If you were an ancient traveler with wanderlust, you could theoretically see all of the ancient wonders of the world if you were in relatively decent physical shape and had access to a boat. Journeying between them would take over two months, maybe more, and take you across long stretches of land and water. Today, most of the wonders of the ancient world are gone, with only the Great Pyramid of Giza still standing. Back in antiquity, your journey would start at the Lighthouse of Alexandria and end at the Statue of Zeus at Olympia and encompass all seven wonders.   Lighthouse of Alexandria Painting of the Lighthouse of Alexandria. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Lighthouse of Alexandria was one of the most impressive structures of its time, although we’d consider it small by today’s standards. It was 360 feet tall, and the location was strategically chosen based on the tides.    Also known as the Pharos of Alexandria, it withstood several earthquakes before finally being partially reclaimed by the sea in the Eastern Harbor of Alexandria. After marveling at the Lighthouse of Alexandria, ancient travelers would walk roughly 46 hours, or 128 miles, to the next stop: the Great Pyramid of Giza.   Great Pyramid of Giza The Pyramid of Giza at night. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Welcome to the only one of the ancient wonders that travelers can still see today, the Great Pyramid of Giza. This landmark took over two decades and thousands of laborers to build and is one of the best-known wonders on the planet. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the final resting place of Khufu and part of a larger complex that encompasses the Necropolis and the city of Memphis.    The Great Pyramid of Giza is taller than the Lighthouse of Alexandria, at 481 feet tall, and comprises 2.3 million individual blocks. An ancient traveler would be able to explore all three chambers, plus the surrounding complex, before heading to the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon is 409 hours, or 1,133 miles, from the Great Pyramid of Giza.    Hanging Gardens of Babylon Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Source: Wikimedia Commons   For the ancient traveler, the long journey to the Hanging Gardens of Babylon would certainly be worth it. Constructed by King Nebuchadnezzar, they’re considered one of the greatest examples of engineering in the ancient world. Constructed of mud bricks, terraces, water features, and flowing trees, the legendary Hanging Gardens have been lost to time, but some archeologists speculate that they were originally near Nineveh.   From the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, it’s another long trek to the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, spanning 451 hours or 1,238 miles.   Temple of Artemis at Ephesus Temple of Artemis. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Welcome to the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, which celebrated and honored the Amazons, fierce warrior women of lore, and Artemis, the goddess of the hunt. Also known as the Temple of Diana, this stood until 401 C.E., and while you can visit the site and see some of its original foundations, only an ancient traveler could experience its true grandeur. It took ten years to complete and is considered to be one of the most incredible structures honoring Artemis of the ancient world.   Next, ancient travelers would have a relatively short journey to the Colossus of Rhodes. At 52 hours or 167 miles, it’s a shorter leg but involves a boat trip from Marmaris to Rhodes.   Colossus of Rhodes Drawing of the Colossus of Rhodes. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Towering 108 feet high, the Colossus of Rhodes was certainly just that: a colossal statue of Helios, the Greek sun god. This massive marvel would be visible from virtually anywhere on the island of Rhodes and spoke to its importance as a paragon of the ancient seafaring world.   In 226 B.C.E., the statue collapsed as a result of an earthquake, and after consulting with the Oracle of Delphi, it remained in ruins. Since then, there have been discussions about reconstructing the statue, but none have ever come to fruition. From the Colossus of Rhodes, the ancient traveler would hop into a boat for the 83.6-mile, three-hour trip to the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.   Mausosleum at Halicarnassus Mausoleum of Halicarnassus. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Dating back to the Persian Empire, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus is one of the great wonders of both the Persian and Grecian worlds and was built for Mausolus and Artemisia II of Caria. Standing at 148 tall and spanning 45 meters, the mausoleum wouldn’t be such an impressive structure today, but to the ancient traveler, it would have been a monolith.   One of the most interesting aspects of the mausoleum is its 400 sculptures and intricate interior architecture. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was subjected to multiple earthquakes and fell into ruin. The final leg of our ancient traveler’s journey would be to the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, 73 hours or 423 miles away.   Statue of Zeus at Olympia Olympian Zeus in the sculpted antique art. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The final destination for our weary ancient traveler is the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, which stood 41 feet tall and was covered in ivory and gold decorations. Built in honor of Zeus, the king of the gods, the statue originally sat on a cedarwood throne and lasted until about the 6th Century B.C.E.   All we know of this status is its depictions in art and descriptions in oral history. Still, we can speculate about its grandeur, and ancient travelers would certainly see this statue as a fitting endpoint to their long journey.

  The Minoan civilization existed from about 2800 BC to 1100 BCE and thrived as a group through maritime trade. Living on the island of Crete, the Minoan civilization eventually spread to most of the Aegean region and mainland Greece. Crete’s strategic location on the sea routes to the Middle East as well as the society’s contact with other trading civilizations, enriched its art and culture. Other civilizations including the Egyptians admired Minoan pottery due to the items’ unique shapes and designs which drew inspiration from nature and the sea. Some elite Egyptian families even commissioned Minoan potters to create items for them.    The Process of Making the Minoan Jar Handle Small terracotta Minoan jar. Source: Met Museum   Making the handle for a Minoan jar took a lot of skill. The process incorporates many different elements and starts with selecting and getting the clay ready. Minoan artists typically used clay found in their vicinity. In the modern world, however, high-quality as well as specific types of clay that have undergone purification can be bought.    Purification processes help to remove pebbles and other impurities that can affect quality and consistency. For potters who prefer to use the DIY method, the result can be achieved by putting the clay in water and getting rid of the heavier impurities through a process known as levitation. The process makes the clay smoother and easier to use. After purification, the clay is kneaded to get rid of any air bubbles and ensure consistency. The process makes the clay easier to mold and reduces the likelihood of the vase cracking when it is dried or baked.   Late Minoan vase. Source: Greek Artworks   After getting the clay ready, the potter can then proceed to make the handle. Minoan vase handles came in different shapes, styles, and sizes depending on the vase design and its purpose. To make the handle, a potter typically rolls a piece of clay to the right size and then carefully shapes it by hand or with simple tools such as clay paddles to fit the vase design.   The Process of Attaching the Handle Early Minoan jug, possibly contemporary with Tholos A, c. 3200-2900 BCE. Source: The British Museum, London   After shaping the handle, the potter should carefully attach it to the vase. The potter starts by scratching the spot on the vase where the handle will go. The scratches allow the handle to stick better. A smooth mix of clay and water is then put on the scratched spots and works like some sort of adhesive. The handle is then pushed hard onto the vase and the potter smoothens the joint section to make it look even and natural. This step is very delicate as any weakness could cause the handle to break off while it’s drying or during the baking process.   Once the handle is attached, the vase is left to dry slowly. The process should be done carefully because drying too fast can cause the clay to crack or change form. To begin the drying process, the vase is usually put in a cool, dark place with sufficient air flow for a few days so the water can dissipate slowly. When the handle is almost dry, the potter can smoothen its surface further using a wet sponge or cloth. This step helps to even out any lumps and gets the handle ready for decoration.    How the Minoan Vase Was Decorated Early Mycenaean/Late Minoan marine-style octopus stirrup jug, ca. 1200-1100 BCE. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   The exterior designs were very important for the Minoan people as they helped to showcase their craftsmanship. Many professional Minoan artists became famous due to their intricate and unique exterior vase designs. The designs often featured motifs of things in nature such as plants and sometimes sea creatures. This aspect showed just how much they endeared nature. The vase handle could be decorated in many ways, from etched designs on the clay to painting. Sometimes, a very thin coat of differently colored clay was added for a more premium finish.   The Kiln Process  Late Minoan terracotta stirrup jar. Source: Met Museum   After the drying process, the vase is put in a special oven (kiln) and baked. First, it is warmed gently to make the clay harder and more compact. This prepares it for a shiny coat of glaze where necessary. It is important to note that Minoan vases are historically not glazed. Instead, dark paint and clay slips are used to make patterns and decorations. Initially, the vase is baked at about 900 degrees Celsius. At this juncture, paint and clay slips can be applied to all parts including the handle. The paint and clay slips usually contain sand and pigments.    4,000-year-old Minoan Octopus vase at Heraklion Museum in Crete. Source: Heraklion Museum   The ingredients help to enhance the look. After they are applied, the vase is baked again at a higher temperature of typically between 1000 and 1200 degrees Celsius. That said, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) evidence reveals that the Minoans fired their pottery to maximum temperatures of between 800 and 850 degrees Celsius. The firing process allows the paint and clay slips to adhere more firmly to the clay. It is also likely that they relied on a single firing process.   That said, Minoan vases were unique and advanced for their time and had characteristic thin walls. From their art, experts have been able to draw valuable insights about the Minoan way of life. For the Minoan people of Crete, pottery, paintings, and statues were a fundamental part of their artistic culture.

  At the 8th Roman hour, or 2 pm, the Romans would finish their working day and head to one specific place to socialize, relax, and clean off the dirt of the day: the terme, or public baths. While some were lucky enough to have their own bath (balnea) at home, most headed to the communal building. There, you might get a massage, be cleaned by a slave, meet friends, conduct business, exercise, or take a swim. But always, the baths were the place to see and be seen.   The Origin of Bathing in Ancient Rome View of the main pool in the Roman Baths, Bath. Source: Paul Cuoco at Unsplash   Public baths began their life in ancient Greece around the 6th century BCE. The Greeks bathed in hip baths, which were centered around a circular room with columns and a domed roof known as a tholos. In these small sitz-baths, the bather crouched down while an attendant showered them with hot or cold water. Not content with this rather limited way of bathing, the Romans began building upon this concept around the 3rd century BCE.   Initially, baths in Rome (formerly known as gymnasia) were intended as a location for athletes to exercise and recuperate. The average Roman only washed the areas that got dirty from working, primarily their arms and legs, and then washed the rest of their body once every nine days. This usually coincided with the market, or nundinae, held every nine days (hence their name). The main area of the Roman gymnasia, modeled on the Greek example, was a courtyard for exercise and practice, while communal baths provided the opportunity for a wash.   This wet and warm environment was the perfect place to remove sweat and dirt from exercising or to remove olive oil, which was used by athletes as a muscle relaxant and for injury prevention. Over time, public baths became more and more elaborate, allowing the bather to take a journey through different rooms intended for various purposes. Each was designed with beautiful mosaics, wall paintings, stucco, and even statues. In Rome alone, there were 170 small, mostly private, baths littered across the city, but by the early 5th century CE, this number had grown to 856, with many available for public use.   A view of the Baths of Caracalla, by Giovanni Battista Piranesi, 1765. Source: Wellesley College   Building public baths were a sign of munificence, and many emperors, including Nero, Titus, Trajan, Caracalla, and Diocletian, constructed grand public baths. Even in republican times, magistrates used the baths to curry favor. For example, they might pay the entry fees at a certain bath for the public on their birthday.   Most Romans of any consequence had their own balneum, even in their smaller country homes. Seneca called the bathroom of Scipio Africanus at his country villa at Liternum by the diminutive balneolum. In contrast, Cicero called the multi-room bathroom at the villa of his brother Quintus the maximutive balnearia.  However, many of the elite still frequented the public bathhouses to engage in the social aspects of the space.   Bathing so often meant that the Romans were very clean, even by modern standards. According to one anecdote, when a foreigner asked the emperor why he bathed once a day, the emperor replied that it was because he did not have time to bathe twice a day.   The Roman Bathing Journey The floor plan of the Baths of Diocletian in Rome, completed in c. 305 CE. Source: Penn State University Library   Pompeii, destroyed and buried by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE, preserves various examples of public baths of varying size and complexity. One of these is in the very center of Pompeii, close to the Forum, and is now named the Terme del Foro. Though not the largest in the city, this complex had all the mod cons of a standard Roman bathing establishment. For more facilities, a Pompeian might have instead opted for the largest in the town, the Stabian Baths.   Starting at the entrance of the standard bathing complex, one would enter either via the male or female entrance and pay a nominal fee. This amount was set low enough to allow even the poor to bathe. If you were a woman, you would likely pay double to enter the female-only baths, where male prostitutes were likely active. Following this, bathers would enter the changing room (the apodyterium). Here, stone benches were set around the room to allow you to take off all your clothes, while niches above provided space to store your garments and items.   If you had the spare change, you might like to pay a slave to watch your clothes for you. This may have been money well spent, as a peeved bather from the Roman Terme in Bath attested. A lead curse tablet found on site preserved the handwritten curse of Solinus, whose cloak he had lost in the baths. On its surface, Solinus (or a scribe) wrote: “Solinus to the goddess Sulis Minerva. I give to your divinity and majesty my bathing tunic and cloak. Do not allow sleep or health to him… who has done me wrong, whether man or woman, whether slave or free, unless he reveals himself and brings those goods to your temple.” Curse tablet quoted by Garrett G. Fagan.   Warming Up in the Baths A room in Pompeii’s Stabian Baths, with niches for items and a plunge pool. Source: Pompeii Sites. A room in Pompeii’s Stabian Baths, with niches for items and a plunge pool. Source: Pompeii Sites.[/caption]   Having secured your items in the changing rooms, you would then begin your journey through the various rooms of the baths, beginning with the tepidarium, or “warm room,” which acted as a transition point between the hot and cold rooms. In the tepidarium, bathers would take time to relax in the lightly heated room. Temperatures in this room would not go above 99-102 Fahrenheit, making it the perfect place to relax on the warm benches. Here, you might pay a slave to clean you with a strigil, a curved metal instrument used to scrape the body.   First, the slave would cover you in olive oil before scraping this, and any accompanying dirt, off with the tool. In the Terme del Foro in Pompeii, bathers could also take a dip in the warm bath with water heated by a bronze brazier. Others would spend the time gambling with friends; dice and other gaming objects, such as knuckle bones, have been discovered in Roman baths. The discovery of needles and textiles in the archaeological remains of baths hints at the female activities of weaving and needlework while at the baths. After the tepidarium, it was time to make your way to the caldarium, or the “hot room.” Here, the heat from the hypocaust, located in the next room, would be the most intense.   Some baths also had a laconicum, which was a chamber even hotter than the caldarium but had no bath and was used as a sweating room or sauna. These were said to have been introduced to Rome in the 1st century BCE by Agrippa.   Central Heating and Water Supply Hypocaust from the Roman villa in Vieux-la-Romaine, near Caen, France. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Though elements of the hypocaust existed prior to the Republican period, the design of the hypocaust was refined by the Romans in the 2nd century BCE. This innovation consisted of brick pillars that raised the floor level, leaving open gaps below for hot air to circulate. The heat from a furnace would then be directed into the space under the floor, heating the floor throughout. This mechanism was also used to heat the water in certain areas of the bath, such as the caldarium. The baths also required significant service areas for the management of the facilities. The fornacatores who managed the fires.   In Pompeii’s baths, excavators found a marble labrum, a bath that would be filled with cold water for bathers who needed a cool down. In the caldarium, you would often find a hot plunge bath to soothe the muscles. Temperatures in the caldarium reached 100 Fahrenheit, while humidity was kept at a high level to increase the health benefits of the room. In some of the larger baths in Rome, the caldarium also featured a large, heated pool. Here, slaves would pour dishes of cool water (patara) on hot bathers.   The Caldarium is one of the surviving parts of the baths of York, viewable at the Roman Bath Museum. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Such complex building designs would require a high and regular supply of water. So, how was it that these baths were supplied with such a ready supply? The Romans were especially skilled in water engineering, and the supply of major cities with aqueducts allowed fresh water to be syphoned to public baths, as well as fountains, some commercial properties, and private (wealthy) buildings. Aqueduct and rainwater was kept in reservoirs and cisterns, meaning that even in very arid areas, water shortages were rare. For example, during the reign of Trajan (98-117 CE), nine aqueducts supplied the city of Rome with over 1 million cubic meters of water daily. This was equivalent to 300 gallons of water per person.   The Ancient Roman “Sport Centers” The frigidarium in the Baths of Diocletian in Rome. Source: Muzeo Nazionale Romano. The frigidarium in the Baths of Diocletian in Rome. Source: Muzeo Nazionale Romano.[/caption]   But it was not all about bathing. Very much in the spirit of modern gymnasia or sports complexes, while at the baths, you might also like to catch a poetry recital or engage in a ball game or two in one of the outdoor areas. In larger examples across the Empire, half-stadia for entertainment have been found in public bath complexes. Here, bathers may have taken in displays of juggling or gymnastics or listened to music played by musicians in the warm sun. Swimming pools were also common features of the public baths, usually surrounded by columns and undercover, as in the style of the rest of the baths, while public toilets were also provided.   Athlete Mosaic from the Baths of Caracalla, c. 4th century CE. Source: Musei Vaticani, Vatican City   An excellent example of the “great Imperial bath” blueprint in Rome were the Baths of Diocletian. Commissioned by the Emperor in 298 CE, this complex could hold up to 3,000 bathers and athletes at once, twice the amount of the second-largest public baths in Rome, the Baths of Caracalla. In each, elaborate displays of wall art have been discovered, accompanied by incredible mosaic designs on the floor. Both examples in Rome also boasted libraries, with each likely containing important or civic works.   Hawkers provided the opportunity to buy snacks at the entrance to the baths or in shops around the edges of the bath complex once inside. This food would often be light as it would have been eaten before the main meal of the day, held in the evening. Swathes of food remains have been discovered in the drains of many Roman baths, along with fragments of plates, cups, jugs, animal bones, and even shells. You might also like to get some dental work done with a dentist; teeth and scalpel discoveries at bath sites suggest that such activities happened in public baths.   Cooling Off The circular cold bath in the Roman Baths, Bath. Source: Wikimedia Commons The circular cold bath in the Roman Baths, Bath. Source: Wikimedia Commons[/caption]   After sweating it out in the caldarium, the next stop was the frigidarium for a cold plunge. The frigidarium was the “cold room.” This room was usually larger than others and had one or two baths served by steps. These baths were fed with pipes that were channeled through the walls of the frigidarium. Here, you might like to take a swim or just relax in the coolness of the water after the heat of the previous room. This was also the opportune time to get all the sweat and oil off from the previous rooms. Content with their journey through the many rooms, bathers would return to their items (providing they were still there) and make their way home in time for dinner.   Termas Romanas do Alto da Cividade, Portugal, by Janne Kauto, 2020. Source: Flickr   The Romans exported their bath houses around the Empire, and we find examples have been found in places like Algeria, Tunisia, France, Spain, Germany, Israel, Romania, Bulgaria, and, of course, England, with its famous bathhouse remains at Bath.   Initially, a Roman settlement known as Aquae Sulis was established between 60-70 CE, and the Roman baths were built not long after and expanded over the course of 300 years. Built close to a natural spring, they were in use until the 5th century CE. While dedicated to the Celtic goddess Sulis, the baths seem to have been a very Roman experience. More than 130 curse tablets have been found, most relating to the theft of clothes while bathing.

  The Medieval Period, which roughly stretched from 500 to 1500 CE, was a turbulent time of near-constant conflict. In order to gain an edge on the battlefield, armorers and weapons makers developed an astonishing variety of weapons to deal out damage and armor to keep a warrior alive. While far from a comprehensive list, this is a collection of some of the most interesting weapons and armor found on a medieval battlefield.   1. Helmets & Head Protection Spangenhelm, Byzantine or Germanic, c. 6th or 7th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   The single most important body part is the head, and therefore the number one priority of a soldier was to acquire a helmet of some kind. In late antiquity and the early medieval period, one of the more common types of helmet has been dubbed the Spangenhelm. It was made from a number of metal plates held together by a framework of metal strips. This was much easier to produce than a helmet made from a single piece of metal. The spangenhelm had a roughly conical shape with no sharp edges. This meant that strikes would be more likely to glance off of the helmet rather than take the full force of the impact. This helmet type would advance further, becoming more conical in shape and have the addition of a nasal guard to protect the face while still giving the wearer unobstructed visibility. These more advanced conical helms were used well into the 11th century and beyond, with iconography depicting them used by the Normans during the conquest of England in 1066.   For more complete protection, other options included the Great Helm, which was cylindrical in shape and completely covered the head. Visibility was provided by slits that were too narrow to stab or shoot through, as well as breathing holes to allow for some ventilation. The flat top of the helmet meant that the full force of the impact of a blow from above would be imparted on the helmet. But this type of helmet was primarily used by cavalry, so strikes from above were rare. By the late 13th or early 14th century, this evolved into the Sugarloaf Helm, which had a dome or conical top, which was more efficient at deflecting blows.   Great Bascinet, presumably made in Italy, 1430s. Source: British Museum   As technology advanced, helmets began to be equipped with visors, which meant that the user could choose between visibility and ventilation with a raised visor, or protection by lowering it. One of these helms was called the Basinet, which usually had a pointed visor that was hinged on the brow of the helmet.   Other helmets used during the medieval period were the Sleek Sallet, the Greek-inspired Barbute, and the wide brimmed Kettle Helm, which would later inspire the Brodie Helmet that was used by the British military in the First and Second World Wars. There were also more specialized helmets such as the Frog Faced Helm, which was completely enclosed, with visibility possible only through a slit at the top of the helmet and was generally used for jousting. There are countless variants of each of these helmet types and many more types of head protection that were used during the Middle Ages.   2. Medieval Armor & Mail Shirt of Mail made from Steel and Brass, Germany, c. 15th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   With the head protected, the next priority was to protect the rest of the body. The most common and easiest to produce was a garment called a Gambeson. This was a padded cloth jacket that could vary in length from about the waist to past the knee. If thick enough, a Gambeson could protect the wearer from slashes and cuts, lessen the impact of blunt force trauma, and though it could be vulnerable to punctures, was still much more effective than it may seem. Even if a warrior had more advanced metal armor, a Gambeson, or something similar, such as an arming doublet, would be worn underneath to act as padding and to prevent the metal from pinching into flesh. It was worn throughout the Middle Ages by both upper and lower classes. Cloth caps could also be worn as standalone protection or under helmets to absorb the force of impacts.   For more substantial armor, the most common was mail. Sometimes called chain mail by mistake, mail was made from interlocking metal rings that, when combined with the padded undercoat, provided a significant amount of protection. It was made into a garment called a Hauberk, which could range in size from roughly t-shirt dimensions to full arm length sleeves and a length that reached down past the knees. A mail hood called a Coif could be worn over the head under the helmet, providing even more head protection. As metallurgy advanced, a new type of armor was created called the Coat of Plates, since that is exactly what it is. It was made from individual steel plates riveted or sewn together with a fabric frame. This would evolve into the Brigandine, which was made from smaller plates of metal, and would be popular in the later portions of the Middle Ages and even into the early modern era.   Brigandine armor made from steel with silver and gold, linen, Italian, c. 1550. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   The peak of armor came with the development of full plate armor. Made from large sheets of steel, as time went on the armor became more advanced, featuring articulated joints that allowed full range of motion and was so encompassing that there were hardly any vulnerable openings. The steel would be hardened and all but impenetrable, even by powerful bows, crossbows, and even early firearms. While this may have made the wearer, usually a knight or nobleman, all but invulnerable, there were some downsides. The first of which was the expense. These were hand crafted by master artisans, and were often custom made for the wearer. Because of this, a full suit of high quality plate was monumentally expensive. The other issue was putting on and taking off the armor. The separate pieces had to be attached and strapped into place properly, which more often than not required the help of another person.   Effigy of a Knight in Gothic Plate Armor, French, c. 1425-50. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   In the late Middle Ages, regional variations of armor were developed. Two major centers of armor production were Milan and northern Italy, which created the sleek Milanese plate—which was often asymmetrical, offering more protection on the more vulnerable left side of the body—and Germany, which created Gothic plate. This type can be identified by the prominent grooves that gave the armor additional strength without adding weight.   3. Medieval Shields Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry showing warriors with kite shields, c. 1070. Source: Bayeux Museum   Armor wasn’t the only way for a warrior to defend himself. Many types of shields found their way onto medieval battlefields and could be used both offensively and defensively. They were primarily made out of wood and covered in canvas or leather, usually rawhide. It would also be rimmed with rawhide or metal. Many versions also had a boss, a domed piece of metal that protected the hand if it was gripped in the center. As armor became more advanced, shields became less and less common, but were still used even into the early modern era.   Shields in the early Medieval period were usually round and gripped in the center, a design that gave way to the Kite Shield, an elongated teardrop shield that was initially used by cavalry. This became smaller over time, evolving into the Heater Shield, which was flat topped with a roughly triangular shape. Both Heater and Kite shields would be strapped to the arm rather than held by a center grip. At the end of the Middle Ages, the Pavise, a type of Tower Shield, was used primarily by crossbowmen and handgunners as a form of mobile cover when reloading their weapons. There were also Bucklers, small disks of metal about the size of a dinner plate that could be easily carried, but lacked significant protection due to their size.   Infantryman’s shield (Pavise) made from wood, leather, gesso (natural glue), silver foil, and polychromy, Czech Republic, c. 1450. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   The primary role of a shield would be to block enemy attacks, absorbing the impact directly, or by using the rim to knock an attack to the side. Though defensive in nature, shields could also be used offensively, the rim or boss slammed into an opponent to knock them off balance, or thrust into the face to obscure vision, setting up a strike with the primary weapon.   4. Spears and the Pole Axe Iron Spearhead, Norse, c. 700-900 CE. Source: Royal Armories   By far the most common type of weapon used in the Middle Ages were Polearms of some kind, which are any number of weapons attached to the end of a long wooden shaft. The most common type was the humble spear, which was about six to eight feet in length. Cheap and simple to produce, they were the primary weapon of both the lower classes, who could form packed ranks of infantry to repel the enemy, and mounted knights. As armor evolved, however, this simple weapon was not enough. Once knights were fully ensconced inside of full plate armor, a spear tip would simply bounce off. Something more substantial was needed.   Venetian Poleaxe made from steel, brass, wood, gold, and textile, Italian, c. 1475. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   The Poleaxe is a multi-purpose polearm used by knights that combines the best aspects of several different weapons in a single package. There are several different versions of the poleaxe, but one of the most common configurations is a spear, hammer, and an axe in a single weapon. Foremost, it is a spear, which has a longer range than a sword or mace and allows the user to thrust at vulnerable areas of an opponent. Some versions have a spike instead of a spearhead, which is thinner and able to get into the gaps in plate armor, but has a smaller wound channel. The hammer provides blunt force trauma, able to simply bash an armored opponent into submission. The long, two-handed shaft was able to generate a tremendous amount of force. The axe head can chop into unarmored enemies with ease, but would likely glance off of any substantial armor. It was still useful, however. The shape of the axe could be used to hook onto an opponent’s neck or shoulder and drag him to the ground, or pull a leg out from underneath him. The shaft could also be used like a quarterstaff, knocking the enemy’s weapon offline, used to sweep the legs, or pushing the opponent back with the butt of the weapon and setting up a more powerful stroke.   Because of the extra weight at the end of the weapon, it was usually much shorter than a conventional spear, about the height of the wielder, or maybe a few inches longer. Poleaxes were usually used by the upper classes, so any disadvantage in reach would be offset by the higher level of armor worn by someone of the higher social order. They were usually used on foot in both the battlefield and in duels.   5. The Arming Sword Iron Sword, France, c. 13th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   If there is one weapon that is emblematic of the Middle Ages, it would be the sword. At first, swords were expensive and a sign of wealth and status. This changed over the course of the Middle Ages and swords became more and more commonplace as time went on, something that was helped by a widespread used arms and armor market that made weaponry more accessible to the masses. Even at their most popular, however, they were rarely the primary weapon of a soldier, but used either as a backup on the battlefield or as a self defense weapon in a civilian context.   The most common type of sword was the Arming Sword, which was derived from the Roman Spatha. It was a single-handed, double-edged, and straight-bladed weapon that had a cruciform hand guard. The blades came in all manner of shapes and sizes, which was the result of sword makers constantly experimenting with designs to improve performance. Although some arming swords were better suited for one task or another, they were multi-purpose weapons that could cut with the edge or stab with the tip, and even bludgeon with the pommel.   Arming Swords were fairly lightweight, weighing between one and three pounds on average. They were secondary weapons, used as a backup if the primary weapon broke or was lost. Since the primary weapon was often a lance used from horseback, it would often shatter on impact or become stuck in the unfortunate victim. When this happened, the Arming Sword would be drawn and used either from horseback or on foot. It was rarely used alone and would almost always be paired with a heater shield. The Arming Sword would increase in length, and by the late Middle Ages would evolve into the hand and a half sword and the two-handed longsword.   6. The Warhammer Medieval Warhammer, Italian, c. 15th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   While iconic, swords can have difficulty penetrating armor, and so more specialized weapons would be employed. One of the more popular anti-armor weapons was the Warhammer. Unlike popular perceptions, these were much smaller and lighter than often depicted in popular culture. Rather than the Mjolnir sized sledgehammers wielded by fantasy heroes, these were more compact, with the head of one-handed versions roughly the size of a modern claw hammer. The hammer head was given ridges or prongs to add friction so it wouldn’t slide off of smooth armor. The Warhammer would often be made with a curved spike on the opposite end, which added an armor piercing capability to the weapon. The downside to this is the risk of the spike getting stuck in the target after impact. There are also two-handed versions of the weapon, though the line between a Warhammer, a Poleaxe, and other weapons is a bit of a gray area.   Warhammers had the majority of their weight located towards the head of the weapon, which increases the force on impact. While it is much more nimble than many assume, the concentration of weight makes it harder to swing than a sword of the same weight. This means a one-handed warhammer was typically shorter than a sword, the user sacrificing reach for impact.   7. Hand Cannons Depiction of an early Hand Cannon, Belli Fortis English Manuscript, c. 1400. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The medieval era saw the introduction of possibly the most significant development in military history: gunpowder. First invented in China in the 9th century, ironically while alchemists were looking for the elixir of eternal life, its military applications were soon apparent. Gunpowder reached Europe in the 13th century, and with it, warfare changed forever.   Initially used as artillery, warriors wasted little time turning cannons into personal weapons. The Hand Cannon is exactly what it sounds like. It is a simple metal tube that was mounted on the end of a wooden shaft. There would be a touch hole at the base of the tube that was filled with gunpowder. When touched by a flame, the powder in the barrel would ignite, firing a stone bullet towards the target. This was an era before rifling, and the user tucked the wooden handle under his arm or braced it on the ground before firing, which made aiming difficult. As a result, these were inaccurate, and were more of a psychological weapon, the loud bang and puff of smoke unnerving to men and horses alike. They were also dangerous. Faulty forging processes or an excessive powder charge could cause the Hand Cannon to explode.

    In 581 CE, the general Yang Jian seized power from the Northern Zhou and established the Sui Dynasty. The Sui reunified China in 589, but the failure of costly expeditions in Korea led to the collapse of the dynasty in 618. The Tang Dynasty reaped the rewards of Sui investments in the empire’s infrastructure to usher in a golden age under emperors Taizong and Gaozong. A rebellion by the general An Lushan in the mid-8th century severely weakened central authority, though the dynasty survived until 907.   The Sui Reunification of China Emperor Wen of Sui from the Thirteen Emperors Scroll by Yan Liben (Tang Dynasty, 7th century CE). Source: Wikimedia Commons   In 580 CE, Emperor Xuan of Northern Zhou was preparing to launch a campaign to conquer the Chen Dynasty in southern China. The commander of the expedition was Yang Jian, the Duke of Sui, a distinguished general from an aristocratic Han Chinese family in northwestern China.   Although Yang Jian was his father-in-law, the emperor had been suspicious of the Yang family and threatened to depose his empress in favor of another consort. When the Emperor Xuan unexpectedly died, Yang Jian moved to assume the regency in the name of the seven-year-old Emperor Jing. He then defeated an uprising by the general Yuchi Jiong who sought to restore the imperial family’s influence.   In 581, Yang Jian founded the Sui Dynasty and is known to history as Emperor Wen of Sui. He built a new capital near Chang’an and introduced administrative reforms inspired by the Han Dynasty. He was guided by Legalist principles, imposed legal penalties on his own family members for violating the law, and promoted officials based on merit rather than birth.   In 589 CE, the Sui generals Gao Jiong and Yang Su led a campaign against the weakened Chen Dynasty, capturing the Chen emperor and sacking the Chen capital of Jiankang (modern Nanjing). The Sui moved the southern capital to Yangzhou, where the emperor’s son Yang Guang, the Duke of Jin, successfully pacified southern China by showing favor to local Buddhist elites.   Expenditures and Expeditions The Grand Canal during the Sui and Tang Dynasties. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In 604 CE, the Duke of Jin became the Emperor Yang upon his father’s death. While the Emperor Wen was responsible for construction of a canal connecting Chang’an to the Yellow River to facilitate the supply of grain to the capital, in 605, Emperor Yang expanded this system to the Yangtze River, creating a nationwide system of waterways known as the Grand Canal. A further branch was constructed in 608 towards the area of modern Beijing in order to supply armies in the northern frontier.   Within months of taking the throne, Emperor Yang established a secondary eastern capital in Luoyang. The city had symbolic significance as the capital of the Eastern Zhou and Eastern Han dynasties, and was also in a strategic position for control of the eastern Yellow River basin. Emperor Yang came under heavy criticism for his lavish spending on his palaces at Luoyang and Chang’an, and the labor obligations involved in the construction of canals and palaces took a heavy toll on the people.   Although the Emperor Yang had a successful military career in southern China and was in nominal command of the Sui forces that conquered Chen, he led three unsuccessful campaigns to subjugate the Korean kingdom of Koguryo between 612 and 614. The failed expeditions triggered a series of uprisings in northern China which the emperor struggled to deal with. In 616, he moved to Yangzhou and left his generals and officials in charge of the north, but was assassinated in 618.   The Rise of the Tang Emperor Taizong of Tang, Ming Dynasty Portrait (1368-1644). Source: Wikimedia Commons   As the Sui Dynasty collapsed, several warlords competed for power in northern China. In 617, Chang’an was occupied by Li Yuan, Duke of Tang, who founded the Tang Dynasty as Emperor Gaozu in 618. Over the following decade, Gaozu and his sons defeated rival claimants to the throne to consolidate their power and reunite China.   By the early 620s, a rivalry was brewing between Gaozu’s two elder sons, Crown Prince Li Jiancheng and second son Li Shimin. Both had distinguished themselves in the rebellion against the Sui and the subsequent pacification campaigns. While Gaozu made efforts to reconcile his sons, in 626, Shimin killed Jiancheng in a coup at the Xuanwu Gate in Chang’an and took control of the government.   Within a few months, Li Shimin deposed his father Gaozu to become the Taizong Emperor, one of the most effective rulers in Chinese history. Although the Tang Dynasty enjoyed the benefits of infrastructure projects initiated by the Sui emperors, Taizong recognized that such projects placed heavy burdens on the peasantry and reduced labor obligations.   Taizong reversed some of the centralization measures introduced by the Sui emperors and was fortunate to call on the advice of a group of talented officials, who effectively acted as deputies for him on the battlefield and in civil administration. Buddhism flourished during the Tang Dynasty, and between 629 and 645, the monk Xuanzang made a celebrated pilgrimage to India, bringing back a vast collection of Buddhist texts and relics.   Tang Expansion Portrait of Li Jing from the album Portraits of Famous Men, unknown Chinese artist, 19-20th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Taizong’s greatest achievement in foreign and military policy was the conquest of the Eastern Turkic qaghanate. During the mid-6th century CE, the Göktürk qaghanate stretched from the northern Caucasus in the west to Manchuria in the east. By the turn of the 7th century, the Turkic empire was split between eastern and western qaghanates, both of which remained formidable powers.   In the late 620s, a civil war broke out within the Eastern Turkic qaghanate. After allowing both sides to exhaust their power, in 629 Taizong set up a puppet ruler who paid tribute to Chang’an. In 630, Tang armies under the talented generals Li Jing and Li Shiji defeated the Eastern Turks in battle and captured the qaghan. Taizong was subsequently recognized by the Eastern Turks as the heavenly qaghan.   Taizong then set his sights on the Western Turkic Qaghanate, and by the mid-640s, Tang forces had defeated most of the Turkic vassal states in the Tarim Basin. While Taizong died in 649, in 655, his son and successor Gaozong dispatched the general Su Dingfang to lead a new campaign against the Western Turks. By 657, Tang armies successfully conquered the Western Turkic empire and established protectorates to govern the occupied territories. As a result of these campaigns, the Tang Dynasty briefly took control of major Silk Road trading posts in modern-day Uzbekistan and Afghanistan.   Empress Wu Monument to Empress Wu Zetian, Wenshui County, Shanxi. Source: Mapio.net   Emperor Gaozong’s 34-year reign was dominated by his consort Wu Zhao, better known as Wu Zetian. As a teenager, Wu had been one of Taizong’s concubines during the 640s, and Gaozong had been so captivated by her that he recalled her to the imperial harem after his father’s death. Her influence at court increased after she gave the emperor a son in 652, and she became empress consort by 655.   Wu quickly moved to eliminate her rivals, and in 657, she designated Luoyang as a permanent second capital, bringing the court closer to her supporters in northeastern China. By 660, she was in effective control of the empire after Gaozong began suffering from an illness which affected his ability to govern.   In 668, the veteran Tang general Li Shiji finally achieved the conquest of Koguryo, though Tang domination of the Korean peninsula lasted little more than a decade. The costly campaign increased popular discontent, and in 674, Empress Wu announced a reduction of taxes and an end to military campaigns to restore popular favor.   Upon Gaozong’s death in 683, Empress Wu ensured that her son succeeded to the throne as Emperor Zhongzong. The new emperor attempted to break free from his mother’s influence, and in 684, Wu replaced him with a more compliant son, Emperor Ruizong. In 690, Wu Zetian took the unprecedented step of becoming an empress in her own right. Despite proclaiming a new Zhou Dynasty, she continued Tang policies and ruled with an iron fist until her health declined and she was overthrown in a coup shortly before her death in 705.   Imperial Overstretch Portrait of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Wu Zetian’s death was followed by a period of political intrigue during which emperors Zhongzong and Ruizong both returned to the throne. In 712-13, Ruizong abdicated the throne in favor of his son Xuanzong, who introduced reforms to restore political order and revive bureaucratic institutions which had been sidelined during the time of Empress Wu.   Xuanzong’s reign was celebrated as a golden age of Chinese poetry and culture. The emperor himself was an accomplished poet who patronized the arts, and the great poets Li Bai and Du Fu flourished during the period of peace and prosperity that accompanied the first half of Xuanzong’s reign. The emperor was assisted by a group of talented ministers, but from 736, his chief minister Li Linfu accumulated power and began purging his rivals.   The revival of Tang fortunes under Xuanzong enabled China to reassert itself against its regional rivals, particularly the Tibetan Empire to the southwest. While Empress Wu had pursued a defensive policy on the western frontier, Xuanzong’s reign saw a significant increase in military expenditure and the deployment of large armies to the frontier under powerful military governors.   During the 740s, the Tang armies campaigned successfully against the Tibetans and restored their position in Central Asia. In 751, a Tang army under the hitherto successful general Gao Xiaozhi was routed in the Battle of Talas by the newly established Abbasid Caliphate. Meanwhile, Tang forces also suffered a serious setback against the Nanzhao kingdom in present-day Yunnan province.   The An Lushan Rebellion Map of the An Lushan Rebellion. Source: Wikimedia Commons   By the mid-740s, the aging Xuanzong had been neglecting state duties and preferred to spend his time in the company of his consort, Yang Guifei, one of the most celebrated beauties in Chinese history. The emperor promoted members of the Yang family, and when Li Linfu was removed as chief minister in 752, he was succeeded by Consort Yang’s cousin, Yang Guozhong.   After taking office, the new chief minister sought to curb the power of An Lushan, a general of Turkic ancestry who had campaigned successfully in the north at the head of large armies. Despite Yang Guozhong’s efforts, An initially retained the emperor’s confidence, but the general gradually distanced himself from the court.   In late 755, An Lushan launched a rebellion from his base near present-day Beijing, and by 756, he had captured Luoyang and proclaimed the Yan Dynasty. Although the rebels were stopped at the Tong Pass by Loyalist forces, Yang compelled the general Geshu Han to counterattack and advance on Luoyang. Geshu’s army was duly routed, and the rebels marched on Chang’an unopposed.   As the imperial court fled the capital for Sichuan, a mutiny by the palace guards compelled Xuanzong to order the execution of Yang Guozhong and Yang Guifei, and the emperor was soon forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Emperor Suzong. In 757, the Tang general Guo Ziyi recaptured Luoyang and Chang’an, while An Lushan was killed by his son. The rebel forces were not completely subdued until 763.   Revival and Collapse Mural depicting the Tang army from the Dunhuang Mogao Caves. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Following the An Lushan Rebellion, the Tang emperors struggled to restore central authority and provincial governors enjoyed considerable autonomy. The withdrawal of the armies from the northwestern frontier to deal with the rebellion led to the loss of influence in Central Asia.   At the beginning of the 9th century CE, Emperor Xianzong (r. 805-820) made considerable progress in reasserting central authority among the provinces through a series of successful campaigns. However, the centralization process remained unfinished upon Xianzong’s sudden death in 820, commonly attributed to the eunuch Chen Hongzhi.   For most of the 9th century, the Tang court was ridden by factionalism, and the misrule of the late Tang period has traditionally been attributed to the growing influence of palace eunuchs. In spite of this, Tang armies retained the ability to conquer the Uyghur empire in Mongolia in 847.   However, during the second half of the 9th century, the Tang Dynasty faced several major rebellions, the most consequential of which was the Huang Chao Rebellion in 875. Like An Lushan, Huang Chao managed to occupy Chang’an, but his incursion into southern China dealt a fatal blow to the Tang Dynasty’s fortunes.   The rebellion was defeated in 884 by Tang armies led by Li Keyong and Zhu Wen, a former rebel who defected to the Tang. Li and Zhu quickly emerged as the two most powerful warlords in China. In 907, Zhu Wen deposed the Tang emperor and established the Later Liang Dynasty, inaugurating a period of instability known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.

  In modern-day society, it is easy to see how Japan differs from Europe. Cultural ideals in Japan are just about as far away from European (or “Western”) culture as you can get—but how far back do these differences go? In this article, we will explore just how different these two cultures were, or whether they were different at all, by looking at religion, warfare, society, kingship, and more.   Similarities: 1. The Feudal System Investiture of a Knight, from the Order of the Knot, c. 1352. Source: Gallica Digital Library   In both medieval worlds, there was a key hierarchical system. In medieval Japan, the emperor was at the top, with various ranks of nobles beneath him, and eventually at the bottom of the social caste was the peasant, or the common man.   In effect, it was not too dissimilar in medieval Europe—there was the King or Queen at the top, followed by various ranks of nobles including marquesses, dukes, barons, viscounts, and knights, after which following were merchants, and then peasants at the bottom.   These systems offered a social ranking that everyone was aware of—people knew that a peasant’s main job was to provide food, and get paid a pittance for it from their landlord. In turn, that lord would then sell the food to the ranks above, who would deal with distribution and taxation for the crown, and so on.   In medieval Japan, the system was much the same. Peasants were the providers, and the higher ranks (such as samurai) benefited from their hard work—an early form of labor exploitation.   2. Warrior Classes Samurai, c. 1700s. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Knights (in Europe) and Samurai (in Japan) were the two distinct warrior classes in both medieval realms. Despite several similarities, there were still some striking differences between the two.   Perhaps the biggest difference between them was how they were paid for their services. In medieval Europe, knights could become very powerful by rising through the military ranks, because they tended to be paid in land. A knight could own several castles at any given point, or a certain amount of acres of land.   This was how famous knights such as William Marshal, the Eagle of Brittany, and John of Gaunt all became so powerful, and this was especially important in times of turmoil against the king or the sitting monarch.   On the other hand, in medieval Japan, samurai were typically paid a salary, rather than granted lands. While this incurred more of an expense for the emperor, this was much more beneficial in terms of the power that the samurai held, ensuring that the emperor always held more.   The salary that samurai were typically paid was in rice, rather than in cash, so this also came at a lesser expense for the crown. In certain instances of bad harvests, there was occasionally a rice shortage, but this simply meant that the value of rice went up, so whatever rice the samurai already had a hold of meant that they had more purchasing power with it.   3. Political Decentralization Peasants’ Revolt, from Froissart’s Chronicles, c. 1470. Source: BnF   There were also several similarities in terms of political decentralization. This went hand-in-hand with how the warrior classes were similar in nature.   For example, while a king or emperor ruled the country as a whole, the idea that power was spread across the kingdoms was similar in both medieval Europe and medieval Japan.   In Europe, for instance, lords and vassals would rule certain areas of land (known as fiefdoms or dukedoms) and be in control of elements such as agricultural production, military output, local taxation, and more.   Similarly, in Japan, local areas were often controlled either by samurai or other local lords who reported to a more senior figure, such as the emperor.   This meant that the emperor could focus more on things such as foreign policy or internal conflict, while the senior lords were responsible for keeping the peace in their kingdoms.   However, decentralized power like this often led to internal conflicts in both medieval Europe and medieval Japan.   Events such as the Peasants’ Revolt in 1381 in England ended up being such a popular movement that it involved King Richard II, who had to put it down. Similarly, the Jacquerie in 1358 in France was another popular revolt that ended up gaining national attention.   These often-localized rebellions and uprisings often gained huge support outside of individual lords’ fiefdoms or territories, and could end up gaining national attention, particularly if the ruling lord had sympathies with the rebels.   4. Agricultural Economies Kinkaku-ji, built in 1397. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Another similarity that was shared between medieval Japan and medieval Europe was that both were built on agricultural economies.   While the primary grains differed—rice in Japan and wheat in Europe—the concept of an agricultural economy remained the same.   Peasants were responsible for growing the produce, of which they would keep very little, while the landholders would take their share, and the king or emperor an even larger share.   The reason why agricultural economies fluctuated so much in the Middle Ages in both Japan and Europe was that grain prices could skyrocket or drop dramatically, given the harvest and the weather conditions. Another serious consequence of an agricultural economy was that extreme weather events, such as floods or droughts, could lead to mass starvation and famines.   For example, the famine that England experienced from 1315-17 was so bad that the agricultural economy did not recover, and neither did harvest numbers and yields, until 1322: seven years after the first year of famine.   In medieval Japan, the story was fairly similar—a bad harvest season for the rice crops meant that the whole country would suffer, from peasants dying of famine and other nutritional-based diseases, to samurai not getting paid, and popular uprisings due to the lack of food.   Differences: 1. Military Leadership Ōishi Yoshio, a samurai, committing seppuku, c. 1703. Source: Waseda University Library   While the different warrior classes discussed earlier represent two similarities that medieval Japan and medieval Europe had in common, their style of military leadership differed greatly.   For example, in medieval Japan, the samurai were known for following the strict code of Bushido, which translates as “the way of the warrior.” They were known for their loyalty and courage and were highly respected in society.   Bushido developed during the Kamakura Period (1192-1333), and to this day, it is still studied in military training in Japan. Honor was a huge part of bushido, and samurai were expected to show the highest level of honor even when facing death. It was better to die honorably than die begging for forgiveness in the eyes of medieval Japanese society.   However, one striking difference is that one had to be born into a samurai family, and previous generations had to have been samurai for a medieval Japanese man to become a samurai. On the contrary, while most knights came from privileged backgrounds, the idea that anybody could rise to the rank of a knight in medieval Europe set the two apart.   A German knight, 1305-15. Source: University of Heidelberg   Knights were similar in the sense that they were expected to adhere to the code of chivalry, and this idea had begun to develop around 1170-1220, so on almost the exact same timescale that bushido had begun to develop in Kamakura-era Japan.   Chivalry was similar to bushido, but the consequences were not as severe if knights did not adhere to it—they were merely expected to, and the majority of them wanted to. Chivalry had more religious undertones than bushido did, focused on fighting for Christianity, for God, for Christendom, for Christ, with a heavy emphasis on protecting the Virgin Mary as a knight of God, particularly while on a crusade.   So while samurai and knights had their similarities, there were also stark differences between the way they operated when it came to bushido vs chivalry.   2. Religious Differences The Great Buddha of Asuka-dera, the oldest Buddhist statue in Japan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Religion was a major factor in the societies of both medieval Japan and medieval Europe.   In Japan during the Middle Ages, there were several different religions operating at one time. Buddhism had spread from the Indian subcontinent, across China, Korea, and into Japan by the mid-6th century CE, so it had been practiced in the country for almost the entirety of the Japanese Middle Ages.   In addition, Confucianism, which had spread from China and reached Japan by around the 3rd to the 5th centuries CE, was another familiar religious sect in the country that many people adhered to.   Thirdly, there was also Japan’s native belief system, which predates any historical records. This is called Shinto, and many people also adhered to this.   In addition, Emperors in medieval Japan were viewed as god-like figures, and while most medieval kings in Europe held a hugely respectable status, it was not the king but the Pope who held most religious power in medieval Europe.   Religion was also hugely important to daily life in medieval Europe, but it was much more structured across the continent. In the Middle Ages, the primary religion was Christianity, and specifically, Catholicism.   Multiple services were held every week, and everyone from peasants to kings was expected to attend the majority of them. The Pope, who was based in the Papal States, was viewed as God’s representative on Earth, and thus held all of the power.   There were other sects of other religions in medieval Europe at the time—Judaism was practiced by medieval Europe’s Jews, but was not without its troubles. The jews were expelled from numerous countries, including England in 1290 by King Edward I. Islam had also reached the Iberian peninsula by the 8th century CE, but was generally restricted to southern Spain for the majority of the Middle Ages.   3. Social Mobility The Caravan of Marco Polo, c. 1375. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Despite the fact that both societies were traditional feudal systems, there were actually some differences in social mobility.   In medieval Japan, social mobility was much more rigid than in Europe. For example, while samurai were some of the most revered members of Japanese society, they did not own land. On the contrary, in Europe, knights were also highly respected, but they were often paid in lands for their services to the Crown, which produced a completely different power dynamic.   In turn, this means that Japanese samurai were much less socially powerful than knights, and because most people in medieval Europe, through fortune and lots of luck, could work their way up the social hierarchy to become a knight, this gave medieval Europe the edge in terms of social mobility over medieval Japan.   However, it was not just military social mobility that was possible in medieval Europe. Social mobility was possible through trades. In medieval Japan, peasants gave birth to the next generation of peasants, while lords and ladies gave birth to the next generation of lords and ladies, and so on.   In medieval Europe, while this was the case most of the time, there was a much higher chance of climbing the social ladder. A peasant could give birth to a peasant child, but if that child showed certain military prowess, or was a skilled blacksmith, or even traded well at local markets, they could carve out a career for themselves in one of these industries. Merchants who ran mini-trading empires in medieval Europe, such as those operating from port cities like Genoa, often came from very poor backgrounds themselves, but worked their way up the social ladder.   4. Technological Advances Landing of Christopher Columbus, by John Vanderlyn, 1846. Source: Wikimedia Commons   It might seem strange, given that Japan is one of the most technologically advanced countries in the modern world, but it was actually quite far behind Europe in terms of technological advancements during the Middle Ages.   Part of this was due to Japan’s lack of contact with the majority of the outside world, whereas by the Late Middle Ages, Europeans were leading the way in contact with other continents: Columbus to the Americas, Vasco da Gama to India and Marco Polo to China, just to name a few explorers in the early Golden Age of European exploration.   Europeans tended to focus on navigational technologies, which helped them to explore more of the world than ever before, whereas the Japanese tended to focus instead on internal development and military technologies.   In saying this, it was in the mid-16th century that Japan had adopted gunpowder and European-style weapons from European visitors, whereas medieval Europeans tended to develop these technologies from scratch, instead of adopting them and suiting them to their own needs from other cultures.   Overall, medieval Europe had a much quicker and larger technological boom than medieval Japan did, but Japan’s technological boom would come much later and arguably have a bigger impact at the time that it did come.   Medieval Europe vs Medieval Japan: Conclusions Peasants before a castle, from Les très riches heures du duc de Berry Folio 9, by the Limbourg brothers, 15th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In conclusion, medieval Europe and medieval Japan shared many similarities, but it is important to acknowledge the differences between them. In the Early Middle Ages, neither society knew that the other existed, and both developed at their own pace.   Factors such as religion, hierarchical structure, and technological advancements separated these two societies, and it is important to look at the context in which they developed.   For example, while medieval Japan had natural disasters such as tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanoes and more to learn how to deal with, medieval Europe had factors such as the Black Death, trade-borne diseases and overpopulation to deal with at the same time, which is why both societies developed at different paces and had hugely different cultures.

  The idea of chivalry has gone from the stereotypical image of a knight in shining armor rescuing a maiden who has been imprisoned in some evil man’s castle in the Middle Ages (like in many fairytales), to the notion of a modern-day man holding a door open for a woman. But chivalry in the Middle Ages went far beyond the fairytale version. Read on to discover the true meaning of chivalry and why it was so well-respected and important in the medieval world.   The Origins of Chivalry Konrad von Limpurg as a knight being armed by his lady, by Master of the Codex Manesse, c. 1350. Source: Heidelberg University Digital Library   Chivalry as a movement—sometimes called the chivalric movement—was associated with the late 12th and early 13th centuries in Europe. To be more specific, it was developed and the idea was refined between 1170 and 1220. This period is sometimes referred to as the High Middle Ages, and combined with the notion of a “knight in shining armor,” this is naturally why we associate chivalry with these peak years of the European Middle Ages.   How did chivalry develop? The origins can be traced much further back than the 12th century, instead going back to the Carolingian Empire (800-887 CE).   The name comes from the bravery associated with cavalrymen—soldiers who fought on horseback. The French term chevalerie translates into English as “horse soldiery.” This was due to the immense bravery, dedication to individual training, and service to others that they showed both on and off the battlefield. These soldiers became idolized and later remembered fondly, particularly in the Kingdom of France, by the late 12th century.   However, over the years, the idea of chivalry became refined and was later used not just to reference mounted soldiers but also the ideas of honor, respect, and manners. These were naturally accompanied by the ideals of bravery, teamwork, and moral ethos, which took on a secondary element to the overall notion of chivalry.   Literary Chivalric Examples From the Middle Ages Anachronistic portrait of Ramon Llull, by Francisco Ribalta, c. 1620. Source: Catalan National Art Museum   There are several examples of chivalric behavior from the Middle Ages that really cemented the ideals of chivalry and also showed how the idea was refined from its original definition.   The interesting thing about these three works is that none of the authors of these texts had any knowledge of the other two, yet, when the three are combined, it shows just how close their ideas of chivalry and chivalric behavior were.   First, it is in the medieval poem (whose author is unknown) titled Ordene de Chevalerie, and it tells the story of the Crusader knight Hugh II of Tiberias, who was captured by the Infidel. He was then released upon agreeing to show Saladin the ritual of Christian knighthood. This poem was written around the year 1220, in the very early years of the development of chivalry.   Portrait of Saladin, 1584. Source: The British Museum   The second example is found in the Libre del Ordre de Cavayleria, which was written by the Majorcan philosopher Ramon Llull (1232-1315). The main focus of this work is knighthood, and essentially what a good knight should do, think, and act like. This was written in either the 13th or the very early 14th century.   Finally, the Livre de Chevalerie, by Geoffroi de Charny (1300–56), examines the primary qualities of knighthood, with a particular emphasis on the idea of “prowess.” Geoffroi de Charny was a French knight and a close friend of King Louis IX. He was a renowned knight and fought in the early years of the Hundred Years’ War, showing that the idea of chivalry was still being developed and refined as late as the mid-14th century.   There are several key factors that bring these different texts together, despite them being written almost 200 years apart. Firstly, religion is a key idea. Christianity and chivalry went hand-in-hand in the Middle Ages. One could not be chivalrous if one were not a Christian, as fighting for the good cause (Christianity, Christendom, Christ, God, and so on) was deemed a noble thing to do.   Nobility was a secondary theme—the characters in these works had good moral compasses. Hugh II of Tiberias showed the Muslim leader Saladin the ideals of Christian knighthood, rather than stabbing his mortal enemy in the back.   Militarism is the third element of the works—all of the works reference knighthood as their primary theme: how can anyone but a knight be chivalrous? All of these top examples would inspire future knights and make them want to become chivalrous and be remembered in tales and works centuries later.   The Rise of Chivalry in the Middle Ages God Speed, by Edmund Leighton, 1900. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Before 1170, there had been some uncertain and loose ideas of chivalry floating around—it was not that as soon as 1170 arrived, knights began to behave according to the unwritten code of chivalry.   Instead, knights had previously obeyed what was known as the noble habitus, or a code of moral and noble conduct. This was an aim to become a sensible and wise man, and interestingly, it was just as expected of peasants as it was of knights. In turn, this meant that this idea was as relevant to men who had nothing to do with the military as it was to those who were in the military.   Themes such as loyalty, hardiness, bravery, and generosity dominated the forefront of the noble habitus.   The Crisis of Courtliness Henry the Young King, c. 1250. Source: GetArchive   From the late 12th century onwards, the idea of chivalry came to be understood as a religious, moral, and social code of knightly conduct. Knights were hugely respected and were expected to carry these values with them everywhere. Not just on the battlefield, but in their domestic life too. Therefore, the idea of a “knight in shining armor” prevailed long after the events of the battlefield had unfolded, meaning that chivalry took on another theme: courtliness.   An example of this so-called “crisis” of courtliness can be traced back to Henry the Young King, who was the eldest son and heir of King Henry II of England (r. 1154-89), before his death. Henry’s heir then became his next eldest son, who went on to rule as King Richard I (ironically, one of the most revered chivalric monarchs in English history).   Henry the Young King was known for his lavish lifestyle and spent most of his time attending tourneys and hosting great feasts, rather than being involved in domestic or foreign affairs. Some historians claim that Henry II funded this sort of lifestyle for his son, so that he would not meddle in political affairs and get in his way, while others simply think that Young Henry had the funds to do as he pleased, so he did exactly that.   Being the King’s son, Young Henry was naturally a knight, but his lifestyle went against the whole notion of chivalry—to paraphrase a modern idiom, he spent his money on wine, women, and song. This outraged those who were keen to establish the ideal of chivalry beyond the battlefield, so it was arguably the influence of Young Henry’s lifestyle that transformed the notion of chivalry from a battlefield ideal to one that should be upheld in court, too.   Christian Chivalry Knights on Crusade, c. 14th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As mentioned earlier, Christianity and chivalry went hand-in-hand, and one of the best examples of this was how crusader knights were revered.   Knights who fought in the Crusades, and upheld their chivalric values—such as praying at certain chapels, donating alms to the poor, rescuing citizens from the Infidel, and most importantly, fighting for Christendom against Islam—were held in such high esteem that they were almost untouchable. And to the minds of those in medieval Europe, how could they be criticized when they were fighting in the name of God?   However, it was not just fighting as a warrior of God that meant knights in the Middle Ages were chivalric heroes; it was also the Virgin Mary. Women had a place in chivalry—knights were in effect protecting one of the most revered figures in medieval Christianity, the mother of Jesus Christ himself.   The Downfall of Chivalry in the Late Middle Ages Edward III, by William Bruges, c. 1450. Source: British Library   Chivalry is so associated with the High Middle Ages because of the notion of knights in shining armor whisking away fair maidens from evil overlords, and that image of chivalry has stuck in our heads ever since. The romantic element of chivalry is not lost to some, but the militaristic element has been. But when exactly did it die out?   To say that it died out is probably unfair—it was arguably the development of warfare from the mid-14th century onwards that contributed to the decline of chivalry.   One notable example comes from the Hundred Years’ War, and especially from the years of English dominance from the 1340s onwards, under King Edward III of England (r. 1327-77). Many armies were being bolstered by the use of mercenaries (paid soldiers) at this point, which went against the ideal of fighting nobly for one’s country out of duty and commitment to the Crown.   The Battle of Crecy, by Jean Froissart, 15th century. Source: BnF   Another element was that because the size of armies was increasing, it meant that more and more common people were being drafted into fighting forces, and they played arguably a more significant role than the knights did in certain battles, such as the peasant longbowmen who were so dominant in the field at the Battle of Crécy (1346) and the Battle of Poitiers (1356), and helped turn the war in favor of the English.   This also showed that the traditional chivalric element of bravery on mounted horseback (as the French army attempted at both of those aforementioned battles) was a failure against the superior tactic of the English longbow. This meant that a huge element of chivalry had been defeated, and as such, this was likely one of the turning points when chivalry turned away from militarism and knights on horseback, and instead turned into the social and moral code that we tend to associate it with today.   Chivalry in the Middle Ages: Final Thoughts Knight, Death, and the Devil, by Albrecht Dürer, 1513. Source: The Met, New York   Chivalry in the Middle Ages was not a complex idea, but was more a development in social, religious, and moral thinking from the late 12th century onwards. Without chivalric elements, it could even be suggested that codes of war and ideas like the Geneva Convention would never have come about. Respect and graciousness in defeat also come from chivalry, too.   While the idea has transformed from the original notion of brave knights on horseback, to a respectful code at home as well as on the battlefield, and eventually to romantic literature and the idea of the knight in shining armor, chivalry is not dead to this day. Just as it never died in the Late Middle Ages, it is just that a notion that has changed.   What was chivalric in the Middle Ages is not necessarily chivalric today—we no longer fight wars on horseback or with swords, but we can still be respectful to other religions, other people, and fight in what we each believe is a good cause, while still holding respect for other views. That is chivalric, and chivalry is not dead.

  Lovers of British history are obsessed with Anne Boleyn. It is undoubtedly she, out of all the six wives of King Henry VIII, who is given the most attention in any publication or production.   Thanks to the enduring power of literature and media, Anne Boleyn has been reimagined as the most sensual and attractive of characters. Throughout the years since her death, she has been painted as an expert in the art of seduction; as an irresistible enchantress; as a woman of almost magical capabilities; and as the classic other woman.   Anne Boleyn may be the favorite Tudor queen among modern audiences but was she the favorite wife of King Henry?   Anne Boleyn: Wife Number Two  Portrait of Anne Boleyn, 1550. Source: The Tudor Travel Guide   “Divorced, beheaded, died; divorced, beheaded, survived.”    We are all familiar with this catchy and meaningful jingle. Each of the six wives of King Henry VIII is represented by a single word; what took place before is forgotten, and their entire lives are summed up with only their ultimate fates.   Catherine of Aragon was divorced in 1533. Jane Seymour died in 1537. Anne of Cleves was also divorced but in 1540. Catherine Howard was beheaded in 1542. Catherine Parr survived when she saw the death of her husband in January 1547.   It is Anne Boleyn who is represented by the word beheaded the first time it appears in the poem. Yes, she was the first of King Henry’s wives to suffer trial and execution, when she experienced a swift downfall and disgrace in May of 1536 but what exactly led her to the lowest and most frightening point of her life? This unfortunate series of events is one that has been retold, time and time again, over the 500 years since her death.   Portrait of King Henry VIII, by Joos Van Cleve, 1530-5. Source: The Royal Collection Trust   Of course, the first thing to know about Anne Boleyn is that she was the second wife and queen of King Henry VIII. It was Anne who replaced Catherine of Aragon — the Spanish princess who had fallen in love with King Henry over 20 years previously.   King Henry and Anne Boleyn’s romance lasted around ten years, their marriage just over three. A formal wedding took place on January 25, 1533, approximately four months after a secret wedding ceremony had been performed in November of the previous year. After this most special occasion, King Henry and Anne Boleyn were finally happy. After seven years of desperation, they were now able to be together, openly and honestly, as man and wife. How were they to know that their happiness would be short-lived? Their marriage was fleeting but intense. Their union brought great and unprecedented change in England and their relationship was woven with passion, strife, uncertainty, but most of all a life-altering form of love.   The Courtship of Anne Boleyn, by Emanuel Leutze, 1846. Source: The Smithsonian Museum   Despite the joy and relief their eventual wedding brought, their initial courtship was hardly as simple as it may seem to the untrained eye. The capturing of Anne Boleyn’s heart, and the tying of her hand to his, had been one of the most difficult challenges of King Henry’s life. One might say that he went through hell or high water to wed and bed her; the phrase would hardly be an understatement.   In order to please the woman he loved, King Henry divorced his loyal wife of 20 years, without so much as a kiss goodbye or a tear of remorse. As if to embarrass and dishonor her further, he had attended trial after trial in an attempt to prove that his marriage to her had not been valid in the first place. He had declared his previous marriage void, and in doing so willingly rendered his only living and legitimate heir a bastard. He rid himself of Cardinal Wolsey, his greatest friend and the most competent servant he had ever had. He had stripped Wolsey of his wealth and properties, changed them to suit Anne Boleyn’s liking, and handed them over to her as a thoughtful gift.   As if that were not enough, since divorce itself was not permitted by the Catholic Church, King Henry split both himself and his country from Rome, declaring himself Supreme Head of a new Church in England, and purposefully pushed his own soul toward supposed eternal damnation.   The Trial of Catherine of Aragon, by Henry Nelson O’Neil, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Surely, these points alone may seem proof enough of King Henry’s feelings toward Anne Boleyn. For what other reason would he have done all this, other than that he was madly in love with her? And, if we venture a little further through the story, we may ask ourselves another contrasting question. For what other reason would King Henry have sent her to her death? Was it life-changing love, or overwhelming hate, that inspired him to rid the world of the woman he had once adored?   To lead a king of England to voluntarily make these decisions, Anne Boleyn must certainly have possessed something very special, very unique, and very irresistible. She must surely have driven King Henry almost to insanity, whether it be with genuine love, passion, lust, desire, obsession, or possibly even a mixture of each.   As usual, to truly understand why King Henry felt as he did for Anne, we must understand the qualities of the woman herself. What better way to do that than by returning to the very beginning of her story?   Anne Boleyn: Birth, Childhood, and Early Life Monumental brass in Hever Church in Kent to Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, Anne Boleyn’s father, photo by J J Lincolne. Source: Flickr   Although there is no reliable record of her birth, Anne Boleyn is thought to have come into the world sometime during the late reign of King Henry VII. She may have been born anywhere between the years of 1501 and 1507.   Both Anne Boleyn and her two surviving siblings—Mary and George—took their first breath at their family residence of Blickling Hall in Norfolk. Mary was the eldest (born c. 1499), George was very possibly the middle child (c. 1504), and Anne the youngest (c. 1507).   Evidence of the assumptions regarding Anne Boleyn’s date of birth can be found within Blickling Hall itself. A statue and portrait of Anne may be found in the House. Both bear the inscription Anna Bolena hic nata 1507, which translates from Latin to English as “Anne Boleyn was born here in 1507.”   Portrait of Mary Boleyn, by Remigius van Leemput, 1630-70. Source: The Royal Collection Trust   Nonetheless, the academic debate regarding the birth of Anne Boleyn continues among historians even to this day. The British historian Eric Ives publicly advocates for 1501, while the American scholar Retha Warnicke claims that it was more likely to have been 1507.   One thing we know for certain about Anne Boleyn is her parentage. Her father was Thomas Boleyn (an employee of Cardinal Wolsey and future English Ambassador to France). Her mother was his wife, Elizabeth Boleyn, formerly known as Elizabeth Howard.   Both the Howards and the Boleyns were recognized as influential families in England, but the Howards were a little more so than the Boleyns. When combined, the two resulted in the production of three extremely well-born sons and daughters. It has been argued that Anne Boleyn was of more noble birth than the majority of King Henry’s other wives. She was undoubtedly of a higher class than Jane Seymour, Catherine Parr, and Catherine Howard. However, she could not compete with the royal heights of Catherine of Aragon and Anne of Cleves.   Alongside the other two children in the Boleyn nursery, Anne Boleyn spent the early days of her childhood at Hever Castle in Kent. Initially, she received a typical education for a young girl of her standing. This included lessons in the genealogy of her own family, arithmetic, grammar, and British history.   Hever Castle, Kent. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Anne Boleyn also successfully learned to read and write and developed many essential domestic skills such as dancing, embroidery, household management, music, needlework, and singing. She even learned how to partake in pursuits that would prepare her for a life at court. Firstly, she practiced games such as cards, chess, and dice. Secondly, she became proficient in sports such as archery, falconry, horseback riding, and hunting.   It was not until the year 1513 when she was aged between six and twelve, that Anne Boleyn left her family home to begin a new life abroad. Just like many rich young ladies of the era, Anne was sent by her father to spend some valuable time at one of the many royal courts in Europe. Having been accepted into the household of Margaret of Austria, Anne Boleyn took advantage of the position and remained there for two years.   To say that Anne Boleyn made a good impression would be an understatement. She impressed Margaret of Austria with her manners and willingness to learn. Margaret reported that Anne was “Well spoken and pleasant for her young age.” Margaret also remarked to Thomas Boleyn that Anne was “so presentable,” and declared that she was “more beholden to you for sending her to me, than you to me.”    Portrait of Queen Claude of France, by Jean Clouet, 1520. Source: Wikimedia Commons   A little later, thanks to her father’s charm and skills as a traveling ambassador in Europe, both Anne Boleyn and her sister Mary Boleyn were invited to join the service of Queen Claude of France. This was a coveted position; they were now a maid of Honor to the wife of King Francis I of France. Although Mary, for some unknown reason, was summoned home within the month, Anne did not return for seven years.   It was here, at one of the most fashionable and sought-after places in the world, that Anne Boleyn was molded into the woman with whom we are all so familiar.   To say that Anne Boleyn flourished in France would be an understatement. As well as serving Queen Claude efficiently, Anne also spent her time developing other lifelong interests in art, literature, poetry, and fashion.   Anne Boleyn also completed her studies of the native language, and could soon speak fluently and elegantly in perfect French. By the time she returned home to England nearly a decade later, she had blossomed into the finest example of a young, 16th-century woman: sophisticated, accomplished, fashionable, and desirable.   Anne Boleyn and King Henry VIII: Was It Love at First Sight? Henry VIII’s First Interview with Anne Boleyn, by Daniel Maclise, 1836. Source: Sotheby’s   By the time Anne Boleyn had arrived home in England in 1522, King Henry had occupied the throne for just over 13 years. He had been happily married to Catherine of Aragon—wife number one—for the entirety of his reign. The couple had one healthy child, the seven-year-old Princess Mary, who remained her father’s sole legitimate offspring. King Henry also had one illegitimate son, Henry Fitzroy, by Mistress Elizabeth Blount.   Although Catherine of Aragon was yet to produce a healthy Prince, it is unlikely that King Henry had yet seriously considered the idea of divorce. Although the question of his successor lay heavily on his mind, King Henry had many other thoughts with which to occupy himself. King Henry had only just entered his 30s. He was still good-looking, generally good-tempered, and athletic. His health was still adequate and he had yet to suffer any of the major injuries that would trouble him in later life.   Was he on the lookout for a new queen? Absolutely not. Was he waiting in anticipation of new mistresses and fleeting extra-marital affairs? Potentially, yes. Was he open to the idea of an intensely passionate seven-year romance? Well, obviously with the right woman, anything was possible.   Henry Fitzroy, 1533-4. Source: Google Art Project   Of course, it turns out that the right woman was just around the corner. Anne Boleyn was waiting, in a castle known as the Chateau De Vert, to be rescued by the strong and chivalrous King Henry — metaphorically speaking, at least. It is quite possible that one particular event changed both their lives forever.   On March 4, 1522, Anne Boleyn made her first recorded appearance at the royal court of England. This date just happened to be Shrove Tuesday, the day on which the Tudor population enjoyed many hours of feasting and merriment before entering the solemnity of Lent.   After a full day of jousting and a lavish banquet in the great hall of York Place, a pageant known as the Chateau De Vert was performed at the effort and expense of Chief Minister Cardinal Wolsey. The pageant had very little substance and instead was a shameless display of wealth. The whole event was designed to showcase just how much money and time was available to those taking part.   Portrait of Cardinal Wolsey, 1585-1596. Source: Art UK   The general idea of the pageant was that eight ladies were being kept prisoner in a castle known as the Chateau De Vert. The ladies were known collectively as the Graces and possessed individual names such as Beauty, Pity, Kindness, Constance, and Perseverance. The Graces were dressed beautifully in white satin, and each woman possessed a small mask to conceal their true identity.   The guards were another set of ladies, appropriately dressed in black satin, who bore names such as Strangeness, Unkindness, and Jealousy.   It is here, in a 16th-century casting list, that Anne Boleyn’s name appears for the first time in history. Hers falls neatly alongside some of the most prestigious names at the Tudor court. Anne (very appropriately) played Perseverance, one of the Graces.   Others taking part in the Chateau De Vert included King Henry’s sister Mary (Beauty), Jane Dormer (Constance), and Mary Boleyn (Kindness).   Wedding portrait of Mary Tudor and Charles Brandon, Duke and Duchess of Suffolk, by Jan Gossaert, c. 1515. Source: Wikimedia Commons   King Henry and his gentlemen, (including his friend the Duke of Suffolk), played the parts of Nobleness, Youth, and Liberty. They were to invade the Chateau De Vert and set the Graces free. Naturally, it was King Henry himself who was selected to play the part of Ardent Desire.   The chronicler Edward Hall (1496-1547), who appears to have been present at the pageant, gave a thorough description of what the Chateau De Vert might have looked like. “In the nether end of the same chamber was a castle, in which was a Principal Tower, and inside was a cresset burning and two other lesser towers stood on each side.”   After the appropriate signal—probably a noise replicating the firing of a canon—King Henry’s entourage of sword-wielding heroes charged at the castle.   Edward Hall records that after a long battle, “… at last the place was won.” He goes on to describe what happened next: “… then the Lord took the Ladies of honour as prisoners by the hands, and brought them down, and danced together very pleasantly, which much pleased the strangers, and all danced their fill.”   Could it have been that, in the midst of all this chaos, King Henry laid eyes on the mysterious, satin-draped Anne Boleyn for the first time in his life?   Portrait of Anne Boleyn, after Hans Holbein the Younger. Source: The Wellcome Collection   In the television series The Tudors, this scene portrays the moment at which King Henry and Anne Boleyn experience a slowed-down, once-in-a-lifetime, heart-stopping rush of love at first sight.   As they touch hands for the first time, as part of the rescue operation, King Henry in particular is overcome with the feeling that nothing in his life will ever be the same again. Recovering only a little, he then leads her onto the floor to dance. “What is your name?” he asks, mid-dance. She smiles meekly as she answers, introducing herself to both the King and the audience, “I’m Anne Boleyn.”   Little wonder King Henry fell in love with one of the actresses in the pageant — a roomful of white-satin-women to rescue must have been difficult for the young and chivalrous king to resist.   Although we all like to believe this romanticized version of events, it is equally as likely that King Henry began to notice Anne Boleyn’s presence much more gradually.   Anne Boleyn: Reasons to Support the Theory That She Was the Favorite King Henry and Anne Boleyn Deer Shooting in Windsor Forest, by William Powell Frith, 1903. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Now that we have reviewed Anne Boleyn’s early life, and rediscovered her first meeting and eventual marriage to King Henry, we may finally address the question of whether or not she could have been his favorite wife.   As you might already have guessed, there are many reasons to support the theory that Anne Boleyn was the woman he loved most — perhaps more convincing reasons than any of his other wives could scrape together.   The first reason to support the theory that Anne Boleyn was the love of her husband’s life was that—whether we like it or not—he pretty much proclaimed the fact himself. Between May 1527 and October 1528, King Henry composed and sent a series of love letters to his new sweetheart. These letters are passionate, intense, and borderline obsessive. To be fair to the king of England, he was nothing if not persistent.   Of course, as these were written during a condensed period of only around 18 months, they cannot be used as proof that he felt such strong emotion for any prolonged amount of time. However, when read one after another, no historian can be left in any doubt of the intensity of his feelings at the height of his longing.   Henry VIII, after Hans Holbein the Younger, 1537. Source: WGA   The last words of each letter reveal much of his devotion. On many occasions, he signs in varying romantic ways. “Written by the hand of him who is and always will be yours; written by the hand of your loyal servant and friend; written by the hand of him that longs to be yours; written by the hand of him that was, is, and ever shall be yours, by his own will.”   The whole collection is now owned by the Vatican Library.   Reason number two: Anne Boleyn got whatever she wanted, whenever she wanted it.   It may seem to the modern historian that Anne Boleyn could achieve whatever she desired with only the click of her fingers. This is because, to an extent, that is how it was. She had absolutely no doubt of how rich and powerful her husband was, and she had no qualms about taking advantage of that luxury.   Hampton Court Palace, by KT Likes Coffee. Source: Unsplash   Anne Boleyn wanted to live at Hampton Court. Fine, Cardinal Wolsey would have to move out. Anne Boleyn wanted certain friends and advisors out of the picture. Okay, King Henry allowed himself to be forbidden contact with the chosen gentlemen. He even went so far as to send some into exile, or worse, to execution. Anne Boleyn wanted a royal wedding, a sensational coronation, and the title of queen of England. That could be arranged — even if she had to wait seven years for the pleasure.   As well as showering her with personal gifts and unthinkable privileges, King Henry went to extreme lengths to ensure that she was seen as superior to any other queen that England had yet known.   One example of this behavior can be found in the records of Anne Boleyn’s coronation. Unlike any other queen Consort, Anne Boleyn was crowned with Saint Edward’s Crown. This particular crown—named after Saint Edward the Confessor—had previously only been used to crown monarchs.   The historian Alice Hunt suggests that this was done to honor the child that Anne Boleyn was already carrying during the time of her coronation. This baby, who turned out to be the future Queen Elizabeth I, was originally assumed to have been a boy and the next king of England. However, it is entirely possible that Anne Boleyn wished to be crowned with the Saint Edward’s Crown herself, perhaps to make a point of receiving something better than her predecessor, Catherine of Aragon. Nonetheless, to make the strong point that Anne Boleyn was the most special of consorts, King Henry happily allowed her the privilege.   Portrait of Anne Boleyn, 1584-1603. Source: National Portrait Gallery, London   Reason number three: Anne Boleyn was not considered beautiful. Beauty has been used as a reason for us to believe that King Henry favored a particular wife, whether it be Catherine of Aragon, Jane Seymour, or Catherine Howard. King Henry famously enjoyed the company of beautiful women, and all these wives were notably attractive. However, the fact that Anne Boleyn was not considered particularly good-looking in her era tells us that she relied on much more than her appearance to attract a man.   Unlike the many other wives and mistresses of King Henry, it was not likely to have been her beauty that he initially fell for. Anne Boleyn was not pretty—at least not in the typical sense—but King Henry was driven mad with desire for her, nonetheless.   One of the most influential descriptions of Anne Boleyn was given by Nicholas Sander, around half a century after her death, in 1586. He claimed that Anne was “… of a rather tall stature, with black hair, and an oval face of sallow complexion.” He also described Anne as having “a projecting tooth under the upper lip,” although he also admitted that she was fairly “handsome to look at, with a pretty mouth.”   A slightly more reliable account of Anne Boleyn’s appearance comes from the Venetian diarist, Marino Sanuto, who made her acquaintance in Calais in October of 1532. He gave a more favorable, but not particularly flattering description. According to Sanuto, Anne was “not one of the handsomest women in the world, but of a middling stature, swarthy complexion, long neck, wide mouth, bosom not much raised.” On the other hand, he did admit that she possessed “eyes which were black and beautiful.”   Anne Boleyn’s Coat-of-Arms as Queen of England. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Despite a few positives that stand out among the insults, the general consensus seems to have been that she was not beautiful in comparison with the other ladies at the Tudor court.   Luckily, Anne had her charm, elegance, grace, intelligence, passion, sensuality, mental ability, vitality, and general attractive disposition to fall back on. It was probably these qualities, in place of her looks, that King Henry initially fell in love with.   Finally, reason number four: Anne Boleyn’s memory is permanently engraved into the walls of Hampton Court.   To celebrate his marriage to Anne Boleyn, King Henry instructed that his carpenters should engrave her personal coat of arms into the roof of Hampton Court’s Great Hall. He also desired that their entwined initials — a neatly joined pattern of H&A, should be added onto the wooden screens that border the same room. These reminders of King Henry’s love for Anne Boleyn can still be clearly viewed today.   Also featured on the roof is Anne Boleyn’s badge of the falcon, and the initials AR, standing for Anna Regina.   The fact that King Henry chose to mark his favorite palace with permanent reminders of his second wife makes two clear points. Firstly, he loved her; secondly, he intended that love to last a lifetime.   The Death and Legacy of Anne Boleyn  Anne Boleyn in the Tower, by Edouard Cibot, 1835. Source: Wikimedia Commons   It was on May 2, 1536, that Anne Boleyn’s removal as Queen of England truly began. She had been accused of treason in the form of adultery and therefore was arrested and installed in some private apartments at the Tower of London.   The unfortunate gentlemen who had been named as her lovers were Henry Norris, Francis Weston, William Brereton, the Court musician Mark Smeaton, and, perhaps most shockingly of all, her brother George Boleyn.   Just a few weeks later, on May 19th, Anne Boleyn received her ultimate punishment and was beheaded before a crowd at the Tower of London. When she appeared at eight o’clock in the morning, she was said to have been strangely calm, unexpectedly composed, and as dignified as a queen should be on any occasion. One eyewitness account tells us that she “… went to her execution with an untroubled countenance.”   Just a handful of people known to have been in the audience at this solemn event were Thomas Cromwell, Charles Brandon (Duke of Suffolk), the illegitimate Henry FitzRoy, and the Mayor of London.   She delivered her final speech as expertly as if she were talking not before a crowd awaiting her execution, but to a group of friends back home at Hampton Court. She finished with the words, “… and thus I take my leave of the world and of you all, and I heartily desire you all to pray for me.” Following that, she repeatedly uttered the words, “O Lord have mercy on me, to God I commend my soul,” as she was prepared for her death.   Portrait of a teenage Princess Elizabeth, future Queen Elizabeth I, by William Scrots, 1546-7. Source: RKD Images   The body of Anne Boleyn was buried in an unmarked grave in the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula at the Tower of London. Over three centuries later, during the reign of Queen Victoria, Anne Boleyn’s skeleton was reportedly identified during renovations of 1876. Anne’s grave is now clearly marked on the marble floor. However, some historians believe the bones might have belonged to Anne’s cousin, Catherine Howard.   Anne Boleyn’s most important legacy is undoubtedly her daughter, Queen Elizabeth I, who reigned between 1558 and 1603 and is now remembered as one of the greatest monarchs England has ever known.   Anne Boleyn: The Wife King Henry Loved Most? Anne Boleyn and Percy, by David Wilkie Wynfield, 1866, photo by Gandalf’s Gallery. Source: Flickr   So, was Anne Boleyn the wife King Henry loved most? Well, although history lovers may continue to speculate, and although academics may continue to debate, a definite conclusion will never be possible to achieve.   However, the majority of Tudor enthusiasts would agree that the first three of King Henry’s wives—Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, and Jane Seymour—would have a more realistic chance than the last.   Anne Boleyn was the wife with whom King Henry was most infatuated, for the longest period of time. Some respected historians even name Anne Boleyn as the first and only love of King Henry’s life.   Even if Anne Boleyn was not the favorite wife of King Henry VIII, it would certainly be difficult to argue with the idea that she is now the favorite queen of Tudor history lovers living today.

  In the mid-14th century, Moroccan judge and scholar Ibn Battuta embarked on an epic 24-year-long journey worldwide. He was received by kings and queens, robbed and kidnapped by rebels, and even ended up marrying into the royal family of Omar I, Sultan of the Maldives.   Battuta’s Context: The Islamic World in the 14th Century Miniature of the Abbasid Calip al-Mamun’s (d. 833 C.E.) envoy to Byzantine Emperor Theophilos, History of John Skylitzes. Source: Biblioteca Nacional de Espana   The Medieval Islamic world was a diverse place that—by 1350—spanned Africa, Europe, and Asia. Islamic cities like Cordoba, Baghdad, and Cairo had just experienced the “Islamic Golden Age,” a period of scientific, technological, and cultural advancement that contrasted with the so-called “Dark Age” that engulfed Europe.   Like the rest of the Islamic world, Morocco experienced a period of development. Ruled by a Berber dynasty called the Marinids, Fes and Marrakesh became centers of scientific knowledge. The Qarawiyyin University—established by Fatima al-Fihri in the 9th century—experienced its peak during this time and educated some of the world’s greatest astronomers and polymaths.   Morocco’s proximity to Spain also allowed it to influence politics in the Iberian peninsula. The last Islamic emirate left in Spain, the Emirate of Granada, was able to repel the Spanish reconquest thanks to the Marinid army. Morocco—and North Africa in general—also provided them with alternate trading networks and routes.   Ibn Battuta’s Youth Image of Tangier, Morocco, early 20th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Ibn Battuta was born in such a world around the year 1304. Although he is known today as Ibn Battuta, meaning “son of the duckling,” his full name was Shams al-Din Abu Abdullah Muhammad. His family were from the Lawata tribe of the Berber people, an indigenous North African group.   Raised in the coastal town of Tangier, Ibn Battuta was no stranger to the world. Tangier frequently experienced raids by foreign armies, pirate attacks, and tribal conflict. Generations of Ibn Battuta’s family had played a prominent role in the city as qadis, or Islamic legal scholars and judges.   In his father’s footsteps, Ibn Battuta studied at the madrasa, schools seen around the Medieval Islamic world. He was trained in Islamic law and gained a reputation as a knowledgeable and disciplined scholar.   Yet, the ambitious and inquisitive side of the scholar was ever-present. At the age of 21, the young Ibn Battuta decided to travel overseas to deepen his knowledge with the world’s greatest scholars.   Journey to Mecca and the Middle East Depiction of a Hajj caravan led by an Egyptian amir, ca. 1680. Source: Khalili Collection   The pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca is one of the five pillars of Islam and a journey that all believing Muslims aspire to undertake. This was no different in the 14th century when Ibn Battuta began his world tour by traveling to Mecca. Though parting from his parents “weighed sorely upon [him],” the traveler wrote in his memoirs that visiting the holy sites was a “desire long cherished in [his] bosom.”   Traveling through present-day Tunisia, Algeria, and Egypt in the first year of his journey, Ibn Battuta took a bride and met ascetics who stated that his life purpose was to be a world traveler. What they could not have predicted was that this “purpose” would span decades and be remembered for centuries to come.   While on this pilgrimage route, Battuta visited Damascus (Syria), Jerusalem, and Bethlehem (Palestine). Until then, Ibn Battuta had mainly traveled on his own. However, joining a caravan was the most common and safest way for Medieval travelers to go on long journeys. In Damascus, he joined a pilgrimage caravan and traveled 1,300 km (808 miles) to present-day Saudi Arabia. In November 1326, he completed his hajj, yet his passion for travel only became stronger.   East to Africa Depiction of Ibn Battuta in Discovery of the Earth, by Jules Verne, 1878 edition. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Though his journey was complete, Battuta refused to return home. Instead, he traveled through Iraq and Iran, great centers of civilization which had recently been demolished by the Chingissid Mongol invasions.   His increasing fame and status allowed him to return to Mecca, where he lived for the next three years, most likely working as a jurist and scholar. From the port of Jeddah, he boarded a rickety boat and made a sea voyage to Yemen, where he met King Nur al-Din Ali of the Rasulid Dynasty.   Continuing his sea voyage, he headed to Somalia, noting that the country produced and exported fine-quality fabrics. Ibn Battuta visited some of Africa’s important trading cities, like Kilwa (present-day Tanzania), providing invaluable and rare insights into trade in 14th-century Africa.   The Beyliks of Anatolia Depiction of a Turk bey and the Turkish principalities ca. 1375 by Abraham Cresques, Catalan Atlas. Source: Wikimedia Commons   By 1330, Ibn Battuta was a seasoned traveler. He decided that after another Hajj pilgrimage, he would settle down in Delhi to work as a qadi for Sultan Muhammad ibn Tughluq. However, due to issues in communications, the scholar had to travel through Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia.   Once in Anatolia (present-day Turkey), he traveled to the various beyliks (principalities). These principalities were ruled by beys, chieftains of nomadic Turkic origin. After visiting several prominent cities like Konya, the former capital of the Seljuk Empire, Battuta traveled to Iznik, then ruled by the small Ottoman principality. Here, he was received by the wife of Orhan bey, who he wrote was a pious, hospitable and “excellent woman.”   In a description that would shock the modern reader, Ibn Battuta describes how he purchased slaves in Anatolia, and how one of these slaves—possibly a Greek girl—eventually bore him a child. This was just one example of the wives and concubines that the traveler gathered throughout his journey.   Moving on to the Silk Road Map of the Golden Horde, c. 1300. Source: Wikimedia Commons   His next goal was to reach the realm of the Golden Horde, the powerful Mongol khanate. From Northern Anatolia, he traveled to Azov, Russia and to Mount Beshtau, where he met with the traveling court of Özbeg Khan (d. 1341), khan of the Golden Horde. Traveling through the “land of darkness,” Ibn Battuta reportedly witnessed a trade deal in northern Siberia, although historians have questioned the veracity of this report.   One of Özbeg’s wives was the Byzantine princess Bayalun, likely an illegitimate daughter of Emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos. Bayalun was heavily pregnant and wished to give birth in her home city, Constantinople (present-day Istanbul). With the Khan’s permission, Ibn Battuta accompanied her on the trip.   Arriving in Constantinople around 1332, Ibn Battuta was introduced to the Emperor, making the acquaintance of yet another king. While there, he recorded interesting observations about the first Christian city that he had visited. He wrote about monasteries where he witnessed monks, priests, and the ascetic sons and daughters of the royal dynasty.   Moving on toward Delhi, Ibn Battuta traveled through the ancient intellectual centers of Bukhara and Samarkand (modern-day Uzbekistan). Despite being sacked by Chinggis Khan’s armies a century before, Samarkand was still—according to the traveler—one of the “finest” cities in the world. It also remained an important part of the Silk Road, an ancient and extensive network of trade and communication routes stretching from China to Constantinople.   The Sultanates of India Painting of Muhammad bin Tughluq, Sultan of Delhi, ca. 1850. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In 1333—three years after his initial decision—Ibn Battuta made it to the Sultanate of Delhi. But not without suffering through many ordeals. Traveling through Afghanistan and the Hindu Kush mountain range, Battuta noted that the cold was so intense that the mountains were called “Hindu-slayers” in reference to the slaves who had frozen to death en route from India.   Next, Battuta and his retinue were kidnapped and robbed by rebels on the Indian Coast. In the robbery, the traveler’s notes of his journey were taken. Ibn Battuta would later have to rewrite his memoirs when he returned to Morocco, although some aspects of his travels were undoubtedly misremembered.   Because of his experience and knowledge, Battuta was appointed as a qadi in Delhi. However, the Sultan’s unpredictability made Battuta’s life there volatile—at one point, he was even suspected of treason! After six years of working as a qadi in Delhi, Battuta decided that he could not take the Sultan’s despotic rule any longer.   While considering how he could leave the city, Battuta had a stroke of luck. He was to be sent as an ambassador to the Chinese emperor of the Yuan Dynasty in 1342. However, this luck was short-lived; on the road, the embassy was attacked by Hindu insurgents. For the second time, Ibn Battuta was robbed, kidnapped and almost killed.   The Riches of Asia Ink painting of a groom and horse, by Zhao Mengfu, Yuan Dynasty Period. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Against all odds, the traveler was soon reunited with his group. However, after stopping in Calicut (present-day Kozhikode, India) to visit a mosque, he became shipwrecked. All his personal property, and the ambassadorial gifts for the Chinese emperor, were lost.   Fearing punishment of the erratic Sultan, Ibn Battuta fled to the Maldives, where he worked as a qadi for nine months. Here, he married into the royal family of Omar I and influenced the growth of Islam in the area.   Despite his disciplinary attitude towards Islamic law, his messages did not always get across. He failed, for instance, to convince the women on the island to cover their naked chests. His unpopular teachings and political intrigues finally led to his resignation from his judicial post. After this, he moved on to Sri Lanka and Bangladesh where he met Shah Jalal, the famous Bengal conqueror.   After a long reroute, Ibn Battuta finally set out from India to reach China. In 1345, he traveled to islands in Indonesia and continued to China in a traditional Chinese vessel called a junk. Sailing through South-East Asia, Battuta became acquainted with Urduja, a princess-warrior of the modern-day Philippines.   Ibn Battuta finally arrived in Quanzhou, China in 1345. Writing about the local customs and beliefs, Battuta noticed important local advancements like the use of paper money. His interactions with a Taoist monk, Muslims, and worshipers of a sun deity reveal the myriad religious groups that co-existed in Medieval China.   The Journey Back Home Route that Ibn Battuta travelled from 1325 to 1354. Source: US Berkeley   Ibn Battuta’s epic travels soon came to an end. He retraced his steps through India, Iraq, and Syria, before stopping in Damascus in 1348. The spread of the black death (plague) delayed Battuta’s return. Thousands of people died daily in cities like Cairo and Damascus, and Battuta found that Gaza was almost depopulated due to the disease.   Ibn Battuta made it home to Tangier by 1349. However, his return was bittersweet: though he was reunited with his hometown, both of his parents had died some time before. The traveler had nothing to keep him in Morocco any longer and thus began his second departure.   Intending to defend Al-Andalus from the Spanish King Alfonso XI, Ibn Battuta joined a troop of Muslims and traveled to Spain. However, Alfonso’s death from the plague neutralized this threat, and so, Battuta returned to Morocco.   His passion for traveling was too strong, however, for Ibn Battuta to resist. One year later, in 1351, he traveled to the Empire of Mali and the famous Timbuktu, a place known for its gold, salt mines, and prestigious universities.   At the behest of the ruler of Morocco, Ibn Battuta dictated an account of his travels. Ibn Juzayy, an Andalusian scholar and historian, composed all of his stories in the Rihla—Arabic for “travels”—in 1355.   Despite his remarkable life, Ibn Battuta’s final years are obscure. He died sometime (and somewhere!) between 1369 and 1370. Although he is renowned for his curious and courageous character, some of his accounts have also been questioned by modern historians because of their similarities to earlier travel accounts.

In 2017, Donald Trump took the oath of office instead of Hillary Clinton, the woman everyone thought would be running the joint for a few years. In 2025, Trump is replacing Hillary in different ways. No, he's not just supplanting her in the Oval Office. As a recent shift in...