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How Did the Warring States Period Forge Imperial China?
The Warring States period that spanned from 475 BCE to 221 BCE was a time in China that was characterized by conflict, new ideas, and systems of governance which set the stage for the rise of Imperial China. Marked by a spike in warfare, the period is seen as key to the formation of China as a cohesive nation. The era emerged after the weakening of the Zhou Dynasty and was known for constant conflict.
Just before the period, over a hundred states had been reduced through conquests until only seven major powers remained. States were increasingly involved in wars. Many of them relied on huge conscripted armies drawn from the peasantry who initially used simple weapons, though over time they made use of arms and armor due to iron technology advancements.
Growth of the Qin State
Map of the Warring States Period. Source: Wikimedia Commons
Amidst the chaos, the state of Qin pioneered a new ruthlessly efficient model of statecraft. In 356 BCE, it launched reforms under the guidance of Minister Shang Yang which centralized power and set up the first direct tax systems. The changes were rooted in the philosophy of Legalism which prioritized the absolute power of the state, advocating for strict laws and merit-based rewards in areas such as warfare over noble birthright. In later years, Qin dynasty laws declared the old feudal system outdated since it had been supported by nobles and not the state. The systems were rolled out across its territories. The new model created an unparalleled military machine.
The Qin State’s Military Warfare
Swords and spearhead, Warring States Period (5th-3rd centuries BCE). Source: Wikimedia Commons (Shanghai Museum)
Qin’s growing conflicts with its neighbors created dissent. However, by the 3rd century BCE, it is estimated that the Qin state could field armies numbering up to a million men for a single campaign due to its continuous territorial acquisition and annexation campaigns. The advantage allowed it to easily crush its rivals. At the height of its power, the Qin state sought constant expansion across China and richly rewarded its soldiers. It quickly became the most powerful state in the region leading to widespread massacres which claimed the lives of many captured soldiers, civilians and nobles. Because of its ruthless methods, its army was referred to as the Tiger and Wolf Troops in historical records due to its ferocity.
When the Qin State Destroyed the Zhao State
Illustration of Bai Qi. Source: Wikipedia
A prime example of its brutality was the decimation of its greatest rival, the Zhao state. The state of Zhao had long been a focus of Qin’s attacks during the mid-200s BCE. In the 260 BCE Battle of Changping, the Qin state attacked the state of Zhao. Though just one of many wars, the battle was especially disastrous because of its scale, according to historical records. After being defeated in the fall of 260 BCE, the surrounded Zhao forces were killed under the orders of Bai Qi. Hundreds of thousands of captured Zhao soldiers were executed. Some were buried alive. Hence Qi built his harsh reputation.
With one of its biggest rivals decimated, the path to unification was almost clear. At the time, Qin also considered the Chu state as a danger because of its huge territory. And so Chu was defeated in 223 BCE on King Ying Zheng’s orders. The Qin army then moved north to take over the Yan state. While the state resisted, it eventually fell and was absorbed. Eventually, all the remaining Chinese-speaking neighboring states in the region were brought under one rule.
Ying Zheng as the Emperor of the Qin Dynasty
Photograph of the Terracotta Army, by Aaron Greenwood, 2018. Source: Unsplash
In 221 BCE, Ying Zheng who ruled over the state declared himself an emperor Qin Shi Huang – meaning First Emperor of Qin. The Warring States period ended with the emergence of the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE. This was after the Qi state, the last independent state, was toppled. To break down old regional loyalties and forge a single imperial identity, he enacted sweeping reforms.
In the following years, he made the writing script uniform to enable government administrators and officials to more effectively manage the complex empire, through a unified national writing script system. Called the small-seal script, it was characterized by a symmetrical structure that featured thin lines made with balanced movements. The development was accompanied by the standardization of currency and weight systems, among others.
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