by Joseph P. Farrell, Giza Death Star: Every now and then a story comes along that some alert Gizar has shared, that leaves me, and I presume you the reader, scratching our heads and wondering just what the (*&^@>>!!<~* is going on? In this case, the alert Gizar was G.P., and the story – or […]

by Geoffrey Grinder, Now The End Begins: Prepare for Russian kamikaze drones to swarm skies above Britain, gov warned as Iranian weapon is unveiled in Parliament The other day a shocking expression was used to describe the current conflict in Ukraine and Europe, Phase Zero, and it send palpable electricity across the internet. What is Phase […]

from Miles Franklin Media: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

by Martin Armstrong, Armstrong Economics: The Fed may create policy, but it is ultimately dictated by the markets. Powell came out and reaffirmed the central bank’s fears of a hiring slowdown. Soon, the bank will no longer shrink its $6.6 trillion balance sheet, previously allowing $40 billion of mortgage-backed securities and Treasuries to mature each […]

from Tucker Carlson: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

by Ian Proud, Strategic Culture: I recently participated in a debate in London about the effectiveness of sanctions as a tool of foreign policy. I argued that they have proven ineffective as a tool of foreign policy, and kept my remarks focussed on Russia, which is the most sanctioned country on the planet, with over […]

from The National Pulse: WHAT HAPPENED: A federal judge appointed by Bill Clinton issued a decision blocking President Donald J. Trump from firing federal workers during the government shutdown. ?WHO WAS INVOLVED: U.S. District Judge Susan Illston, President Donald Trump, and federal workers. ?WHEN & WHERE: The ruling was issued on Wednesday amid an ongoing government shutdown that began earlier this month. […]

  English has been shaped and enriched by a diverse range of languages and cultures throughout its history. Greek is one of the most significant contributors to the English language, with its rich culture and language leaving a lasting mark on Western civilization.   The 13 examples below spotlight English words with Greek origins, from myth and drama to medicine and astronomy.   1. Echo Echo by Alexander Cabanel, 1874. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   In Greek mythology, Echo was a nymph known for her beautiful voice and her ability to entertain others with her conversational wit. Zeus, notorious for his many affairs, became enamored with Echo’s charm. However, his wife, Hera, suspecting that Echo was one of his mistresses, decided to take her revenge. She cursed Echo to only be able to repeat the words of others. The word echo, therefore, came to be associated with imitatio,n describing sound reflecting and returning to the listener.   2. Melancholy Melancholy by Edward Munch, 1894. Source: Munchmuseet, Oslo.   The term melancholy originates from the ancient Greek concept of the four humors. This theory posited that the human body was composed of four fluids—blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile—each associated with a particular temperament.   An excess of black bile was believed to cause feelings of sadness and despair, and the Greek word μελαγχολία literally translates to “black bile.” Today, melancholy is a word that carries a poetic and literary weight, used to convey a mood or atmosphere of introspection and sadness.   3. Marathon The Soldier of Marathon by Luc-Olivier Merson, 1869. Source: Wikimedia Commons.   A marathon has become a symbol of extreme perseverance and physical fitness, commonly used to refer to a long-distance race. According to legend, in 490 BCE, the Greeks faced a formidable invasion by the Persian Empire. The Persian army had landed at the plain of Marathon, located a short distance from Athens.   The Athenians, realizing the imminent danger to their city, sent a messenger named Pheidippides to Sparta to request assistance. Pheidippides was a seasoned runner and undertook the formidable task of running the entire distance from Athens to Sparta, spanning over 150 miles, to deliver his crucial message. His body, however, gave way after this effort, and he collapsed and died from exhaustion. In honor of Pheidippides’ legendary feat of endurance, a race was established that traced the same route he had taken.   4. Barbarian The Battle of the Amazons by Peter Paul Rubens, c. 1615-18. Source: Alte Pinakothek, Munich.   Barbarian, from βάρβαρος, meaning “foreign” or “strange,” was used by the Greeks to refer to anyone who did not speak their language. The term was onomatopoeic, mimicking the sound of foreign languages that the Greeks could not understand.   Over time, the meaning of the word “barbarian” evolved. The word came to signify more than just language differences; it also implied a lack of culture, education, and refinement. As the Greeks regarded themselves as the pinnacle of civilization, they viewed anyone who didn’t speak their language as inferior.   5. Galaxy The Birth of the Milky Way by Peter Paul Rubens, 1636-1637. Source: Museo del Prado, Madrid.   A galaxy is a colossal system of stars, planets, gas, and dust, all held together by gravity and spinning around a central point of mass. It’s a vast cosmic giant that houses billions of stars, many of which have their own planetary systems. Derived from γαλαξίας, which means “milky circle,” the word is a reference to the band of light that appears across the night sky, known as the Milky Way.   In Greek mythology, Zeus was said to have placed his infant son, Heracles, on Hera’s breast while she was asleep, allowing the baby to drink her divine milk. However, when Hera awoke and discovered the child suckling at her breast, she pushed him away, causing a jet of her milk to spray across the night sky. This was thought to have formed the Milky Way.   6. Alphabet The School of Athens (detail) by Raphael, 1511. Source: Vatican Museums.   Commonly known, the word alphabet comes from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet, ἄλφα and βήτα. The English alphabet, like many other alphabets used in modern Western countries, ultimately derived from the Greek alphabet.   The ancient Greeks created the first true alphabet, which consisted of 24 letters and was adapted from the earlier Phoenician script. The Greeks’ contribution to the development of the alphabet had a profound impact on the evolution of Western civilization, enabling the written transmission of knowledge, literature, and culture across vast distances and through time.   7. Eureka Portrait of a Scholar by Domenico Fetti, c. 1620. Source: Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden.   Eureka is an exclamation of joy or triumph that is used to express excitement or jubilation upon discovering or solving something. The word stems from the infamous story of the Greek scholar Archimedes.   According to legend, Archimedes had long been struggling to solve a specific problem. One day, as he was taking a bath, he suddenly came to a solution. He shouted eureka, which literally means “I have found it” in Greek.   8. Academy Head of Plato, mid-3rd century CE, via The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles   The word academy originates from the Greek word Ἀκαδημία, which referred to a grove of trees located just outside the city, named after the Athenian hero Academus. The philosopher Plato was said to have purchased the grove and founded a school there, which became known as the Academy. This school was one of the most renowned institutions of learning in the ancient world, teaching subjects such as philosophy and mathematics.   Today, the term academy is still used to describe schools, colleges, and universities, as well as specialized institutions focused on specific fields, such as science or the arts.   9. Dinosaur Leaping Laelaps by Charles R. Knight, 1897. Source: American Museum of Natural History, New York.   Mysterious, mighty, and fearsome, this group of prehistoric creatures roamed the earth over 150 million years ago. The word dinosaur itself is a combination of two Greek words: δεινός, meaning “terrible,” “fearful,” or “strange,” and σαῦρος, translating to “lizard.”   The term dinosaur was first introduced to the world by British paleontologist Richard Owen in 1842. His discovery of large, fossilized bones led him to recognize the unique characteristics of these creatures and distinguish them as a new group of reptiles.   10. Typhoon Alabastron with Typhon, 600-575 BCE. Source: Yale University Art Gallery   A typhoon is a tropical cyclone that forms over the western Pacific Ocean. These storms can bring massive waves, torrential downpours, and devastating flooding to coastal communities, leaving destruction and chaos in their wake.   The word derives from τυφῶν, meaning “whirlwind,” which is thought to have stemmed from the mythical monster Typhon. This primordial deity was a gigantic creature with a hundred serpent heads, born from the union of Gaia and Tartarus. He was portrayed as a fearsome opponent of the Olympian gods, whom he challenged for control of the universe. In their struggle, Typhon was said to have unleashed a torrent of destruction, causing earthquakes and massive storms.   11. Panic Ceres and Pan by Frans Snyders and Peter Paul Rubens, circa 1620. Source: Museo del Prado   Panic can be defined as an intense feeling of sudden fear or anxiety that overwhelms an individual’s ability to think or act rationally. It is often accompanied by physical symptoms such as sweating, trembling, and rapid heartbeat.   The word derives from Pan, the god of the wild, shepherds, and fertility. He was known for having the power to strike sudden fear into those who crossed his path. This phenomenon was called πανικός, or “panic.” Interestingly, this word is also etymologically related to the English word pantry. Pan was associated with food and crops and was invoked to protect these valuable resources.   12. Ostracize The Outcast by Richard Redgrave, 1851. Source: Tate, London.   The word ostracize originates from the Greek practice of ostracism. This involved banishing or exiling a citizen from a city-state for a period of ten years. Ostracize came from ὄστρᾰκον, which translates to a fragment of a vessel or potsherd. This is because the procedure involved a public vote, where individuals would write the name of the person to be exiled on a piece of broken pottery.   As time passed, the word ostracize gained a broader meaning and came to be used to describe the act of excluding or shunning someone from a group or society.   13. Music Apollo and the Muses by John Singer Sargent, 1921. Source: Museum of Fine Arts Boston   Originally, music stemmed from μουσική, which refers to any art or science produced under the inspiration of the Muses. The Muses were nine goddesses in Greek mythology who presided over various arts, including music, poetry, and dance. Each of the Muses had a specific domain of influence. Calliope is the Muse of epic poetry, Erato the Muse of love poetry, and Clio the Muse of history, among others.   The Muses were considered the personification of inspiration, and ancient poets and artists sought their guidance in their work. The word muse itself has come to mean a source of creativity for artists and creative individuals.

  Born into a powerful family that controlled the papacy and much of the power structures of Renaissance Italy, Cesare Borgia was a powerful player in the peninsula. The son of the most powerful man in Christendom, Cesare made his way in the world through ruthless political scheming. Singularly ambitious, he served as an inspiration for Machiavellian practices that played a huge part in the politics of the region.   A Distrusted Family Portrait of a Boy thought to be Cesare Borgia, by Bernardino di Betto Pinturicchio, ca. 1480 to 1482. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Dresden, Germany   Even the circumstances of his birth were open to derision from pious sectors of society. Cesare was born on September 13, 1475, as one of the four illegitimate children of Cardinal Roderic Llançol i de Borja (commonly known as Rodrigo Borgia) and his mistress, Roman aristocrat Giovanna “Vannozza” dei Cattanei.   As a noble family from Valencia in Spain, the Borgias were already under suspicion by those who did not see the papacy as the place for a foreign pope. When Rodrigo did become Pope Alexander VI, there was significant dissatisfaction from many nobles who disliked Spain.   A precedent had already been set by the fact that another member of the Borgias family, Alfonso, Rodrigo’s uncle, had become pope in 1455, and his three-year reign had been stained by corruption. It was also widely believed that Rodrigo had bribed his way to the top, setting the stage for a papal rule that would be mired in corruption and nepotism.   Rodrigo wished to keep his power, and his enemies wished him to be deposed. The dynamic lent itself to the machinations of scheming and plotting that would go far beyond the limits of what was legal. For Rodrigo, Cesare proved to be extremely useful, and he had grand plans for his sons.   Portrait of Gentleman aka Cesare Borgia (1475-1507) by Altobello Melone, ca. 1550 to 1520. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Accademia Carrara, Carrara, Tuscany, Italy   Long before Rodrigo became pope, Cesare received an outstanding education, learning to read Classical Greek and Latin. He was also given physical training. He excelled, becoming a very competent fighter in the process. In 1489, he entered the University of Perugia and was, by the influence of his father, elected bishop of Pamplona, although he was too young to take up this office immediately. He also spent time studying law at the University of Pisa.   With so much education and training under his belt and an office of high standing already waiting for him, Cesare was sure to become a hugely successful man.   A New Pope A bust of Pope Alexander VI, late 15th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   On July 25, 1492, Pope Innocent VIII died. Two candidates had emerged as the frontrunners to succeed him: Giovanni de la Rovere and Rodrigo Borgia. Through allegations of bribery, Rodrigo became the new pope (Alexander VI), and within a matter of weeks, he succeeded in appointing Cesare to the position of Archbishop of Valencia. Cesare was just 17 years old at the time. At the age of 18, he became a cardinal.   In 1493, the Italian peninsula became a place of open conflict as the French, under King Charles VIII, joined with Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, in a planned invasion of Naples. Pope Alexander did not condone this action, and on December 31, the French entered Rome, where looting took place. To avoid bloodshed, the pope offered Cesare as a hostage on the condition that he remain on Italian soil. Charles VIII agreed, and with Cesare in tow, the French army marched into Naples and sacked it.   Alexander, like many Italian nobles, was concerned about French domination in Italy and sent requests for help throughout Europe. His words found fertile ground, and the Holy League (or League of Venice) was formed against France, consisting of the Papal States, the Holy Roman Empire, Venice, Naples, Spain, Florence, and even Milan, which had switched sides. Meanwhile, Cesare managed to escape and make his way back to Rome. In 1496, the French were eventually forced out of Italy.   The Borgia Brothers A map of Italy showing the borders and boundaries of the various states around 1494. The Papal States are indicated in blue. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Despite his martial and physical prowess, Cesare had originally been groomed for an office in the church, while his brother, Giovanni, was marked for greater things. Giovanni, known to his family as “Juan,” was given status as the pope’s favorite son. He became the Duke of Gandia, as well as Gonfalonier of the Church, and Captain General of the Church. Through these appointments, Giovanni controlled the armies of the Papal States.   He inherited the title of Duke of Gandia from his half-brother, Pedro Luis, who left it to him in the will, bypassing Cesare, who, as the eldest child, was said to have been jealous. In 1496, Giovanni led the papal armies against the rival Orsini family in the first of Pope Alexander VI’s campaigns.   In 1497, however, Giovanni was murdered. After an extensive search, his body was found in the Tiber River. He had been stabbed nine times, and his purse was still full of coins. It was never determined who the culprit was or why he was killed, but there were numerous theories that remain as such today. One theory suggests that Cesare was the killer, but there was little in the way of a definitive motive, as Cesare was likely to gain secular power despite Giovanni being the favorite son. Rumors spread through Roman society that Cesare was the killer, but nothing could be proven.   Nevertheless, with Giovanni no longer alive, Cesare became the focus of his father’s attention for familial success. In 1498, at the age of 23, Cesare was released from his ecclesiastical duties and shifted his focus towards success in the military.   Regal Ambitions A portrait of Cesare Borgia by an unknown artist, likely copied from a portrait by Bartolomeo Veneto. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Museo Nazionale di Palazzo Venezia, Rome   Cesare was well aware that much of his power and standing was derived from his father’s position as pope. Cesare knew that as soon as his father died, his privileges and power would evaporate, so the young Borgia made efforts to create a name for himself based on his own means. One of his aims, supported by his father, was to carve out a dukedom for himself in the lands of Romagna. Marriage, however, was a pressing concern.   He sought the hand of Princess Carlotta, the daughter of the king of Naples, but this idea never came to fruition. Rebuffed by the King of Naples, who claimed that “no bastard son of a priest” would marry his daughter, Cesare was forced to look elsewhere.   Fortune and circumstance favored him in the Kingdom of France, where King Louis XII, who had recently ascended the throne, sought an annulment of his marriage to Joan, who was alleged to be barren. The king wished to marry Anne of Britany and, in so doing, lay claim to the Duchy of Britany.   Pope Alexander, seeking land and titles for his son, annulled the marriage. In return, Cesare became the Duke of Valentinois, and the young Borgia married Charlotte d’Albret, sister of the king of Navarre. With land and a ducal title, Cesare had a foundation for his regal ambitions.   For the pope, the promise of French military assistance in regaining control in the Papal States was also of prime importance. Many of these lands had become controlled by semi-independent vicars, and the pope saw this as an affront to his legitimacy.   War A portrait of French King Louis XII by an unknown painter. Source: Wikimedia Commons   At the head of the papal army and a considerable contingent of mercenaries as well as French and Swiss troops sent by Louis XII, Cesare began a military campaign to regain control of papal lands.   In 1499, he attacked and occupied cities in Romagna and the Marches. This campaign was accompanied by an invasion of Italy by Louis XII, who had made a pact with Venice against Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan and an enemy of the Borgias. In September 1499, the Venetians soon marched into Milan followed by the French, accompanied by Cesare, a month later.   Ludovico Sforza opted for exile in Austria while many Milanese, who did not want to be ruled by the French, also left the city. One of these emigrants was Leonardo da Vinci, who later worked for Cesare for a few months in 1502 and 1503 as a military engineer and architect.   Caterina Sforza, the Countess of Forlì and Lady of Imola, was the next target of the Borgias, and Cesare led his forces through Florence (with permission from Florentine diplomat Niccolò Machiavelli). The papal forces laid siege to Ravaldino, the fortress in the city of Forlì where Caterina made her stand. After the siege had begun in December 1499, she tried to capture Cesare when he came close to the fortress to talk to her, but the attempt failed, and the siege continued with cannon from both sides being the dominant factor. Damage to the fortress, however, was repaired in quick order every time the French cannon paused.   Portrait of Caterina Sforza by Lorenzo di Credi (1459-1537). Source: Wikimedia Commons/Forlì Municipal Art Gallery, Forlì, Emilia-Romagna, Italy   Cesare ordered the bombardment to continue without pause for several days and nights until the walls gave way. On January 12, 1500, Cesare’s forces stormed through the breach in the walls and won a quick victory. Caterina surrendered to the French but was turned over to the papal forces. Shortly afterward, Ludovico returned to Milan, and Cesare recaptured the city. The Sforzas had fallen, and the Borgias had triumphed over a dangerous enemy.   The war, however, continued against the Borgia’s other enemies, and Cesare took the lead in restoring Borgia control in Rimini, Pesaro, Faenza, Urbino, Camerino, and Senigallia. While achieving these victories, the pope named Cesare Duke of Romagna.   A Clever Leader or a Dissolute? Cesare Borgia in Capua by Gaetano Previati. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Among those observing the martial exploits of Cesare and his administrative efforts following consolidation in Romagna, was Machiavelli, who drew great inspiration from the man, extolling his abilities as a highly capable and effective leader.   Beyond Machiavelli, however, not all portrayals were of such high praise. Alexander and Cesare had, in their quest for power, accumulated much hatred from those who opposed them, and the Borgias were the target of a propaganda campaign that painted them in an unflattering light.   Cesare was painted with a brush of lust and cruelty and was rumored to have been behind many assassinations. How much of this was true is unknown, but it is certainly possible that Cesare was behind the assassination of Alfonso, the Duke of Bisceglie, who was the second husband of Lucrezia Borgia, Cesare’s sister. While the exact truth remains a mystery, Cesare did argue that Alfonso had tried to assassinate him with a crossbow.   Whether true or not, the Borgias certainly gained a reputation for licentiousness. Papal Master of Ceremonies, Johannes Burchard, wrote of the “Banquet of Chestnuts,” an orgy that took place in the apostolic palace on October 31, 1501, with the pope, Cesare, and Lucrezia in attendance. Prizes were handed out to the men who could perform the most times with the 50 courtesans and prostitutes present.   Cesare fathered eleven illegitimate children during his lifetime, as well as one legitimate child. His sexual exploits led to him contracting syphilis, which scarred his face. In later life, he wore a mask in public to hide his disfigurement.   The Fall of Cesare Borgia Borgia and Machiavelli by Federico Faruffini, 1864. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Malaspina Picture Gallery, Pavia, Italy   As a military man, Cesare became a figure who commanded great respect. Gone were the flamboyant robes of the ecclesiastic, and in their stead, Cesare cut an austere form in his choice of color: black.   His power and prestige, however, were not altogether his own. He still relied on support from his father, whose office gave Cesare great legitimacy. However, in 1503, the power dynamic changed rapidly.   While Cesare was sick and suffering from malaria, he received news of his father’s death. How Alexander VI died is still a subject of great debate. Contemporary accounts suggest that he may have been poisoned. Cesare had nothing to worry about from the new pope, Pius III, who reconfirmed Cesare as the head of the papal armies.   Alas for Cesare, Pius III was only pope for 26 days. He died from a septic ulcer in his leg and was succeeded by Giuliano della Rovere, who had nothing but loathing for the Borgia family. Immediately, Cesare lost the backing of the church as well as his position as head of the papal armies.   The tomb of Cesare Borgia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Cesare was arrested but was released after agreeing to surrender the cities he had captured. He fled to Naples, but danger was waiting for him there too. Cesare gambled on the support of Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, who he had hoped would join him in an alliance against the pope. Instead, the Spanish general had Cesare arrested. Cesare was kept imprisoned in Spain until he escaped from the Castle of La Mota in 1506. He made his way to Pamplona, where he met with King John III of Navarre, his brother-in-law, who hired him as a military commander.   On March 11, 1507, during a siege, Cesare was separated from his soldiers after attempting to chase down a group of enemy knights. Upon realizing that he was alone, the knights set upon Cesare and killed him. His body was stripped, and he was left naked with only a tile covering his genitals.   Cesare was 31 years old when he died.   Cesare Borgia’s Legacy Showtime’s The Borgias (2011) starred Jeremy Irons as Rodrigo / Pope Alexander VI, Holliday Grainger as Lucrezia, and François Arnaud as Cesare Borgia. Source: IMDb/Showtime   To some, Cesare Borgia was an inspiration. To others, he was a lesson. And for many, he was simply an interesting historical character. He played an important role in Italy’s history and was the subject of writing from Machiavelli to Friedrich Nietzsche.   In modern times, the Borgia family has found much interest in fiction and non-fiction, and Cesare serves as a vital component to several television shows about the Borgias. Apart from representations in books and on screen, Cesare also appears as the principal antagonist in the 2010 video game Assassin’s Creed: Brotherhood.   Having been born into the Borgia family, there was little doubt that Cesare would live a life filled with political intrigue and mortal danger. His story and his character, shaped by propaganda as well as reality, have endured through the ages to the point where his fame (and infamy) now rivals that of when he was still alive over 500 years ago!

  South Americans are famous for their vibrant zest for life and deep-rooted spirituality. They’re also renowned for knowing how to celebrate in style. It is not surprising, then, to learn that South America hosts some of the world’s best cultural festivals. From honoring their dearly departed to celebrating the harvest and appeasing ancient gods, the continent’s best cultural festivals offer a window into its varied history. While some fiestas are internationally known, others remain way off the tourist radar. And that’s a pity because they are arguably the most authentic festivals in South America.   1. Carnival in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil — February / March Samba School Parade, Carnival, by Vladimir Platonow. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Rio’s Carnival is probably the first to come to most people’s minds when mentioning cultural festivals in South America. It is certainly the one that gets the most international press. It is held just before Lent and epitomizes the joyful and exuberant spirit for which Brazil is renowned.   Rooted in European and African traditions, Carnival celebrates life, music, and dance. Taking a few days to feast with abandon before undertaking Lent is a Christian tradition originating from Italy, specifically, the Carnevale of Venice. Over the centuries, though, Rio’s fiesta has taken on a life of its own, evolving into the incredibly extravagant spectacle we know today.   The heart of Carnival is the Samba Parade held at the specially built Sambadrome, where some 200-odd samba schools from all over Rio compete with flamboyant floats, dazzling costumes, and hypnotic dances. These performances showcase the city’s rich Afro-Brazilian culture, which has shaped much of its identity. The parade is a feast for the senses, with thousands of dancers shaking to the rhythms of samba, one of Brazil’s most iconic music genres.   Yet Carnival isn’t confined to the Sambadrome alone—that is only the   Dancers in costume, photo by Jose De la Ossa. Source: Pexels   big finale on the last four nights of the festival. For two weeks prior, street parties (or blocos) take over Rio’s neighborhoods, turning the entire city into party central. The best part is that locals could not care less if you don’t have a single rhythmic bone in your body. All they want is to see you join in and have fun. So, when they grab you off the streets for a dance, never decline!   Those lucky enough to have attended would agree: Rio’s Carnival is the one international cultural festival that everyone should experience at least once in their life.   2. Inti Raymi in Cusco, Peru — June 24 Inti Raymi. Source: Store Norske Leksikon   Every year on June 24, Cusco hosts Inti Raymi, or the Festival of the Sun, one of South America’s most prominent pre-Columbian festivals. For the ancient Incas, Inti, the Sun God, was the most revered deity, and this celebration—dating back to the early 1400s—was held to honor and appease him through animal sacrifices, lavish processions, dances, and feasts that lasted for days.   Though the Spaniards banned it in 1536, Inti Raymi was revived in 1944 when a film crew aiming to reconstruct the ancient ritual rekindled indigenous enthusiasm for the beloved sun god. While the original festival took place in Cusco’s city center, today’s celebrations are held at the nearby ancient ruins of Sacsayhuamán, where a pair of llamas is still ceremonially sacrificed.   Throughout the last week of June, the city comes alive with street parties, parades, and traditional performances, making it one of Peru’s biggest and most important cultural events. It is also one of the busiest since it falls in the heart of peak tourist season at Machu Picchu.   3. Fiesta de la Vendimia in Mendoza, Argentina — March Vendimia Mendoza, by Javinaselli. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Wine lovers, this one is for you!   Mendoza is Argentina’s premier wine-producing region. It is in the southern region and is framed by stunning Andean peaks. Every March, the enticing town hosts its harvest festival (Fiesta de la Vendimia), and it is one of the best and most flamboyant in South America. The festival is not only focused on wine, per se, it also acknowledges Mendoza’s agricultural heritage and the hard work of local farmers. Spanish colonizers began planting vines here in the early 16th century, and their descendants have essentially never stopped.   Vendimia culminates in a grand parade, where wine “queens” from the region’s many smaller towns are crowned and presented in an impressive procession. There is also a stunning show at the Frank Romero Day Greek Theatre, where traditional dances, music, and a dramatization of the harvest are performed.   Mendoza is a fantastic place to visit and enjoy at any time of year, but it truly comes alive during the harvest festival—it is the perfect time to immerse yourself in Argentine culture and enjoy some world-class wines.   4. Parintins Folklore Festival, Brazil — Last Week of June Parintins, 2015. Source: Wikimedia Commons   For those who love folklore and indigenous traditions, the Parintins Folklore Festival in the Brazilian Amazon is a must. It is arguably the biggest and most important South American cultural festival after the Carnival that hardly anyone outside the region has ever heard about.   The Parintins festival is a celebration of the folkloric traditions of local Amazonian cultures and is centered on the mythological figure of the Boi-Bumbá, a fabled, resurrected ox. It takes place on the island of Tupinambarana, in the heart of the rainforest, and features two teams—Garantido (the red team) and Caprichoso (the blue team)—competing to tell the story of the ox through music, dance, and theater. The two teams compete in a specially built stadium—the Bumbódromo—and that is just one of many similarities with the Carnival held in February.   Attending this festival is quite adventurous as Tupinambarana is only accessible by boat. The journey from Manaus takes around 18 hours, and if you take the local commuter boat, you can indulge in an Amazon River cruise at a fraction of the usual price (and also, a fraction of the comfort). Note that the island is tiny, and accommodation sells out months in advance, so book early. After all, the festival may seem “obscure” to outsiders, but it is the most anticipated party of the year for local Amazonian communities.   5. La Diablada in Oruro, Bolivia — February or March Carnaval de Oruro, by Elemaki. Source: Wikimedia Commons   If you’re seeking a festival that combines culture, history, and a touch of the supernatural, head to Oruro in February or March for La Diablada, one of the most captivating celebrations in Bolivia.   This festival is part of the Carnaval de Oruro, which UNESCO inscribed in 2001. The Diablada is a dramatic procession that depicts the battle between good and evil, fusing Andean and Catholic symbolism.   The central figure of La Diablada is “Tio”—the Devil—who represents the Andean deity of the underworld. Dancers don costumes and masks and perform the Diablada, the traditional dance which gives the festival its name. The competitive folk dance signifies the struggle between the two opposing forces and has its origins in the mythological beliefs of the indigenous inhabitants of the Bolivian Altiplano.   Although the festival began long before the Spanish arrived on the continent, Catholic traditions heavily influenced it. The cultural significance of this festival is enormous in Bolivia, as it poignantly embodies the post-Columbian influence that has shaped its entire history.   6. Festa Junina in Northeast Brazil — June Dancers at Junina, photo by Emanuel Tadeu. Source: Pexels   The June Festival—or Festa Junina—is another major Brazilian celebration barely known to the outside world. This time, it is to mark the harvest. It takes place all over the country, although the northern regions put on the biggest parties. Cities like Campina Grande and Caruaru are transformed into bona fide festival grounds, with colorful decorations, street events, an abundance of food, and musical performances. Revelers don country-style clothing, pants and suspenders for men, and checkered dresses and painted-on freckles for the ladies.   The festival’s staple music and dance is the forró, a beautiful performance of couples that closely resembles the lambada—imagine a compromise between the fast-paced salsa and the super sensual bachata.   One of the few cultural festivals in South America that does not boast pre-Columbian roots, the Festa Junina is essentially the Brazilian version of mid-summer. Portuguese colonizers introduced it, and it is closely linked to the Catholic saints’ days. Over the centuries, however, Brazilians did what Brazilians do best. They took your ordinary European religious procession and turned it into a colorful and glorious celebration of local traditions.   The Junina fiesta lasts an entire month, and even though it lacks the flair (and budget) of Rio’s Carnival, it is just as entrancing.   7. Carnaval de Negros y Blancos, Pasto, Colombia — January 2-7 Carnaval de Negros y Blancos, by Jhonska. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The further north you travel in South America, the more the cultural festivals begin to blend with African traditions. A beautiful example is the “Black and White” festival in Colombia, held in Pasto in the first week of the new year. This carnival blends African and indigenous traditions with copious Spanish influence and is undoubtedly one of the most unique festivals in South America. The festival’s name derives from the symbolic coloring of participants’ faces with black or white paint, which is meant to celebrate Colombia’s racial diversity.   Multiracialism may not have had such a festive start in Colombia centuries ago, but it is now something that the country is most proud of. Aside from its exceptional social diversity, Forbes also ranks Colombia as the third-most beautiful country in the world. In case you’re looking for extra enticement to plan a visit.   The highlight of the festival is the Grand Parade on the second-to-last day, where colorful floats and giant figures flood the street, and participants dance to Afro-Colombian and indigenous rhythms. As you might expect, the festival features arts, music, and cultural performances—all things for which Colombia is world-renowned. The festival has been defined as an intangible UNESCO heritage tradition.   8. Semana Santa in Ayacucho, Peru — March or April Crowd during Holy Week, Ayacucho. Source: Wikimedia Commons   South America is exceptionally spiritual and most fervently Catholic. The most important religious event on the continent and the busiest travel week is the one preceding Easter.   In Peru, Holy Week celebrations are on another level. While many cities put on elaborate festivities, the one in Ayacucho stands out. Witness dramatic reenactments of Christ’s Passion, complete with processions, candlelit vigils, and long prayer sessions. The primarily Catholic festivities are sprinkled with abundant indigenous Andean traditions, creating a vibrant scene that wonderfully showcases and honors both faiths.   Ayacucho is a spectacular Andean city that saw major historical events play out on its streets. First, there was the 1824 fight for independence, and in more recent history, the town was at the receiving end of brutal attacks by the Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path). This extremist anti-establishment guerilla group terrorized the country throughout the 1980s. Today, it is known as an off-the-beaten-path destination. It is ideal for those who wish to enjoy the Peruvian Andes and its fascinating cultures without the big tourist crowds.   9. Fiesta de la Candelaria, Puno, Peru — February Fiesta de La Candelaria, by Ricardo Marconato. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Another sensational Andean festival is the Fiesta de la Candelaria, which is held in Puno, on the shores of Lake Titicaca. It celebrates the region’s patron saint and features a vast procession, traditional dances, and music from the Andes. Much as with Holy Week, the festival mixes Catholic and indigenous traditions with performances of the traditional Diablada and Morenada dances, complete with elaborate costumes and masks.   Attend the Candelaria, and you’ll be privy to the best musicians, performers, and artisans from all over southern Peru. And that is a chance that only comes around once a year.