket to an end.   The Collapse Gold became harder to find as time went on. Source: Grayline Alaska   By late summer of 1898‚ the gold pockets in the Klondike seemed exhausted. Many miners had left for home‚ their savings exhausted‚ and their dreams of fortunes burst. News of a fresh gold strike near Nome‚ Alaska reached the Yukon‚ and hundreds left Dawson and other areas‚ eager to jump on the newest claim. As the miners began their exodus‚ it was evident that the Klondike Gold Rush was over as fast as it began. Towns like Dawson City began to see drastic drops in population. Other towns‚ Dyea‚ for instance‚ would disappear altogether in the subsequent years. Businesses that were once thriving were forced to shutter as the population fell by the thousands.   Modern Connections Jack London‚ one of the voices of his generation‚ was shaped by his experiences in the Yukon‚ 1916. Source: AP Photo via NPR   While it burned out quickly‚ the Klondike Gold Rush left lasting impacts. Dawson City remains today the cultural capital of the Yukon Territory. As of the most recent reported count in 2018‚ the city is home to over 2‚300 people and is seeing consistent growth. However‚ over 60‚000 visitors stop in Dawson each year‚ and its vibrant tourist industry remains steady. The legacy of the gold rush is still evident‚ with mining-themed attractions throughout the town and the Klondike Gold Rush era playing a prominent role in museums and historical attractions.   Jack London’s legacy persists today‚ such as in this recent adaptation of his classic Call of the Wild starring Harrison Ford. Source: 20th Century Studios via National Geographic   Jack London‚ one of literature’s most prominent names‚ spent much time in the Yukon as a twenty-one-year-old man‚ arriving in the first wave of prospectors hoping to strike it rich. His experiences and the things he saw would become the fodder for a great deal of his fiction and nonfiction pieces in the future. His time in the North had a significant impact on him‚ as evidenced through his work‚ and enabled him to create vivid details in his works of fiction.   Dawson City persisted beyond the Rush‚ 1899. Source: Dawson City.ca   Though it couldn’t last forever‚ the Klondike Gold Rush left its mark on American and Canadian history. Parts of Alaska‚ Vancouver‚ Victoria‚ and Edmonton owe their existence to the impact the desire for gold had on the hearts and minds of frenzied prospectors. Common men and women took it upon themselves to attempt to conquer the frozen north‚ and in some small way‚ many were able to.

  The termination of Ottoman rule in the Balkans was a long and bloody process. After Greece gained its independence‚ other Balkan states followed. However‚ the recently independent states were not ethnically homogeneous. In almost every state‚ an ideology emerged proposing that all ethnic communities belonging to the nation but residing outside national boundaries should be incorporated. The ambition to expand over neighboring states’ territories‚ amplified by the fact that national identities in the region had not yet fully crystallized‚ caused a strained situation. In Greece‚ this irredentist ideal‚ known as the “Megali Idea” (“Great Idea”)‚ was steadily pursued until 1922.   The Birth of Greek Irredentism &; Megali Idea The gradual implementation of the “Megali Idea”. Source: Wikimedia Commons   When the Greek Kingdom achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1831‚ there were massive and homogeneous Greek communities still outside the states’ boundaries. An ideology aiming at the eventual incorporation of these communities and the respective territories was formulated and first heard in the Greek parliament by the middle of the 19th century. With few exceptions‚ the “Megali Idea” was loudly adopted by most political parties and whole-heartedly supported by the public opinion‚ both within the free state and abroad. The Greeks outside Greece were much fiercer supporters of the national ambition. They put it forward in their claims for independence and joining the homeland‚ with a notable example provided by the several Cretan rebellions against Ottoman rule. However‚ not all “Greek” communities had clearly formulated national identities. In Macedonia‚ for example‚ the people perceived themselves in more nuanced terms‚ such as “Greek-speaking” rather than just “Greek”.   Driven by the Megali Idea‚ the area of the Greek state began to expand after intensive diplomatic‚ political‚ and military efforts. After the defeat of the Ottomans in the Turkish-Russian War of 1877-1878‚ Greece was granted the region of Thessaly and the district of Arta in Epirus‚ still inhabited by large Muslim communities. The island of Crete continued to be hotly contested between Greece and the Ottoman Empire. Moreover‚ the situation in Macedonia also fueled tensions between Greece and Bulgaria‚ who started competing for control over the region as the official Ottoman rule weakened. The turbulent situation did not go unnoticed by European powers that started competing for influence over the newly independent states.   The War of 1897 The Battle of Farsala by Georgios Roilos‚ 1897-1903. Source: National Gallery‚ Athens   Tense relations between Greece and the Ottoman Empire‚ often sparked by the ongoing unrest in Crete‚ culminated in the short War of 1897‚ in which Greece experienced a humiliating defeat. It was the first time that the Megali Idea directly led to actual conflict. The Turkish Army‚ numerically and qualitatively superior‚ swiftly advanced as far south as Lamia‚ successively winning the battles of Farsala‚ Velestino‚ and Domokos. A similarly successful advance in Epirus eventually forced the Greek government to seek an armistice. The defeat was primarily the result of the Greek Army being outdated and archaic with regard to equipment‚ organization‚ and training‚ not aligning with its lofty‚ irredentist motivation. Interestingly‚ due to the Megali Idea‚ Greek public opinion was overall supportive of the war. But the bitter outcome made it absolutely clear that the need to modernize the state structure and institutions (notably the army) had become imperative.   Thanks to the intervention of the Great Powers‚ territorial losses were avoided‚ and Crete was granted a degree of autonomy. Reparations‚ however‚ had to be paid‚ and by 1898 the country defaulted and came under international economic control.   Moreover‚ the shame of the defeat‚ unbearable to younger army officers‚ uncovered a hitherto smoldering discontent against the high command and its choices. The commander-in-chief was Crown Prince Constantine‚ whose military studies‚ experience‚ and competence were bluntly doubted. The qualities of several army leaders‚ who owed their rank and posts mostly — if not exclusively — to royal favor‚ were also questioned. The Crown’s interference was projected as the primary reason behind the defeat. The need to assimilate European expertise in army organization also became evident. The Ottoman Army‚ after all‚ was already under the supervision of a German military mission.   The Macedonian Struggle The former Greek consulate in Ottoman-ruled Thessaloniki‚ now the Museum for the Macedonian Struggle. It was the main base for the organization and coordination of the Greek efforts during the Macedonian Struggle. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The defeat of 1897 proved to be a temporary stall. Still‚ it showed that the Greek Army was not ready for large-scale confrontations. Nor were the state politics or finances stable enough to support the irredentist expansion. The Ottomans also faced serious internal issues‚ with civil unrest spreading and control over some provinces growing thin. Moreover‚ a new problem had now arisen‚ namely the race for control over the multiethnic region of Macedonia. A gradual antagonism‚ primarily between Greece and Bulgaria‚ emerged in their effort to affiliate the populations‚ which had been divided based primarily on faith (Millet system). Hence‚ affiliation with a certain state was often experienced as arbitrarily imposed from above. With Greece reluctant to be openly involved in another war‚ the struggle with Bulgaria took the form of guerilla warfare. Greek bands (Makedonomachoi) clashed with the Bulgarian ones (Komitadjis) as well as Ottoman authorities.   The very nature of the struggle makes it hard to precisely define it in terms of places and dates. It is also difficult to assess the degree of official Greek interference. Support was granted secretly via institutions and societies‚ mostly based in Thessaloniki‚ the region’s administrative center. The force involved in the field comprised of irregulars and volunteers‚ usually led by Greek officers. The gradual and systematic implementation of the Megali Idea laid the ground for a better organized military endeavor in the future‚ in line with the formation of strong national identities by the locals.   However‚ there was an unforeseen consequence. The spread of nationalism was followed by inter-communal tensions‚ a situation made worse by the blurring of the line between civilians and irregular fighters. This was but a prelude to much more vicious attacks against civilians‚ something that drew European attention. The intensity of the clash started to fade when the Young Turks took over in 1908.   The “Goudi Movement” The 14th of September 1909‚ lithograph. Source: National Historical Museum   Understandably‚ the basic tool for implementing the Megali Idea was the army. Trained to believe in the ideal and alarmed by the defeat of 1897‚ many army officers sought reforms. Further disappointed over a period of political instability‚ they grouped together into the “Stratiotikos Syndesmos” (“Military League”) secret organization. The organization openly propagated its demands in August 1909. They demanded the modernization of the army by limiting royal interference (seen as a threat) and propagated a renewal in the political scene. As the list of demands widened in the quest for general social reform‚ the movement gathered public support. This “revolution” had to be addressed.   That year‚ 1909‚ was the first time in Greek history that the officer corps interfered in politics. But the group of — mostly young‚ lower‚ and middle rank — officers did not seek to seize power. They chose Venizelos‚ a hero of the Cretan revolutions but still largely unknown in Athens‚ to represent them and advocate their demands once negotiations with the government stalled. Most of the demands were met‚ and the revolution went almost bloodless. After the success of the movement‚ Venizelos and his newly formed Liberal Party won the majority in the late 1910 elections and proceeded with implementing the much-awaited reforms. In that sense‚ Goudi was a kind of revival or‚ better yet‚ the point that marked the modernization of the state. However‚ ruptures within society began to appear.   Origins of the Greek National Schism  The Greek Headquarters at Hadji Beylik‚ detail depicting Prince Constantine and Premier Venizelos‚ 1913. Source: War Museum‚ Athens   Until 1909‚ King George I and Constantine had ostensibly tried to push their agenda into the Greek Parliament and the army‚ even without public or political support. Since the Goudi Movement openly challenged that‚ the ensuing conflict was inevitable. In contrast‚ Venizelos’s success was based precisely on the fact that he promoted the majority’s interests. He also believed in the Megali Idea. Venizelos’ cabinet implemented numerous reforms‚ including a revision of the constitution and the speeding up of previous initiatives for the army’s modernization. Stratiotikos Syndesmos demanded the removal of Constantine from the post of commander-in-chief‚ reminding that he had established an exclusive mentality of clientelism. Venizelos carefully tried to restrict the crown’s influence on the army or at least counterbalance it by assigning officers sharing his political views to key posts. This way‚ he did not question the monarchy and avoided a direct confrontation with the court.   Still‚ not everyone saw Venizelos’ rapid modernization favorably. The “urban majority” supported him‚ but others felt threatened (although to what extent the reforms should be perceived in the context of a class struggle has been questioned). The Antivenizelists turned to the older parties and — in the case of opposing officers — to Prince Constantine‚ as their ranks and posts were often dependent on court favor. The dominant stature of Venizelos urged his political opponents to seek cooperation; since one of the few unifying factors in their loose alliance was the — often unconditional — loyalty to the throne‚ all anti-Liberal political formations (and their supporters) gradually came to be collectively known as “Royalists” (merging into a single party in 1915). Thus‚ a “dichotomy” in Greek politics had already begun to take shape. Many supporters of either side started becoming fanatical. The younger “rebellious” officers began to fratricide‚ too‚ motivated not only by patriotism but personal interest as well. They too lacked a single and clear unifying ideology and aspiration.   Preparations for War  Battleship Averof‚ now a naval museum. Source: Greek City Times   Thus‚ since 1909‚ two influential decision-makers started competing for control over the Greek political scene. Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos and Prince Constantine‚ who was soon reinstated as the commander-in-chief‚ had even greater authority than the Minister of the Military. With both leaders being quite charismatic‚ tensions were bound to arise. Contested topics‚ for example‚ were foreign policy‚ often centered on the Cretan issue and army organization. However‚ despite some initial such arguments‚ both leaders‚ as well as the political bodies they headed (Liberal and Royalist)‚ managed to push disagreements aside and cooperate (an important step being the reinstation of Constantine by Venizelos himself). Likewise‚ the Royal Army Staff was reformed‚ and certain Royalist staff officers‚ discharged due to political reasons in 1909‚ were restored. A French military mission was invited‚ and the equipment and organization of the force were modernized.  Battleship Averof‚ commissioned in 1908‚ was framed by newly commissioned smaller ships (including a submarine)‚ making the Greek navy dominant in the Aegean. The Greek forces also acquired their first aircrafts.   The reforms in the army had indeed swift and remarkable results. The achievement was hailed by both sides since both propagated the Megali Idea‚ even if different approaches to the ideal began to be heard (often linked to a supporter of a specific side). Most agreed however that‚ with a strengthened army‚ the time was right for territorial expansion. Venizelos now demonstrated his diplomatic skills too. Not only did he loosen restrictions on the court (in order to pacify internal dissent in the face of the upcoming war) but he also managed to join a coalition of Balkan states‚ driven by their own irredentist ideals‚ against the common enemy‚ the Ottoman Empire. Likewise‚ Venizelos had also tried to court Britain‚ contrary to the Royalist Germanophile stance. In 1911‚ Venizelos won again a landslide electoral victory and finally managed to pacify both the army and the political scene.   The First Balkan War (1912-1913) The Surrender of Thessaloniki at Topsin‚ Lithograph by K. Haupt. Source: Historical and Ethnological Society of Greece   The weakness of the Ottoman Empire became further evident when Austria annexed Bosnia (1908) and Italy Libya (1911). With Russian guidance‚ Bulgaria allied with Serbia in March 1912. Venizelos‚ sensing opportunity‚ joined the coalition with Montenegro following shortly after. The disorganized empire was caught off-guard‚ and the European powers did not take serious steps to prevent a war. The demands of the Balkan States on the empire were outrageous‚ and it responded by declaring war. The war effectively hid the disagreements and antagonism between neighboring states. Defeating the Ottomans was the common priority. Greece deployed a small yet dependable army‚ more important being the contribution of her navy. After victories in Sarantaporo and Grevena‚ the army was faced with a dilemma: either to move north to Manastrir and link with the allied forces or to liberate Thessaloniki.   This was the first serious argument between Constantine and Venizelos‚ with the Prince ordered to proceed to Thessaloniki against his own judgment. There was another victory at Yannitsa‚ and the city of Thessaloniki — much-contested between Bulgarians and Greeks — was captured by the latter. To the north‚ the borders with Serbia and Bulgaria were delineated. Unable to reinforce their last possessions in the Balkans‚ the Ottomans went into separate negotiations with each belligerent by late 1912. However‚ with Greece in particular‚ warfare would continue.   In January 1913‚ the Greek navy defeated the Ottomans in two battles and captured almost every island in the Aegean. In Epirus‚ Ioannina surrendered in February after a lengthy bloody siege. By March 1913‚ a conference in London marked the end of the war‚ although peace talks were far from easy. The Ottoman army tried to mount some final resistance‚ but it was clear that not much could be done against a Balkan coalition with a remarkable ability to cooperate on the battlefield and a boosted morale.   The Second Balkan War (1913)  Greek weapons and equipment from the Balkan Wars. Source: the Balkan War Museum‚ Thessaloniki   The gains of the war were remarkable for all Balkan allies. Greece nearly doubled its territory and population. Ottoman authority was wiped entirely off the Balkan peninsula‚ with the Bulgarian army having captured Edirne and reached Çatalca‚ the last defensive line before Istanbul. Albania was granted independence. But the war brought forward new issues. Greece and Serbia faced border disputes with Bulgaria; Greece and the Ottoman Empire quarreled over the status of certain islands. With tensions on the rise‚ in May 1913‚ Greece signed a secret defensive treaty with Serbia‚ one that would prove very important later‚ during the First World War. Despite intense diplomatic efforts‚ war broke out again.   Greece allied with Serbia against Bulgaria‚ while the Ottomans attacked and recaptured Edirne. The Bulgarians vehemently defended their positions on the Greek front but were eventually defeated in the bloody battles of Kilkis and Lachanas. The Greek army pushed through Bulgarian territory‚ but being on the verge of exhaustion‚ it was only spared from defeat due to the Romanian invasion of Bulgaria. Bulgaria‚ facing four enemies on four fronts‚ capitulated. The war might have lasted only one month (June 1913)‚ but it was as bloody and harsh as the previous clash. The violence became particularly evident when it came to the treatment of civilians. Communities with different ethnic identities were wiped out by the armies of a different nation. Especially in the case of Muslim communities‚ the displacement reached such proportions that resentment would be kept alive at least for the next decade. By July 1913‚ negotiations began at Bucharest. This was another chance for Venizelos to demonstrate his diplomatic skills. He managed to win the islands and the much-contested region of Kavala (Eastern Macedonia). In exchange‚ he forfeited any claims to northern Epirus‚ which became part of Albania.   Results: Uneasy Peace and Ensuing Problems  Muhacirler‚ refugee Muslim populations forced to abandon their residence in the Balkans fleeing en masse to the lands of the Ottoman Empire. Source reubensilverman.wordpress.com   With her armies united under a single banner‚ Greece emerged triumphant from the Balkan Wars. Yet‚ though the military effort overshadowed internal divisions‚ political antagonism was still active. With the Prince serving as the commander-in-chief‚ the victory not only absolved the court from any previous dismay but also raised Constantine’s reputation as the “invincible leader of a glorious army”. Moreover‚ with King George assassinated in 1913‚ Constantine ascended to the throne. Of course‚ Venizelos was still seen as the leader capable of helping the until then “insignificant” Greece cope with her shortcomings‚ pursue national interests‚ rekindle national sentiment‚ and grant the country diplomatic power once again. Indeed‚ the emergence of Venizelos coincided with an increased interest on behalf of European powers for the region. His skills in negotiating and attracting support allowed Greece to become an active and influential player in the diplomatic scene. Thus‚ Venizelos’ monopoly as the national hero was now threatened by Constantine. There was also now a somewhat balanced interaction: the King interfered in the political and diplomatic decision-making‚ but Venizelos also imposed certain directives on the army.   The political scene was not the only worrisome issue. Civilian violence in the Balkans had reached an unprecedented scale‚ and there were still minorities within the sovereignty of most states. The Aegean islands continued to cause tension between Greece and the Ottoman Empire‚ and the same was true for the region of Bulgarian-held Western Thrace‚ with the Greeks still having their eyes on it due to the Greek population there. The Bulgarians were likewise eager to reclaim Eastern Macedonia. More importantly‚ the Balkan states would soon find themselves engulfed in a much greater conflict. If it was Austria’s annexation of Bosnia that had spurred Balkan nationalism‚ the very same nationalism would now fire the fatal shot on the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The First World War was about to begin.

  The term “Holodomor” means “death by starvation” or “killing by starvation” in Ukrainian. It describes the brutal Soviet policy of collectivization of agriculture that forced private farmers to join collective farms. The policy resulted in mass hunger and starvation and claimed the lives of millions of Ukrainians. For the Ukrainian people‚ the Holodomor is regarded as a national tragedy fabricated by the Soviet authorities to suppress Ukrainian nationalism.   Prerequisites &; Causes of the Holodomor Genocide of Culture to Genocide of Nation by Bily Oleh‚ via HREC Education   World War I transformed the international system as the fall of European empires sparked independence movements in several countries‚ including Ukraine. Following the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917‚ Ukraine seized an opportunity for national self-determination. In January 1918‚ the interim administration of Ukraine proclaimed the creation of the Ukrainian People’s Republic. Only one year later‚ on January 22‚ 1919‚ the Ukrainian Unification Act formed a single nation-state from the territories previously split between the Austro-Hungarian and Russian Empires. Ukrainian independence‚ however‚ was short-lived. The Ukrainian government was compelled to renounce its independence on December 30‚ 1922. Following the establishment of the Soviet Union‚ the Ukrainian People’s Republic became the Soviet Republic of Ukraine.   Ukraine’s long history of struggles for independence against the Russian Empire did not just vanish into oblivion with the creation of the Soviet Republic of Ukraine. The Soviet authorities‚ just like Tsarist Russia‚ did not deny Ukrainians as people. But they fiercely opposed Ukraine as an independent nation. The Soviet leaders‚ aware of Ukraine’s relentless strive for independence‚ tried to suppress the resistance. With this objective in mind‚ the founding head of the government of Soviet Russia‚ Vladimir Lenin‚ initiated the policy of korenizatsiia‚ or indigenization‚ in 1923.   The policy aimed to instill Ukrainian loyalty to the Soviet regime‚ eventually suppressing national liberation movements in Ukraine. The strategy of indigenization allowed some degree of cultural autonomy. The Ukrainian language was widely used in schools‚ universities‚ cinema‚ and publishing. Although the Soviet regime tried to portray Ukrainian cultural heritage as “rural and outdated‚” the policy helped Ukrainians to form state‚ cultural‚ and scientific institutions and contributed to the development of national art and literature.   Preparation of grain for shipment to the filling station in the collective farm named after H. Petrovskyi. The village of Petrovo-Solonykha‚ the Mykolaiv Region‚ 1933‚ via Ukrainer   These developments transformed into the waves of the national revival in Ukraine in the mid-1920s. Famous Ukrainian communist and writer Mykola Khvylovyi’s slogan “Get away from Moscow!” illustrated Ukraine’s choice to focus on Europe‚ not Russia.   Besides cultural liberation‚ Vladimir Lenin launched the New Economic Policy (NEP) in March 1921. The policy aimed to alleviate food shortages and stop the subsequent peasant uprisings. It liberated the economy and allowed the functioning of private enterprises for independent farms and small businesses within the Soviet Union by granting the right for private trade to sell surplus goods and products.   In 1924‚ Joseph Stalin became the new leader of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. He disregarded Vladimir Lenin’s policies of indigenization and economic liberalization in Ukraine. Stalin feared Ukraine’s strengthened cultural and economic autonomy within the Soviet Union‚ thinking it would eventually result in a “Ukrainian national counterrevolution.”   By 1929‚ the Soviet regime under Joseph Stalin had arrested‚ convicted‚ or exiled most Ukrainian intellectuals‚ civil activists‚ or political elite who were at the forefront of Ukrainianization. Besides large-scale political repressions‚ Joseph Stalin canceled the NEP and the “indigenization” policy and introduced a new policy‚ often called the forced collectivization of agriculture.   By giving the Soviet government direct control over the grain produced in Ukraine‚ collectivization sought to meet the needs of the Soviet Union during its aggressive industrialization efforts. Additionally‚ the strategy required independent farmers to work for government collective farms and give up their land‚ cattle‚ and farming equipment. Due to its abundant resources and favorable conditions‚ Ukraine was known as the “granary of Europe” and the “all-Union bread storehouse.”  The successful execution of the new collectivization policy in Soviet Ukraine proved essential for the Soviet Union.   A woodcut “What is exported from Ukraine to Russia” from the album of graphics by Nil Khasevych‚ via Ukrainer   Farmers resisted‚ resulting in a wave of armed demonstrations during February and March of 1930. Even though peasants’ uprisings occurred in different Soviet republics‚ the Ukrainian one was particularly large in scale and fierce‚ with more than 4‚000 mass protests and 1.2 million Ukrainian peasants participating. Stalin’s response was repression‚ but it appeared that repression alone was unable to crush Ukrainian resistance.   In 1930‚ as part of the forced collectivization strategy‚ wealthy peasants were labeled as kulaks (“fist” in Russian)‚ declared enemies of the state‚ and deported to remote areas of the Soviet Union‚ mainly to Siberia and Kazakhstan. In 1930 alone‚ 113‚000 kulaks were forced to leave their homes.   By 1931‚ most of the peasant farms were collectivized but failed to deliver the desired results as the production could not meet the established high harvest quotas. The Soviet authorities decided to take almost all the crops from farmers‚ marking the start of total terror‚ a terror of hunger widely known as the Holodomor.   The Holodomor The man-made famine’s victims lying dead in the streets of Kharkiv‚ by Ewald Ammende‚ 1933‚ via Euromaidan Press   The unbearable situation brought on by malnutrition and a shortage of products was already visible at the start of 1932. Red flags were raised by representatives of the communal farms and Ukrainian communists led by Vlas Chubar‚ who pled with the Soviet leadership to take action. One of the letters‚ dated June 1932‚ stated the following:   “Farmers go to the fields and disappear. In a few days‚ their bodies are discovered and put in graves‚ completely without emotion‚ as if it were normal. And the next day you may already find the body of a person who has just dug graves for the others.”   The way out of the crisis was apparent: to halt or revise unrealistic grain quotas and provide humanitarian assistance to the affected Ukrainian population. Instead‚ Joseph Stalin issued the “Law of Spikelets” on August 7‚ 1932‚ further aggravating the situation. The law was intended to protect state-owned commodities on collective farms‚ especially grain. In reality‚ it became a tool for subjugating the Ukrainian population. The “Law of Spikelets” stipulated “execution with confiscation of all property and replacement in mitigating circumstances with imprisonment for at least 10 years with confiscation of all property‚” even for a small amount of food or grain that desperate peasants were trying to obtain for survival.   Another brutal element of Stalin’s terror regime in Ukraine was the so-called blacklisting of collective farms‚ villages‚ or districts in Soviet Ukraine that failed to meet the requested grain quotas. In practice‚ the decree was applied to every member of Ukrainian society whom the Soviet regime saw as an enemy or threat to communism. Stalin introduced the policy in November 1932 as a form of penalty. Affected regions were completely isolated and paralyzed as Joseph Stalin supplemented the blacklisting policy with the introduction of the travel ban in 1933.   Providing daily food ration to children during the Holodomor in Ukraine in 1932-1933‚ via European Network for Remembrance and Solidarity   The “black boards” were erected in the areas previously identified by the Soviet authorities. Residents of the areas were generally accused of counter-revolutionary activities‚ trying to damage the collectivization processes by not working hard enough to meet the harvest quotas or stealing grain. The Soviet military units controlled the area‚ ensuring that no individual could leave the territory in search of food. The policy of “black boards” covered the majority of Ukrainian districts‚ 252 out of 405‚ according to the historian Heorhii Papakin.   The Road of Sorrow by Nina Marchenk‚ via HREC Education   Joseph Stalin’s strategy succeeded. Not only did the Soviet government manage to export more than one million tons of Ukrainian grain during those years‚ but also Ukrainian peasants became dependent on the Soviet regime by controlling their work and reimbursement. By limiting access to food‚ the Soviet leadership ultimately gained control over every aspect of Ukrainian peasants’ lives‚ where there was no longer the idea of an independent Ukraine but only the idea of survival.   Stalin’s policy of forced agriculture collectivization and subsequent oppressive measures resulted in “the Sovietization of Ukraine‚ the destruction of the Ukrainian national idea‚ and the neutering of any Ukrainian challenge to Soviet Unity‚” as outlined by Pulitzer Prize-winning historian Anne Applebaum in her book Red Famine.   According to the United States Commission on the Ukraine Famine‚ conducted in 1988‚ witness Nadia Harmash responded with the following words when asked why people didn’t rise in revolt against the Soviet Union: “How can you rise when you’re dying of hunger?”   The Soviet Union in Denial &; the Response of the International Community A worker guarding stores of grain collected from the villages during the Holodomor in Ukraine in 1932-1933‚ via HREC Education   The majority of the traditional farming communities in Ukraine had been destroyed by 1933. Concerned with the rising death toll‚ the Soviet government repopulated affected areas with the new settlers from Russia‚ reduced grain procurement quotas‚ and eased restrictions on food and movement. The Soviet regime sent limited aid to the most affected areas of the Ukrainian SSR. With the arrival of the new harvesting season in the spring of 1933 and the little food aid‚ the famine slowly alleviated. The death rate gradually declined.   The Holodomor received little international political or humanitarian attention because of Soviet denial‚ censorship‚ and suppression of information regarding the scope of the disaster. The League of Nations and several European nations’ meager efforts were constrained and faced difficult obstacles. The growing Nazi influence in Germany and Japan’s expansionist policies forced Western countries‚ especially the United States under President Franklin D. Roosevelt‚ to ignore any worrying developments originating from the Soviet Union.   The Soviet Union completely denied the tragic famine in Ukraine. The Executive Committee for Communist Parties‚ the Politburo‚ masked the Soviet-staged starvation in Ukraine as a consequence of the adverse climate and Kulak corruption.   The Holodomor was extensively employed as propaganda against Stalin’s policies when Nazi Germany invaded Soviet Ukraine in June 1941. Joseph Stalin managed to successfully use this opportunity to label any individual‚ including representatives of the mass media and historians interested in the true causes of the famine in Ukraine‚ as “fascists” and “Nazis” influenced by Adolf Hitler’s propaganda.   Tuesday 19th February 1935‚ NY Journal – Page 12‚ via Gareth Jones   Additionally‚ the Soviet leadership actively engaged in media propaganda internationally. Former Prime Minister of France Édouard Herriot and famous writers such as Bernard Shaw‚ Herbert Wells‚ and The New York Times correspondent Walter Duranty were influenced by Soviet authorities to spread disinformation regarding the Holodomor. For example‚ Bernard Shaw‚ who visited the Soviet Union in 1931‚ openly declared that he had not noticed hunger or malnutrition in children or adults‚ as did the New Yorker correspondent Walter Duranty.   The first person to openly address the terror of Holodomor was Ukrainian poet Ivan Drach‚ following the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in Ukraine in 1986. In this case‚ as well‚ the Soviet authorities denied the accident and censored the information. Ivan Drach outlined the tragic history of famine in Ukraine as an example of how damaging official silence can be.   Outcome &; Legacy of the Holodomor   Joseph Stalin’s forced collectivization of agriculture‚ unrealistically high quotas on grain‚ and accompanying repressions claimed the lives of around 3.9 million Ukrainians between 1932 and 1933. As estimated by the demographers from the Ukrainian Institute of Demographic and Social Studies and the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill in 2015‚ at its peak in June 1933‚ 28‚000 Ukrainians died every day‚ 1168 every hour‚ and 20 every minute. The results were catastrophic. Historians described Holodomor as “what must count as one of the greatest man-made horrors in a century particularly full of them.”   Holodomor memorial in Ukraine‚ via Holodomor Museum‚ Kyiv   Even though the Soviet officials were eagerly trying to erase the memory of Holodomor in Ukraine and generally in the Soviet Union‚ it was forever inscribed in the collective memory of the Ukrainian people. In the short term‚ the terror by hunger suppressed nationalism and denied Ukrainians the right to grieve personal and national traumas‚ slowing down the process of state-building.   In the long term‚ however‚ Stalin’s strategy failed; the resentment and hatred towards the Soviet Union further solidified Ukrainian nationalism‚ and when the independent Ukrainian state was finally formed after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991‚ Holodomor became one of the most influential and integral parts of the Ukrainian national identity. Holodomor Remembrance Day is remembered on the fourth Saturday of November annually. The Ukrainian government invested in funding research‚ educational‚ and informative campaigns to raise awareness about the Holodomor and keep the memory of the tragic events and their victims.   The Holodomor became a focal point in the history of Ukraine and played a significant role in determining its foreign policy‚ particularly regarding the Russian Federation. In 2003‚ the United Nations recognized that the mass hunger in the Soviet Republic of Ukraine resulted from the totalitarian Soviet regime’s unjust policies and cruel attitudes. In March 2008‚ the parliament of Ukraine (Rada) and 19 other nations recognized the Soviet policies of 1932–1933 as genocide against the Ukrainian people. The Holodomor is also regarded as a crime against humanity by the resolution passed by the European Parliament on October 23‚ 2008.

  Despite its fierce-sounding name‚ Kido Butai only means “mobile force” in Japanese‚ better known as the 1st Air Fleet. Used as an organizational name‚ Kido Butai was Japan’s elite carrier strike force. This powerful group was established in 1941‚ just before Japan entered World War II. Centered on aircraft carriers‚ the group included battleships‚ cruisers‚ destroyers‚ and other support ships. Only the best personnel served in the Kido Butai. This powerful group gave Japan a formidable striking force early in World War II.   The Reasons Behind the Kido Butai IJN Akagi with Zero Fighter 1941 Source: Wikimedia Commons   International naval limitation treaties between 1922 and 1936 limited Japan’s navy to sixty percent of the U.S. and Britain’s navies. Many ships could not exceed fixed tonnage limits. Japan felt the signers should have equal footing. Japan abandoned the treaties and set out to overcome any naval disadvantages.   Revamp and Revolutionize The Japanese Nakajima Kate torpedo bomber. Source: MSN   Japan began to build carriers ambitiously in the 1930s; by 1939‚ it possessed six modern carriers. The Japanese Navy also built a small officer core that understood carrier operations and this group won the battleships versus airpower argument. This core gathered or trained others‚ many being China War veterans‚ to high standards. Japan understood what carrier planes could do – strike at long distances unexpectedly. Therefore‚ Japan developed outstanding planes like the Mitsubishi Zero fighter and the Nakajima Kate torpedo bombers. Most naval planes were a generation behind these in terms of performance and technology.   The Offensive Edge Admiral Yamamoto‚ Commander Source: Wikimedia Commons   The next dilemma was doctrine. The Japanese Navy realized that grouping their carriers forged a combined airborne strike force not seen prior. Carriers previously operated alone or in twos. Six modern carriers combined with their squadrons meant hundreds of planes could be brought to bear. Think of a naval Blitzkrieg; it became dogma‚ giving Japan a distinct advantage. In April 1941‚ this Fleet was organized as the First Air Fleet.    Early Successes Three United States Battleships being attacked by Japanese bombers in Pearl Harbor‚ Hawaii‚ on December 7‚ 1941‚ Source: NPR   Imperial Japan entered World War II with the December 8th attacks on Pearl Harbor and other Asian countries. The First Air Fleet hit Pearl Harbor‚ as the U.S. Navy was deemed the biggest Pacific threat. The pilots and crews explicitly trained for this attack‚ using mockups of the American base. Some three hundred sixty planes in two waves sank four battleships but did not find the crucial American carriers.   Starting in 1942‚ the Fleet sailed across the Pacific and beyond. These raids included strikes on British targets in the Indian Ocean‚ Australia‚ and New Guinea. Operations supporting the Army took place in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. The Fleet suffered few losses due to their skill and weaker opponents.   The First Real Brawl USS Lexington sinking Source: WW2DB   The first real contest for Japan’s mighty carrier force came in May 1942 during the Battle of the Coral Sea‚ the first carrier-only battle. The Japanese sought to cut American communications with Australia and invade New Guinea. The Coral Sea was the keystone for these operations. The U.S. knew this couldn’t be allowed. Task Force 17‚ with carriers Lexington and Yorktown‚ sailed in. The First Air Fleet committed the two big carriers‚ Zuikaku and Shokaku.   In a first-of-its-kind battle‚ only the highly trained aircrews clashed – no ships‚ and the U.S. routed the Japanese. The Lexington was sunk‚ and Yorktown damaged. The U.S. Navy damaged the Shokaku and decimated Japanese aircrews. Neither Fleet carrier would be available for the next Yamato planned operation.   The Massive Gamble Midway Island 1942 Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Kido Butai’s biggest gamble came at the June 1942 Battle of Midway. Yamamoto hoped to occupy Midway Atoll for future attacks against Pearl Harbor‚ pressuring America to negotiate to end the war. Preparations were made in complete secrecy. However‚ the U.S. Navy long cracked Japan’s encrypted radio codes and prepared a response. Japan’s Combined Fleet‚ led by the First Air Fleet‚ sailed in late May. The U.S. Navy positioned itself northwest of Midway waiting. Japan struck first‚ bombing Midway‚ but intense aerial battles soon started. American dive bombers caught the First Air Fleet exposed‚ its Zero fighters decimating U.S. Navy torpedo bombers. Bombs sank all four carriers and‚ with them‚ hundreds of veteran aviators and naval crew.   A Brutal Aftermath A dauntless dive bomber during the battles of Midway. Source: Seradata   Midway was Kido Butai’s swansong. The loss of four fleet carriers‚ hundreds of irreplaceable specialist aircrews‚ and sailors crippled the First Air Fleet. As the war revved up‚ a downward spiral ensued. Crews received half the previous training. Japan struggled to replace the lost carriers in a futile attritional war. The Kido Butai proved to be unstoppable for six months. In the naval battlegrounds of the early war‚ these exceptional crews and airmen were unparalleled. This proved to be their Achilles’ heel; no conditions existed where their skills could be re-created.

  The first of the Kennedys to arrive on American soil from their homeland of Ireland did so in an attempt to escape the potato famine. Stemming from Boston‚ the family built an empire and a political dynasty that still holds power in the modern day. Patrick Joseph Kennedy first became heavily involved in the Boston Democratic Party in the late 19th century‚ and his descendants followed suit‚ becoming presidents‚ members of Congress‚ and more. This is the story of nine of the most notable Kennedy family members.   1. Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. Source: JFK Hyannis Museum   Born in Boston in 1888‚ Joseph P. Kennedy was the son of self-made businessman and politician Patrick James (PJ) Kennedy. Joseph Kennedy was born during his father’s 3rd term in the Massachusetts House of Representatives. As he grew old‚ it became apparent that his father’s business acumen and political ambitions were passed down to his son.   Aside from being an investor in real estate‚ entertainment‚ and alcohol sales and gaining significant amounts of wealth from such businesses‚ Kennedy also dabbled in politics. He served as a US Securities and Exchange Commission chairman and the American ambassador to the United Kingdom under President Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1938.   A Portrait of the Kennedy Family in 1939. Source: National Portrait Gallery of the UK   However‚ with tensions running high in Europe‚ Kennedy took an appeasement stance toward the Nazis‚ a policy with which the people of the US had grown weary. Ultimately‚ Kennedy resigned in 1940‚ but his commitment to public service was enough to inspire the majority of his nine children‚ of whom he would outlive four.   2. Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy Rose Kennedy‚ matriarch of the Kennedy family. Source: biography.com   Born in Boston in 1890‚ Rose Fitzgerald was the eldest daughter of Boston Mayor John “Honey Fitz” Fitzgerald. Rose grew up in the public spotlight and as a member of one of the most wealthy families in the city. She was well-educated and a socialite and eventually fell in love with the youngest bank president in US history‚ Joseph P. Kennedy.   Rose’s father did not like Kennedy‚ but Rose kept up her courtship with him. The couple married in 1914 and went on to have nine children during their nearly six-decade marriage. Rose raised her children with political ambition and hope in the United States’ Democratic system‚ and many of them would go on to be incredibly successful. However‚ her and her family’s life was also marred by tragedy.   The eldest Kennedy daughter‚ Rosemary‚ was born with a learning disability and underwent a lobotomy in an attempt to treat the disability in 1941. The procedure was disastrous‚ leaving Rosemary institutionalized for the rest of her life. Her eldest son‚ Joe Jr.‚ died in combat three years later when his US Navy plane exploded during a secret mission. Unfortunately‚ this would not be the last blow to Rose’s children‚ as one daughter‚ Kathleen‚ died in 1948 in a plane crash‚ while two of her sons were assassinated in 1963 and 1968. She lost her husband the same year her son‚ Robert‚ was killed. Rose Kennedy was a staunch Catholic and was named a Papal countess before her death. She died in 1995 at the age of 104‚ and her son‚ Ted‚ eulogized her by saying‚ “She sustained us in the saddest times — by her faith in God‚ which was the greatest gift she gave us—and by the strength of her character‚ which was a combination of the sweetest gentleness and the most tempered steel.”   3. John F. Kennedy A portrait of John F. Kennedy in the Oval Office. Source: The Los Angeles Times   The second-born of Joseph and Rose was John Fitzgerald Kennedy‚ a son they named after Rose’s father. John was born in 1917‚ and by 1920‚ it was apparent that he was a sickly child. He contracted scarlet fever‚ from which he almost died when he was only three years old‚ and his health continued to plague him for the rest of his life.   Despite his sickly nature‚ John‚ better known as Jack‚ was attractive‚ athletic‚ and strove to succeed. Though he was not the best student‚ he graduated from Harvard and later joined the US Navy during World War II. While his brother‚ Joe Jr.‚ was killed in action in 1944 when his plane exploded‚ Jack came back from the Pacific front a decorated hero. He‚ along with 11 other Naval officers‚ had survived an attack on their ship from the Japanese near the Solomon Islands. To survive‚ the men‚ including Kennedy‚ had to swim several miles until they reached land and help arrived.   After his military career ended‚ Jack began what would be an incredibly successful political career. He first served as a member of the House of Representatives‚ then as a Senator for Massachusetts‚ before finally becoming the 35th president of the United States in 1960. While he was a senator‚ he also married Jaqueline Bouvier‚ a reporter for the Washington-Herald who was 12 years his junior.   President Kennedy and the First Lady in the presidential motorcade in Dallas‚ November 22‚ 1963. Source: Time   Kennedy was the youngest president ever to be elected at only 43 years old‚ and his administration took the reins at the height of the Cold War. The Kennedy administration only narrowly avoided nuclear war with the Soviet Union after the failed Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis and began what would be known as the Space Race with the USSR as well. Kennedy’s presidency was marked by the tension felt in the world at the time‚ both in the context of the Cold War and the struggle for Civil Rights in America.   In a bid to secure his reelection‚ Kennedy went on tour in the Autumn of 1963‚ where he was to make several stops in traditionally conservative states‚ such as Texas. During one such stop in Dallas‚ on November 22‚ 1963‚ Kennedy was shot while riding in a parade being held in his honor. Lee Harvey Oswald‚ the assassin‚ was apprehended quickly‚ but less than 24 hours later‚ he‚ too‚ was assassinated by Jack Ruby.   John F. Kennedy’s legacy sticks in the minds of people all over the world. His short time in office was significant for the strides he took to make life better for all Americans. His assassination is controversial and has inspired several conspiracy theories. Kennedy made plenty of enemies while in office‚ but he is remembered fondly by the majority of Americans today.   4. Robert F. Kennedy Robert F. Kennedy on his brother’s campaign trail in 1960. Source: PBS   Rose and Joseph Sr.’s seventh child was Robert F. Kennedy‚ better known as Bobby or RFK. He followed in the footsteps of his older brothers‚ first by serving in the Navy and then graduating from Harvard. Bobby Kennedy went on to get a law degree from the University of Virginia and got a job with the Justice Department‚ but then left his post to help campaign for his brother‚ Jack‚ in 1952.   Bobby Kennedy was also a part of JFK’s administration in the White House. He served as the United States Attorney General‚ where his main focus was cracking down on organized crime. He also was a major advocate for Civil Rights‚ and his progressive ideals would be incorporated into his political career for the rest of his life.   After his brother was assassinated in 1963‚ Bobby remained in government at the national level‚ becoming a senator for Massachusetts in 1964. Again‚ he followed in his brother’s footsteps when he ran as the Democratic presidential candidate in 1968.   Unfortunately‚ Bobby continued to follow a similar trajectory to his brother in death as well. Shortly after winning the influential California Democratic Primary‚ Robert F. Kennedy was shot in the kitchen of the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles on June 5‚ 1968. The assassin was a young Palestinian man named Sirhan Sirhan‚ who allegedly shot Kennedy over his support of Israel.   5. Ted Kennedy Sen. Edward Kennedy talks with reporters before appearing on “Face the Nation‚” Jan. 29‚ 1978‚ in Washington. Source: The Wall Street Journal   The youngest of the Kennedy siblings was Edward “Ted” Kennedy‚ born in 1932. He quickly followed in his family’s well-tread footsteps by completing his degree in the Ivy League and beginning a life of public service after graduating from the University of Virginia’s Law program in 1959.   After his brother Jack’s election as president‚ Ted was elected to fill his older brother’s seat as a Senator of Massachusetts. He would remain in office for the rest of his life‚ though he would go no higher than the Senate. Though Ted’s ambitions were bigger‚ the infamous 1969 Chappaquiddick Incident would stain his character for the remainder of his life.   Kennedy was driving his brother’s former campaign worker‚ Mary Jo Kopechne‚ home from a party when he crashed his car in a lake and left his passenger to die. Kopechne suffocated in the sealed cab of the car‚ and Kennedy walked away from the incident without any injuries. When he tried to run for president in 1980‚ his campaign was ultimately unsuccessful‚ probably in no small part due to his involvement in Kopechne’s bizarre and untimely death.   Regardless of his unsuccessful rise in American politics‚ Ted Kennedy was the third-longest-serving Senator in American history when he died in 2009. He was known as the “Lion of the Senate” for his fierce defense of progressive policies and his unwavering commitment to social and economic justice.   6. Eunice Kennedy Shriver Shriver encourages Special Olympian Karen Fosdick on her way to a gold medal in 1983. Source: NPR   The fifth Kennedy child was Eunice Kennedy‚ born in 1921. Like the rest of her siblings‚ she was well-educated and dedicated to her ambitions. Eunice graduated with a degree in sociology from Stanford in 1943 and went on to serve in the Department of State and the Department of Justice before eventually becoming a social worker for a women’s penitentiary in West Virginia.   After moving to Chicago to focus more on her career in social work‚ Eunice joined and became head of the Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. Foundation‚ which sought to help those with intellectual disabilities. This was close to Eunice’s heart‚ as she was deeply affected by her sister Rosemary’s lobotomy and subsequent institutionalization.   In 1968‚ with the spirit of her sister in mind‚ Eunice founded the Special Olympics. She initially began with a summer camp for children with disabilities at her home in Maryland‚ but the organization grew until the First International Special Olympic Games were held at Soldier Field in Chicago in the summer of 1968.   Eunice Kennedy Shriver was honored with many awards for her work with the Special Olympics‚ including the Presidential Medal of Freedom‚ the Legion of Honor‚ and the Prix de la Couronne Française. She was married to Sergeant Shriver‚ a former US Ambassador to France and US Vice Presidential candidate‚ with whom Eunice had five children‚ including the journalist and former First Lady of California‚ Maria Shriver.   7. Jackie Kennedy Onassis Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis‚ pictured in 1960. Source: The Wall Street Journal   Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy Onassis was born in 1929 to a wealthy New York stock broker‚ John Bouvier. She was raised in the lap of luxury in the Hamptons and was well-educated‚ graduating from George Washington University with a degree in French literature in 1951. Onassis then became a reporter for the Washington-Herald and soon met Senator John F. Kennedy in 1952.   The couple was married a year later and welcomed their two children‚ Caroline and John F. Kennedy Jr.‚ in 1957 and 1960‚ respectively. The same year that her son was born‚ Jackie was seemingly catapulted into the spotlight when she became the youngest First Lady in American history at 31 years old. She became an icon in the United States‚ from her learnedness to her style to how she decorated the White House.   Jackie was a scholar‚ which carried over into her restoration work in the White House. She went to great lengths to restore the interior with pieces owned by several former American leaders‚ such as George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. She saw the project not as a redecoration but as a restoration of the White House as a symbol of America‚ filled with symbols of American history.   Jackie Kennedy’s iconic pink suit and pillbox hat. Source: Town &; Country Magazine   When her husband was assassinated in 1963‚ Jackie was sitting in the seat next to him. Her stoic manner during that day made her even more respected‚ and her blood-stained dress and hat have become symbolic of the tragedy. During this period‚ she was famous for coining the term “the Camelot Era‚” which came to define the legendary administration in the years to come.   Jackie Kennedy remarried in 1968 to Aristotle Onassis‚ a Greek shipping magnate. The couple was only married for seven years before Onassis’s untimely death in 1975. Jackie Kennedy Onassis went on to become an editor‚ first at Viking Press and then at Doubleday. She passed away in 1994 at the age of 64 from cancer and is buried next to her first husband‚ John F. Kennedy‚ in Arlington National Cemetery.   8. &; 9. John F. Kennedy Jr. &; Caroline Kennedy Caroline Kennedy stands between her parents while her mother holds John F. Kennedy Jr. in 1961. Source: The JFK Library   The two children of Jackie and John F. Kennedy are Caroline and John F. Kennedy Jr. Caroline‚ the eldest‚ was born in 1957 and has lived her life relatively out of the limelight‚ considering the massive fame and notoriety of her family and their personal lives.   Caroline attended Harvard‚ like her father‚ and got her law degree from Columbia University. She married Edwin Schlossberg‚ a designer‚ in 1986 after meeting him at the Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ where the pair worked. They have three children. The most that Caroline has ever been in the spotlight is under the administration of President Barack Obama‚ for whom Caroline served as Ambassador to Japan from 2013 to 2017.   John F. Kennedy Jr. was more well-known to the public‚ beginning with the photo of his salute to his father’s casket when he was only three years old. JFK Jr. quickly became one of the country’s most eligible bachelors as he grew older. Despite his family’s long legacy at Harvard‚ JFK Jr. received his undergraduate degree from Brown University and his law degree from New York University.   JFK Jr.’s career changed throughout the years‚ from being a Manhattan assistant district attorney to acting to finally founding and publishing George‚ a magazine that sought to fuse politics and entertainment. In 1996‚ he married Carolyn Bessette‚ but the couple’s lives were sadly cut short when‚ in 1999‚ JFK Jr. accidentally flew his plane into the Atlantic Ocean‚ killing himself‚ his wife‚ and his sister-in-law.

  A banana tree at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia caused a stir; as Frederick Upham Adams recalled‚ “…it was surrounded by a group of spectators‚ many of whom would have been delighted to have plucked a banana…this was the most romantic of all the innumerable things I had seen in any of the vast buildings. It was the tangible‚ living‚ and expressive symbol of the far-distant and mysterious tropics.”   Bananas are currently the most consumed fruit in the country. Yet before 1870‚ only 0.0001 percent of the population had seen one. How‚ then‚ did bananas and other tropical fruits become so ubiquitous today?   Presence in American Diet &; History Horticultural Hall by Thompson Westcott‚ 1876. Source: Free Library of Philadelphia   The modern American diet is marked by overconsumption of calories and high-processed food. These factors are linked to increased mortality rates and multiple adverse health outcomes. One may assume that members of the early industrial society ate a more balanced diet. Yet‚ in some surprising ways‚ the nutritional variety has increased over the years.   Estimates have Americans in 2000 eating 129 pounds of fresh fruit annually per person‚ compared to 80 pounds in 1800. Nineteenth-century inhabitants relied on meat‚ dairy‚ and grains as these were the most available means to fill their stomachs. Yet in 1900‚ residents ate 219 pounds yearly‚ which decreased 53 percent over the next 50 years. What are the reasons for this sudden rise and fall?   From the colonial period until the late 1800s‚ fruits and vegetables were consumed almost solely from local sources. Crops not native to the United States‚ namely tropical fruits such as bananas‚ were rare treats and pricey status symbols.   Cream Jug by William Greatbatch‚ ca. 1758. Source: The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation   Under sail‚ tropical fruits were an afterthought in shipments to Atlantic ports. Great care and speed needed to be undertaken in their transport. Pineapples were grown as a novelty among America’s wealthy colonial planter class and symbolized hospitality‚ but they were not a prominent food source. Like bananas and other Caribbean staples‚ they were challenging to cultivate stateside due to climactic differences.   Limited cargoes of bananas from Cuba and the Bahamas‚ aboard “pineapple schooners‚” arrived in New York City beginning in 1804. After the Civil War‚ shipping restrictions were removed‚ and merchants purchased citrus fruits‚ bananas‚ and coconuts directly from Jamaican farmers.   Preservation of Tropical Fruits Over Long Distances Refrigerated Railroad Car Owned and Operated by Fruit Growers Express‚ built in March 1924. Source: Collections of The Henry Ford‚ Dearborn   Steam ignited the First Industrial Revolution. Steam-powered vessels existed in the late 1800s‚ yet sailing remained the dominant form of water transportation. Sailboats ferried as much as two-thirds of Jamaican fruit exports in 1878. Within four years‚ the trend reversed‚ with steamers holding two-thirds of the trade.   The advent of steamships in the 1880s contributed to a drastic increase in imports of tropical fruits. These quicker boats guaranteed a steady supply with less concern over goods spoiling.   Refrigerated railroad cars transported produce great distances overland. Chilled meat cars existed by 1875‚ but Samuel Rumph designed the first made specifically for fruit that year. Rumph‚ a Georgia peach grower‚ utilized his invention to bring his products to far-off markets. Businessmen of the early tropical fruit trade soon adopted this technique.   Despite the name “refrigerator cars‚” no mechanical cooling occurred except the axles spinning fans inside the container. Forty-five-to-fifty-five-pound blocks of ice kept temperatures low but could melt within an hour. Stations to replenish ice were placed along the track‚ with ice harvesting and storage facilities supporting the operation.   Fruit companies often owned and staffed rail lines‚ with trained workers carefully handling the delicate products. In the summer‚ laborers iced down the cars often. During winter‚ they packed cars with straw to maintain the temperature.   Canned Foods‚ From Soldiers to Shelves Deviled Ham from the William Underwood Company‚ founded in 1822. Source: John Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic Site‚ Brookline   Innovation also occurred in the preservation process. The first canning techniques were discovered in 1810 when Frenchman Nicolas Appert and Englishman Peter Durand developed separate methods. Using glass and tin‚ respectively‚ as containers‚ their systems prolonged the shelf life of foods.   Kensett and Co.‚ based in New York City‚ marketed their canned goods to naval and trade vessel captains in the 1820s. Business grew modestly for the first decades until increasing westward expansion‚ the Mexican-American War‚ the California Gold Rush‚ and the Civil War made the need to preserve fresh foods over long distances apparent.   Cans also provided a medium for advertisements. Transportation expanded the grower’s products into new markets‚ generating a desire for brand recognition. Logos and promotional media were displayed on the product’s surface. The devil on the cans shown above first appeared in 1870 and is the oldest continuing American food trademark.   Great White Fleet- United Fruit Company‚ by United Fruit Company‚ 1896-1890. Source: Thomas Crane Public Library‚ Quincy   The can opener was introduced in 1860 by Ezra J. Warner. Previously‚ cans were opened with a hammer and chisel. This process was merely an inconvenience for frontiersmen and soldiers but a real challenge for home consumers.   Kensett began canning pineapples in 1865 that were imported into Baltimore from the West Indies. Kensett’s operation contributed to creating the fruit-packing industry alongside the existing oyster-packing business in Baltimore. An 1895 discovery found that dispensing pressurized steam into the cans killed bacteria‚ lengthening shelf life even more.   Combination of Companies to a Conglomerate Advertisement for United Fruit Company’s Great White Fleet by United Fruit Company‚ 1920. Source: Boston College Department of History   Boston Harbor became the leading site for importing tropical fruit in the closing decades of the nineteenth century. Coconuts‚ oranges‚ mangoes‚ lemons‚ avocados‚ and several other fruits were introduced to Boston wharves in the 1880s.   Captain Lorenzo Dow Baker made a considerable profit on a banana shipment in 1870‚ which prompted him to unite with businessman Andrew Preston to form the Boston Fruit Company in 1885. This became the largest of over sixty similar fruit companies importing tropical products from Central America and the Caribbean.   The Boston Fruit Company expanded‚ establishing and acquiring plantations in Jamaica. Two of the fastest Atlantic steamships were also purchased outright. This allowed the company to control its transport’s cargo‚ schedules‚ and crew. Eventually‚ Boston Fruit owned the most extensive private fleet in the world‚ christened the Great White Fleet. In 1899‚ Boston Fruit was consolidated with other companies into the United Fruit Company. This conglomerate eventually boasted a vast fleet of refrigerated steamships and operated a near-monopoly on the tropical fruit business.   Interior of Tela hospital wards and corridors by United Fruit Company‚ 1923. Source: Harvard Business School‚ Cambridge   United Fruit exercised control of the entire supply chain. Housing and medical facilities were constructed for their workforce. They developed mechanically refrigerated ships in 1904‚ which worked similarly to modern refrigerators. The cargo space used carbon dioxide gas as a cooling agent. The gas was condensed and turned to liquid‚ then back to gas to repeat the process. Refrigeration allowed bananas and other Caribbean fruits to be exported as far as Europe before spoiling. Shortly after‚ the company established the Tropical Radio and Telegraph Company to maintain communication between its properties.   Aggressive and misleading advertising by United Fruit began in 1917. Scientists were paid to write positively about the banana‚ massively increasing their sales. The company also offered cruises aboard ships from their fleet‚ marketing the tropics as secluded lands of paradise and adventure. Trips featured romanticized tours of the countries and plantations they controlled‚ carefully coordinated to mask the realities of plantation labor.   Oppression and Resistance in “Banana Republics” Banana Plantation‚ by Adolphe Duperly‚ 1900-1909. Source: The New York Public Library Digital Collections   Authoritarian states in Central America‚ such as Guatemala and Costa Rica‚ struck deals with corporations for infrastructure and other services. Underpaid and overworked laborers in these nations were severely exploited to feed American families. Jamaica also suffered from labor and land exploitation as corporations bought all available farmland.   Foreign traders owned an overwhelming number of plantations and abused their workforce. Indigenous populations‚ Afro-Jamaican workers‚ and indentured servants from South Asia were subjugated. Jamaica was under British control‚ and its colonial government prioritized exports over the well-being of its inhabitants. Countries such as these were called “banana republics” due to their reliance on a single export‚ a term considered offensive today.   Coco River Patrol‚ Nicaragua‚ 1929. Source: USMC Archives   From 1898 until 1934‚ the United States staged a series of military interventions in banana republics. These were called the “banana wars‚” characterized by American servicemen acting to protect the interests of the fruit trade. Sometimes‚ the companies themselves orchestrated action. In 1911‚ the Cuyamel Fruit Company supported a Honduran coup that ousted their president in favor of their chosen candidate.   In October 1928‚ Colombian workers organized a strike for better labor conditions that lasted two months. The Colombian Armed Forces opened fire on the protestors at the behest of United Fruit on December 5th. Over one thousand laborers were murdered in the ensuing bloodshed.   The CIA covertly supported a 1954 coup that overthrew the democratically elected Guatemalan president to protect the United Fruit Company. For three decades thereafter‚ Guatemala was ravaged by civil war and commanded by US-backed dictators. These thirty years of bloodshed claimed the lives of 200‚000 civilians.   Legacies of the colonial system continue in many of the affected countries. Small farmers in Jamaica hold scarcely more land or share in exports than they did in the early 1900s. Sixty-five percent of Guatemalan farmland is owned by only two percent of Guatemala’s farming companies. Practices from this era hinder the well-being of the nations and the prospects of their citizens today.   Tropical Fruits: Fading Trend‚ But Still a Mainstay Eat These Every Day‚ by Work Projects Administration‚ 1941-1943. Source: Library of Congress   As fruit consumption increased‚ demand for other staples did as well. The same innovations that benefitted tropical fruit importers‚ particularly refrigerated railcars‚ also aided the meat industry. Meat‚ particularly beef‚ remained at the center of American diets‚ along with potatoes. Fruits cultivated stateside‚ such as apples‚ cherries‚ and berries‚ always retained their place at the table.   Nutrition science began in Boston in the early 1900s‚ just as fruit companies had decades prior. Early nutritionists concerned themselves only with protein‚ carbohydrates‚ fats‚ and water‚ neglecting the value of fruits in a diet. The Great Depression‚ coupled with a 1930 tariff‚ reduced agricultural imports. Labor movements in Latin America frightened shareholders in colonial corporations. In response‚ the United Fruit Company sold most of its properties in the 1960s. In subsequent decades‚ processed foods became a significantly larger share of American cuisine.   The marked increase in fruit consumption among the American public was due to the mass industrialization of transportation and trade. Technological optimizations increased the quality of life for countless consumers. Individuals eagerly consumed food once heralded as a distant‚ rare delicacy. This came at the expense of multinational corporations‚ sometimes working with the Federal government‚ exploiting foreign nations. This legacy shapes the global society today and deserves thorough examination‚ so mistakes are not repeated.

  Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu‚ affectionately known as “The Arch‚” was a campaigner for peace and a firm believer in humanity. Widely regarded as South Africa’s Moral Conscience‚ he received a Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts in 1984.   He never wanted to get involved in politics. He wanted just to keep his head in the church‚ but he could not ignore what was happening around him in South Africa. The brutal apartheid regime was a crime against humanity‚ and humanity was at the core of Desmond Tutu’s belief.   With his jovial and personable manner‚ Desmond Tutu became much loved by the people of South Africa. And it was his beautiful character and wise insight that changed the hearts of many whose hearts had been hardened by hate.   Early Life of Desmond Tutu Street art of Desmond Tutu in Cape Town by Brian Rolfe. Source: Street Art Cities   Desmond Tutu was born on October 7‚ 1931 in Klerksdorp in the Transvaal. He was one of three children‚ with an older and a younger sister. His father was the principal at a Methodist school‚ but despite this‚ the family was poor. They were Methodists but later changed denominations and became Anglican.   His family moved around a lot‚ and Desmond attended many schools before 1945 when he enrolled in the Johannesburg Bantu High School. He was an excellent student‚ doing well academically and playing rugby. He developed a passion for the sport‚ which would last his entire life.   Source: Shayne Robinson   He lived in an Anglican hostel near the Church of Christ the King in Sophiatown‚ and it was at the church where he met Trevor Huddleston‚ an Anglican bishop who would have a huge impact on Desmond Tutu’s life. The bishop’s anti-apartheid activism would lead Desmond in the same direction.   In 1947‚ Desmond contracted a severe form of tuberculosis and spent 18 months in hospital. During this time‚ he was constantly visited by Trevor Huddleston.   After returning to school in 1949‚ he took his final exams‚ which he passed in 1950.   After school‚ he was accepted into the University of Witwatersrand to study medicine‚ but his family could not afford the tuition fees‚ and instead‚ Desmond studied to become a teacher. During his time at Pretoria Bantu Normal College‚ he met Nelson Mandela‚ but the two would not cross paths again until 1990.   Resistance to the Bantu Education Act. Source: Google Arts &; Culture   After graduating in 1954‚ Desmond Tutu began teaching English at Madibane High School‚ and the following year he transferred to Krugersdorp High School‚ where he taught English and history. During this time‚ he met Nomalizo Leah Shenxane‚ and the two fell in love and married in 1955.   A year before he graduated‚ the National Party government in South Africa passed the Bantu Education Act. Through this act‚ the government sought to control how Black people in South Africa were educated. So before Desmond Tutu began teaching‚ his outlook on his career was already marred by measures with which he disagreed on a deep and fundamental level.   The apartheid laws in South Africa would become a lot worse. People were separated. Police brutality increased‚ culminating in massacres. Interracial relationships were forbidden. Black people had to carry passbooks with them‚ and the government sought to inhibit Black progress at every level‚ investing only in suppression and control.   Tutu Joins the Clergy Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu in London‚ 2010. Source: Carl de Souza/AFP   In 1956‚ Desmond Tutu left the teaching profession and began studying at St Peter’s Theological College‚ a residential college. His wife‚ Leah‚ was busy studying to become a nurse‚ and their two young children‚ Trevor and Thandeka‚ lived with Desmond’s parents at the time.   In 1960‚ Desmond finished his studies and was ordained as an Anglican priest. During this time‚ there was a growing desire within the South African Anglican ecclesiarchy to ordain more Africans. Desmond Tutu was thus offered the chance to study further at King’s College in London. In September 1962‚ Desmond and his family moved to England.   By 1966‚ Desmond Tutu had completed his Honor’s and Master’s‚ having studied Hebrew and writing his dissertation on Islam in West Africa. London opened his eyes and his mind‚ and he was greatly exposed to the white community‚ ministering to them and eradicating any prejudice that had been instilled in him from his dealings with white people in South Africa.   After completing his studies in London‚ Desmond and his family moved briefly to East Jerusalem‚ where he studied Arabic and Greek‚ before returning to South Africa.   Desmond Tutu Resumes Teaching in South Africa South Africa was a violent and oppressive state during the height of apartheid. Source: UN Photo/DB on Flickr   In 1967‚ Desmond Tutu was hired by Federal Theological Seminary‚ and he was the school’s first Black staff member. His wife became the school’s library assistant. The school was based in the Eastern Cape‚ but the couple decided to send their children to school in Swaziland (now eSwatini) to keep them from being subjected to the Bantu Education Act in South Africa. He also became the University chaplain at the University of Fort Hare. He began publishing journals and taking an active part in protest movements. He was a supporter of the Black Consciousness Movement‚ and in September 1968‚ he took part in a major sit-in protest where he witnessed‚ for the first time‚ the state oppression on a large and physical scale.   The Height of Apartheid Desmond Tutu in 1980. Source: Gallo Images/REX Shutterstock   In 1970‚ Desmond Tutu left his post in the Eastern Cape and accepted a high-paying job teaching in Lesotho. In 1972‚ he moved back to London‚ where he worked for International Missionary Council’s Theological Education Fund as their director for Africa.   After a few years‚ he returned to South Africa to take up an appointment as the dean of St Mary’s Cathedral‚ Johannesburg. This was the fourth-highest position within the Anglican Church in South Africa‚ and Desmond Tutu was the first Black person to have the job. Naturally‚ this move ruffled a few feathers in the South African government‚ and because of the segregation laws‚ Tutu could not live in the official residence afforded to the position in the white suburb of Houghton. Instead‚ he lived in a modest house in the Black suburb of Soweto.   Source: Trevor Samson / NPR   Unusually for South Africa‚ Tutu’s congregation was mixed‚ as the Anglican community was not generally a big supporter of apartheid. This gave Desmond Tutu hope for the future of race relations in South Africa.   From 1976 to 1978‚ he changed jobs again and served as the bishop of Lesotho. In the same year‚ he became the general secretary for the South African Council of Churches.   Throughout the 1980s‚ Desmond Tutu brought international attention to the plight of Black South Africans and encouraged countries to apply economic pressure to force the South African government into ending apartheid. Above all‚ he advocated nonviolent means of resistance.   Desmond Tutu leading a protest in a whites-only picnic spot in 1986. Source: Academy of Achievement   He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts‚ which added significantly to the power of his message. As a leading figure in the struggle against apartheid‚ the National Party government saw him as a significant threat.   Tutu’s power and presence would only grow. He was appointed Johannesburg’s first Black Anglican bishop. Then he became the archbishop of Cape Town and thus the head of the entire Anglican Church in South Africa‚ representing 1.6 million Anglicans. While his religious affiliations were to Anglicanism‚ his message was widespread and non-denominational. He appealed to and was widely revered by people from all sectors of South African society.   Throughout the 1980s‚ Desmond Tutu tried to use his power to mediate between parties in conflict as a result of apartheid. He also took part in and led several protest actions.   As Archbishop‚ he was committed to equality and appointed women and gay priests to prominent positions‚ arguing that their exclusion was a form of apartheid within the Anglican community. Later in life‚ he went public with his support of gay rights‚ stating in 2007‚ “If God‚ as they say‚ is homophobic‚ I wouldn’t worship that God.” In 2006‚ South Africa became the fifth country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage.   He was also a voice for peace on the international stage. He advocated for peace in Northern Ireland‚ insisting that Irish Republicans had not exhausted opportunities for a peaceful resolution. He also criticized the government of Israel but was sympathetic to the situation of Jewish people. Despite arguing that his issues were with the Israeli government and its support of apartheid South Africa and not aimed at Jewish people‚ he was labeled as anti-Semitic by some.   Desmond Tutu &; The End of Apartheid An emotional Desmond Tutu at a Truth and Reconciliation Commission hearing‚ photograph by Jilian Edelstein‚ 2000. Source: MutualArt   Desmond Tutu’s role was significant during the fall of apartheid and the transition of power to the Black majority under the African National Congress led by Nelson Mandela. In 1994‚ after the first fully democratic election‚ he coined the term “The Rainbow Nation” to refer to South Africa – a name that has stuck.   In 1995‚ Nelson Mandela appointed Desmond Tutu as the head of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. This was an opportunity for South Africans from all walks of life to share their stories under an umbrella of political amnesty. It was a time filled with tears as the country came to terms with its past.   Desmond Tutu and Nelson Mandela in 2008. Source: AP Photo/Themba Hadebe   Desmond Tutu withdrew from public life in 2010 and began his retirement. Despite this‚ he continued to work with a group called “The Elders‚” which he co-founded and was committed to conflict resolution and the promotion of peace around the world.   He continued to write letters in support of issues around the world. In 2012‚ he wrote a letter in support of US military whistleblower Chelsea Manning. He asked Myanmar’s leader Aung San Suu Kyi to stop the mistreatment of the country’s Muslim minority‚ and he requested that Joe Biden stop sending military aid to Israel.   On December 26‚ 2021‚ at the age of 90‚ Desmond Tutu passed away from cancer while at the Oasis Frail Care Centre in Cape Town. His death was met with an outpouring of grief from the South African nation‚ equaled only by the death of Nelson Mandela in 2012.   Desmond Tutu and Trevor Huddleston. Source: Gallo Images / Avusa / Margo Williams   Desmond Tutu once said‚   “Despite all of the ghastliness in the world‚ human beings are made for goodness. The ones that are held in high regard are not militarily powerful‚ nor even economically prosperous. They have a commitment to try and make the world a better place.”   He certainly lived up to this quote.   Desmond Tutu was held in the highest regard and was most certainly an example of the goodness of humanity.

  Giovanni di Pietro di Bernardone‚ better known as Saint Francis of Assisi‚ is popular in name. He is most well-known within Roman Catholicism‚ but his fame and reverence extend far and wide. Saint Francis of Assisi is the patron saint of animals and the environment.   He was also a lover of peace and worked hard to achieve it. The veneration of this man who lived a very simple life is more relevant today than ever‚ and his story is worth retelling.   Early Life of Francis of Assisi The town of Assisi is associated with the birth of Francis of Assisi‚ via Audley Travel   In the Duchy of Spoleto to the east of Rome in late 1181‚ Francis was born to an Italian father‚ Pietro‚ and a French mother. His father was a successful and wealthy silk merchant‚ while little is known of his mother save for the fact that she was a noblewoman.   Francis was therefore born into the lap of luxury‚ and he wanted for nothing during his childhood. Originally baptized as “Giovanni” by his mother‚ who gave birth to him while his father was away in France‚ he gained the name Francesco (meaning Frenchman or Free Man) from his father after he returned‚ as his father was obsessed with everything French.   In his youth‚ he was a child of excess‚ and by his teenage years‚ Francis was known for indulging in a hedonistic way of life. At the age of 14‚ he left school to pursue his party lifestyle. He was handsome and vain and dreamed of a lifestyle of knightly pursuits. He became proficient in archery‚ swordsmanship‚ and horsemanship. He balked at the idea of following in his father’s footsteps in the textile business.   Despite his life of pleasure‚ Francis was not blind to the suffering in the world. In fact‚ one could argue his lifestyle was brought about by his disillusionment. One day‚ while selling his father’s wares in the marketplace‚ he spotted a beggar asking for alms. After Francis had concluded his deal‚ he ran after the beggar and gave him all the money he had on him at the time. For this‚ he was teased by his friend and scolded by his father.   Life Changes Statue of Saint Francis of Assisi in the walls of Saint Peter’s Basilica in Rome‚ via stpetersbasilica.info   War broke out between Assisi and Perugia in 1202‚ and eager to prove himself‚ Francis joined in battle. The horrors of war visited him soon after‚ and while most of his comrades were killed‚ Francis was spared on account of the fact that he looked like he was worth a sizable ransom. He was taken prisoner and spent nearly a year in a prison cell. During this time‚ he fell ill and subsequently took stock of the life choices that had led him to this point. Upon his release in 1203‚ however‚ Francis went through a brief spell of returning to his hedonistic lifestyle.   In 1205‚ Francis left for Apulia/Puglia in southern Italy in order to join the army of Walter III‚ Count of Brienne. However‚ he never reached his destination. According to the saintly account of his life‚ he received a vision that made him turn back. Thereafter‚ he was a truly changed man and endeavored to live a life of poverty in the service of the Lord.   Francis went on a pilgrimage to Rome and joined the beggars in asking for alms at the Basilica of Saint Peter. One day after his return to Assisi‚ he was praying in a run-down chapel when he received a vision where Christ told him to repair his church. Francis took this to mean the church where he currently found himself‚ Saint Damiano‚ so he went out and sold some of his father’s wares to give the money to the priest. The priest‚ however‚ refused the money on account of it being ill-gotten. Francis threw the money on the ground in front of the priest‚ and before he returned home‚ his father would learn of what had transpired.   Cover of the children’s book Saint Francis: Patron of all Animals‚ via Catholic Books Direct   Knowing that if he returned home‚ he would be subject to his father’s wrath‚ Francis hid in a cave for about a month before returning home. His father’s anger did not subside‚ and when Francis returned home‚ his father beat him and locked him in a storeroom. After being freed by his mother‚ Francis sought shelter in Saint Damiano’s‚ the same church where the priest rejected his money. Francis’s father‚ however‚ had taken legal action against his son‚ and Francis was stripped of his inheritance. In retaliation‚ Francis renounced his father. According to legend‚ he stripped bare in church while he did this‚ and the priest covered him with his own robes.   Over the course of the next two years‚ he became a penitent and spent most of his time begging and rebuilding dilapidated churches and chapels around Assisi. When he was not rebuilding places of worship‚ Francis was looking after lepers.   The Franciscans Francis on His Way to Rome by Pedro Subercaseaux‚ via Franciscan Friars Holy Name Province   One morning in 1208‚ dressed in the clothes of a poor peasant‚ Francis began preaching. Doing so required a license‚ and so Francis‚ without one‚ was in danger of being arrested. Nevertheless‚ the authorities let it slide. He preached peace and brotherly love‚ traveling the countryside and reaching high up into the Umbrian mountains.   In 1209‚ with 11 followers‚ he traveled to Rome in order to seek permission from Pope Innocent III to start a new religious order. In Rome‚ he met with Giovanni di San Paolo‚ the Cardinal Bishop of Sabina‚ the confessor of Pope Innocent III‚ who was sympathetic to Francis’s cause and decided he would represent him to the pope. On April 16‚ 1210‚ Pope Innocent III officially endorsed the traveling friars‚ and the Franciscan Order was born.   The order grew quickly and attracted the attention of women too‚ and the Second Franciscan Order‚ also known as the Poor Clares‚ was created as an order of nuns. The Third Order of Franciscans was also created‚ also known as the Secular Franciscan Order‚ which allowed its followers to marry. This third order was immensely successful and initiated a huge growth of Franciscan following outside of Italy‚ which is exactly where Francis saw his destiny.   Francis &; His Mission of Peace Statue of Saint Francis‚ from CNS/Gregory A. Shemitz‚ via teachingcatholickids.com   Committed to bringing his message of peace to the world‚ Francis set out several times but encountered misfortune on a regular basis. In 1212‚ he set sail for Jerusalem but was shipwrecked off the coast of Dalmatia. The following year‚ his destination was Morocco‚ but while in Spain‚ Francis fell ill and had to turn back.   In 1219‚ his mission took him into the thick of war. Francis traveled to Egypt with the intention of converting Sultan Al-Kamil‚ the nephew of Saladin. He was prepared for failure and accepted that the attempt might end up with him being martyred.   After a bloody Christian assault on Damietta‚ the Crusaders and the Muslims agreed to a brief truce. During this time‚ Francis and his traveling companion‚ Friar Illuminatus of Arce‚ crossed the Muslim lines and were received by the Sultan. According to Christian accounts‚ he was well received‚ and although the Sultan was not moved to convert‚ Francis and Illuminatus were allowed to preach to the Muslims‚ who also treated their guests with respect.   Because of the peaceful mission of Francis and Illuminatus‚ the Franciscan order was allowed to establish itself in the Holy Land and has been present there ever since.   Later Years of Saint Francis of Assisi The Death of Saint Francis of Assisi by Jose Camaron Boronat‚ via Fine Art America   Francis returned to Italy amid a huge surge in the popularity of the Franciscan Order. It had attracted many members from all over Europe and‚ as a result‚ became difficult to manage. In 1220‚ Francis handed over the reins of management to Brother Peter Catani. Peter died five months later and was succeeded by Brother Elias.   Francis withdrew from the external affairs of the order and focused on traveling and preaching.   In 1224‚ while undertaking a 40-day fast in preparation for Michaelmas‚ Francis had a vision in which he saw a Seraph‚ a six-winged angel‚ which gave him the wounds of Christ. The most notable of these stigmata were the wounds on his hands. He also started suffering from trachoma‚ a painful bacterial infection in the eyes. Some scholars also believe Francis’ stigmata may have been signs of leprosy‚ which is plausible‚ given that he spent much time administering to lepers.   He saw many doctors in many cities‚ but there was no cure for his ailment‚ and on October 3‚ 1226‚ he died while singing Psalm 141.   St. Francis of Assisi’s Legacy Ettore Bassi as Francis in the 2007 film Clare and Francis‚ via Veritas Ministeria   In 1228‚ Pope Gregory IX declared Francis a saint‚ and the next day‚ he laid the first stone for the construction of the Basilica of Saint Francis in the town of Assisi.   Francis was a dedicated man who understood the teachings of Christ and the ascetic lifestyle that came with it. Instead of preaching fire and brimstone‚ Francis was a man of calm and peace. It was through his work that the Franciscans became a vital avenue of dialogue between the Muslims and the Crusaders‚ thus achieving a semblance of peace in the Holy Land.   Saint Francis was also a figure of compassion. His work dealt mainly with the poverty-stricken and the sick. He was dedicated to helping to ease the suffering. According to legend‚ it is said that he once embraced and kissed a leper.   Saint Francis of Assisi is also known as the person who invented the nativity scene. His version in 1220 was a live-action affair involving real animals. In fact‚ it was his love for animals and respect for the environment that has brought him much love and veneration in the modern era. In folklore and legend‚ Francis is said to have preached to birds and befriended a wolf who had been terrorizing the livestock around the town of Gubbio.   Francis saw nature as God’s creation and took great care of it. In 1979‚ Pope John Paul II declared Saint Francis the patron saint of ecology.   Saint Francis by Peter Paul Rubens‚ c. 1615‚ via Art Institute Chicago   Such is the love for Saint Francis of Assisi that he is even celebrated outside of Catholicism‚ and Franciscan orders exist in Protestant denominations.   The feast day of Saint Francis of Assisi is observed on October 4.   Saint Francis of Assisi was a remarkable man who lived a remarkable life. A truly good human being‚ he overcame internal and external demons and brought a message of love‚ respect‚ and compassion to a world full of grief and misery.

The song sounds like classic Keith Urban! Continue reading…