In Britain, the most famous legendary sword is undoubtedly Excalibur, sometimes equated with the Sword in the Stone. In France, however, they have their own famous sword from medieval legends, sometimes referred to in Britain as the “French Excalibur.” The name of this legendary sword from France is Durendal. Numerous texts from medieval France refer to this sword, ascribing it magical powers and fanciful origins, just like King Arthur’s Excalibur. Shockingly, in June 2024, a replica of Durendal went missing from the hillside of a community that it had belonged to for many years.   Why Durendal Is the French Excalibur Depiction of Roland at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass, wielding Durendal, by Wolfgang von Bibra, c. 1862-1922. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Firstly, why can Durendal be considered the French Excalibur? Put simply, the reason is that this is an exceptionally famous and important sword in medieval French legends, which was said to have had magical properties. As such, it occupies essentially the same role in French legends as Excalibur does in British ones.   Excalibur was the legendary sword of King Arthur, the definitive legendary king of the Britons, just as Durendal was the legendary sword of Charlemagne, the definitive king of the Franks. British legends attribute magical properties to Excalibur, such as its ability to cut through enemies far more effectively than any ordinary sword. Similarly, French legends attribute magical properties to Durendal, including the ability to cut through entire boulders with a single blow. It was also said to have been indestructible.   Even the etymology of the name is likely similar. Although there is no universal agreement, one popular etymology for “Durendal” is that it means “hard strike.” Similarly, Excalibur’s name comes from the Welsh “Caledfwlch,” meaning “hard cleft.”   Durendal in Medieval French Literature Eight Stages of the Song of Roland, by Simon Marmion from the Grandes Chroniques de France, c. 15th century. Source: Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg   Durendal does not appear in any contemporary records of the reign of Charlemagne. Rather, it appears in records dating to the 11th century onwards. This was well over two centuries after Charlemagne’s lifetime, meaning that the sources we have available to us are decidedly legendary. Whether Durendal ever really existed or not, we cannot say for sure.   Nevertheless, what we do know is that Durendal appears in one of the earliest legendary accounts about the reign of Charlemagne, in a genre known as chanson de geste. This is a genre of French epic poetry that focuses on early French history. The account in question, in which the French Excalibur appears, is The Song of Roland. It tells the story of Roland, a military officer famous for his accomplishments during the reign of Charlemagne. In the story, Durendal was his sword, having been given to him by Charlemagne. For this reason, despite originally being Charlemagne’s sword, it is most firmly associated with Roland in French literature.   The Origins of Durendal A statue of Roland holding Durendal at Metz railway station, France. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Durendal appears in numerous pieces of medieval French literature after The Song of Roland. In these, we find numerous different versions of the origin of this special sword. In fact, The Song of Roland itself also apparently presents an account of the sword’s origin. In the words of Roland himself, the account reads:   “Charles was in the valleys of Moriane when God sent word to him by an angel from heaven that he should give thee to a count and a leader. It was then that the great and noble leader girded it on me.”   This is often taken to be a reference to the origin of Durendal, implying that the angel mentioned here actually gave Charlemagne the sword. Strictly speaking, though, the text does not say that. Rather, it simply states that an angel descended from heaven and instructed Charlemagne to give the sword to a count, with the king subsequently entrusting it to his officer, Roland.   A depiction of Charlemagne receiving Durendal from an angel and giving it to Roland in Der Stricker’s Karl, VadSlg Ms. 302, fol. II_3v, c. 13th century. Source: Kantonsbibliothek, Vadianische Sammlung   This could easily be interpreted to mean that the angel gave this instruction to Charlemagne concerning a sword that was already in his possession. There is nothing in the passage that requires this to have been the moment when Charlemagne first received the sword. If it does have this meaning, then the result would be that Charlemagne probably never used the sword himself, which does not seem consistent with later legends about it. However, the fact that the passage in The Song of Roland was interpreted this way is evident from Der Stricker’s Karl, a 13th-century illustrated version of The Song of Roland written in Middle High German. In an illustration, this shows the angel actually giving the sword to Charlemagne.   Later records present different origins of Durendal. Rather than giving it a heavenly origin, some medieval sources state that it was forged by Wayland the Smith, a legendary blacksmith from German mythology. Various sources claim that it was the sword of a previous king, whose identity varies depending on the source, before being obtained by Charlemagne or directly by Roland.   Roland’s Magical Sword Roland’s Breach in the Pyrenees. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Just like Britain’s Excalibur, France’s Durendal was a very special sword indeed. It was said to be indestructible and capable of cutting through entire boulders. This ties in with the local legend concerning Roland’s Breach in the Pyrenees. This is a gap some 40 meters across on the mountainside. It is said that it was cut away by Roland as he was striking the rock in an attempt to break his sword.   Being such an effective weapon, it is no surprise that Durendal is said to have contributed to Roland’s numerous victories in battle. For instance, in The Song of Roland, he remarks:   “With it I conquered proud Normandy, and Provence and Aquitaine and Lombardy and the whole of Romania: with it I conquered Bavaria and all Flanders and Burgundy and the whole of Poland… With it I have conquered many countries and lands which now belong to Charles whose beard is growing white.”   Furthermore, the hilt of Durendal was said to contain various holy relics, such as a tooth of Saint Peter and hair from Denis of Paris.   What Happened to Durendal? Roland à Roncevaux, by Gustave Doré, c. 1877. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As we can see from the above quotation, Durendal was said to have been used by Roland to engage in numerous successful conquests on behalf of King Charlemagne. However, what ended up happening to it at the end of Roland’s career?   The Song of Roland partially tells the story of Durendal’s fate. Roland’s final battle was said to have been the Battle of Roncevaux Pass. This was a historical event of 778, in which a large army of Basques attacked the forces of Charlemagne after his invasion of the Iberian Peninsula. According to The Song of Roland, the legendary hero held back thousands of Saracen troops. However, he was mortally wounded in the process. While dying, he attempted to destroy Durendal, but it proved impossible. Therefore, he placed it under his body to hide it, to prevent it from falling into the hands of anyone unworthy.   Another tradition holds that the Archangel Michael assisted Roland in hurling the sword, which eventually landed many miles away, in Rocamadour, southwest France.   The Theft of Durendal in 2024 The replica of Durendal at Rocamadour, wedged in the rock between two buildings. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In Rocamadour, it was said to have been placed in the local chapel of Saint Mary. After approximately 200 years, at about the same time as the composition of The Song of Roland, Henry the Young King was said to have stolen it in 1183.   A replica of Durendal has long been seen firmly wedged into a crack on the rock face between two buildings in Rocamadour, approximately 30 feet above the ground. A short metal chain provided extra security, with one end attached to the sword and the other end affixed to the rock face. It is believed that it was placed there in the 1780s as a way of boosting tourism.   Unfortunately, after nightfall on June 21, 2024, this famous replica of France’s Excalibur vanished. Someone had stolen it. The event was viewed locally as a tragedy, given the cultural importance of the sword, and a police investigation was opened. Despite their efforts, it has still not been returned to its place.   The Missing French Excalibur The Death of Roland, by Jean Fouquet, c. 1455. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In conclusion, Durendal is the French equivalent of Britain’s Excalibur in many ways. They are both famous swords that feature prominently in medieval legends. Both are said to have possessed magical properties and were used, at least for a time, by the most famous king from the legends of their respective countries. Durendal is said to have been given to Charlemagne by an angel, and he subsequently gave it to Roland. After conquering numerous lands with Durendal, Roland made his final stand at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass. After being mortally wounded there, one tradition holds that he threw it all the way to Rocamadour.   A replica of the sword was wedged into the rock face between two buildings in Rocamadour, possibly as early as the 1780s, and became a famous sight for tourists. Unfortunately and inexplicably, France’s Excalibur was stolen in 2024 and has still not been recovered.

  When it comes to underrated and underappreciated monarchs, King Henry III of England tops the list. All that is typically mentioned when glossing over Henry’s reign is that he had some troubles with the De Montfort family, the fact that he had an exceptionally long reign for a medieval monarch, and that he was a son of one of England’s lowest-regarded monarchs (King John) and a father of one of the most highly-regarded monarchs (Edward I). However, as we shall see, there was far more to Henry III’s reign than this.   Henry’s Early Life Henry III, c. 13th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Henry was born on October 1, 1207, in Winchester Castle, in Hampshire, England. He was the eldest son of King John of England, and his mother was John’s second wife, Isabella of Angoulême.   Unfortunately, very little is known of Henry’s early life as he was thrown into kingship aged just nine years old. However, it is known that he was raised in and around the Hampshire area in the south of the country, away from King John’s court. As a result, he likely had a much closer relationship with his mother than with his father.   In 1212, Henry’s education was entrusted to the Bishop of Winchester, a man called Peter des Roches. As part of this education, Henry was given military training and also taught how to ride a horse.   Henry’s Early Rule King John on a stag hunt, c. 14th century. Source: British Library   Henry’s father, King John, died on October 19, 1216, aged just 49, which left the nine-year-old Henry as King of England. Henry was staying in Corfe Castle with his mother when he heard the news. On his deathbed, John had requested that Henry be placed under the guardianship of William Marshal, one of the greatest knights of the Middle Ages. This was one of the most important moves that John had made in his tenure as king.   Leading loyalists to John’s cause immediately crowned Henry as king, and he became King Henry III of England. Marshal knighted young Henry, and his official coronation took place at Gloucester Cathedral on October 28, 1216. Few knew then that the young boy sitting on the throne would go on to rule for another 56 years, making it the longest reign of any English monarch in the Medieval Period.   Because Henry was not yet a man, he was placed under a minority rule, meaning that others ruled in his name for him because he was unable to do so. Naturally, William Marshal was one of the men chosen to lead young Henry’s government. When he was appointed to do so, he chose to lead the king’s military efforts, while transferring guardianship of the king to Peter des Roches.   Henry’s Early Battles The Battle of Lincoln, by Matthew Paris, c. 1250. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The fact that the aging William Marshal had placed himself at the head of Henry’s military command was an incredibly astute diplomatic move. Less than a year into Henry’s reign, trouble began brewing, largely thanks to the issues left behind by the Magna Carta. The Magna Carta had been reissued in early 1217, giving birth to the idea of Parliament: that the king was the highest member of the council through which England should be governed.   William Marshal saw victory later in the year as he led a Royalist force at the Battle of Lincoln on May 20, 1217, against Prince Louis of France’s forces, who were still trying to force his claim to the English throne as he had done during King John’s reign.   Hubert de Burgh, the Justiciar of England, also saw off a Capetian force at the Battle of Sandwich, off the Dover coast on August 24, 1217.   Despite the initial successes listed above thanks to Henry’s governors working together, their relations with one another soon soured. The two who came to loggerheads most often were Hubert de Burgh and Peter des Roches, and by 1223, des Roches had attempted to persuade Pope Honorius III to get rid of Henry’s governors.   Ultimately, this plan backfired, and de Burgh was the one who eventually ousted des Roches from his seat of power. However, Henry had finally turned 16 and was fit to rule. What many historians regard as King Henry III’s “true reign” was about to begin.   The French Problem Louis IX, from the Bible of St Louis, c. 1230. Source: The Morgan Library   By January 1227, Henry had full control of his government. What Henry did excellently was that despite his minority coming to an end, he still listened to his advisers, which most likely contributed to him becoming such a successful monarch.   Like many medieval English kings, France was a contentious issue. After his father had just about lost the entire Plantagenet Empire on the continent, Henry had to, as he put it, “reclaim [his] inheritance.” In 1226, King Louis VIII of France died, leaving his nine-year-old son Louis IX as heir apparent. The young King Louis was in a dangerous position, and a weak position, to defend his realm. In 1228, Peter I, Duke of Brittany openly paid homage to Henry III, and Henry saw this as the time to strike.   However, Henry took too long in his preparations, and by the time he did invade France in May 1230, the campaign achieved nothing. He ended up simply signing a treaty with Louis IX until 1234. In other words, it was a huge waste of resources.   Political Strife at Home Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, c. 1250. Source: Gallica Digital Library   Not all was well at home, either. Henry’s chief minister, Hubert de Burgh fell from power in 1232; a year prior, his old enemy, Peter des Roches, had returned to England from the Crusades with several supporters for his cause.   Hubert decided to seek sanctuary in Merton Priory, but Henry had him imprisoned in the Tower of London instead. Des Roches then took over Henry’s government, but it was not long before he was on a power trip.   Many barons and earls who had supported de Burgh found their lands and titles being stripped by des Roches, and many (including Richard Marshal, son of William Marshal) complained personally to the king that he was not doing enough to protect their rights. This turned into a full-scale civil war between Des Roches’s followers and Marshal’s followers.   However, it was thanks to the intervention of Edmund of Abingdon, the Archbishop of Canterbury, that the conflict came to an end after he held a series of councils in 1234. Henry dismissed des Roches, and for the rest of his reign, he ruled the kingdom personally, rather than through senior ministers.   Henry’s Marriage and Family Edward I, artist unknown, c. 1272-1307. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Henry married Eleanor of Provence in 1236, a political marriage that would gain the English king credibility with noble families in south and eastern France. Eleanor would go on to become one of the most formidable medieval queens, with some historians claiming she was more hard-headed and determined than her husband.   Together, Henry and Eleanor had five children—the eldest of whom, Edward, would go on to reign as King Edward I of England.   Edward was an unusual name for an English monarch to give to their children in the mid-13th century (the Anglicized Edmund was often preferred), but Henry III’s interest, and borderline obsession, with Edward the Confessor (r. 1042-66) led to Edward becoming the joint-most popular name for English/British monarchs alongside Henry and a name that we often associate with the Middle Ages, thanks to the three Edwardian Kings (r. 1272–1377), who ruled for just over 100 years consecutively.   Henry’s children went on to form excellent diplomatic relations. As well as fathering a king of England, his eldest daughter Margaret went on to marry Alexander III of Scotland, his son Edmund was the founder of the House of Lancaster, while his daughter Beatrice went on to marry John II, Duke of Brittany. His youngest daughter, Katherine, sadly died as a child.   The Turbulent 1240s Henry’s Elephant, by Matthew Paris, 1259. Source: British Library   While the 1230s had generally been an era of peace for Henry (they included the establishment of London’s first menagerie in the Tower of London), the 1240s were an entirely different story.   One major event came in 1245, which was when Henry began the construction of Westminster Abbey, which almost bankrupted the Crown. It would take another 25 years for the abbey to be completed. Following the Magna Carta, the barons had much more of a say in the Crown’s finances and how money was spent, and this took a turn for the worse when, in 1247, the barons invited Henry’s half-siblings over from France.   The Lusignans (his mother’s children from a previous marriage), assumed high political positions, which aggravated the barons. They felt that foreigners could not naturally assume high positions in a different country than their own. The leader of the barons was one of the most famous names in medieval English history: Simon de Montfort.   This is perhaps the most ironic thing—de Montfort was French, yet was leading a nationalistic English cause. Having been made Earl of Leicester in 1231, de Montfort went on to marry Henry’s younger sister, Eleanor. Henry then made him Governor of Gascony but sacked him from this position when he lost the territory in 1252.   De Montfort then became the ideal leading figure for the barons’ cause.   Baronial Troubles The Battle of Evesham, c. 13th century. Source: British Library   Things finally came to a head in 1258, when the barons essentially took control out of Henry’s hands and into their own.   The Provisions of Oxford in October of the same year asserted the barons’ authority and representation in Henry’s government, as well as their ability to press concerns in opposition to those of the sitting monarch.   A year later, these were followed by the Provisions of Westminster, which further enforced the Oxford Provisions as well as enforcing taxation reforms. Henry was outraged that power had been taken out of his hands and this again led to another minor civil war, which came to be known as the Second Barons’ War (1264-67).   The baronial leader, Simon de Montfort, led the rebels against Henry. De Montfort was not just experienced politically, but militarily too—he had been on crusade and knew how to fight. At the Battle of Lewes (May 14, 1264), de Montfort’s forces were victorious against the Royalists, which included Prince Edward, who was captured.   Edward escaped from captivity and managed to raise another army in a year. The opposing sides met again at the Battle of Evesham on August 4, 1265, which was one of the turning points in Henry’s reign. Not only had Prince Edward shown his prowess on the battlefield by winning the skirmish, but de Montfort was killed and dismembered on the battlefield.   It was not until 1267 that the war finally ended with the Statute of Marlborough (similar to how the Magna Carta had ended the First Barons’ War half a century earlier).   Henry’s Death and Legacy Ceiling of Westminster Abbey, photo by Chris Dreyer. Source: Unsplash   The king was aging by this point, but he did live to see his beloved Westminster Abbey completed in 1269, which was arguably the grandest church in Europe at the time.   Henry eventually died aged 65 on November 16, 1272.   But what legacy did Henry III leave behind? Most historians gloss over his reign as it is generally seen as long but uneventful. However, this is not the case at all. Henry had the misfortune of being situated between two kings at opposite ends of the scale—the terrible King John at one end and the glorious Edward I at the other.   However, Henry’s reign should not go unnoticed. While he had problems such as the way he treated the Jewish community (advocating for them to wear badges, much like a particular German leader did almost 700 years later), and issues with the barons, overall, Henry was a good king.   He founded Westminster Abbey, dealt with rebellion very calmly, listened to his advisers after his minority ended, and established diplomatic relations throughout Europe among his children. And, if you’ve ever enjoyed a visit to a zoo in the UK, remember that King Henry III founded the very first one in the 1250s!

  Hidden away among the many King Louis is one of French history’s most interesting characters: King Philip IV. Known as Philip the Fair, he ruled from 1285 to 1314, an incredible period in French history. He was also known as the Iron King, which was a testament to the way that he ruled. One of the most interesting aspects of Philip’s reign was that he fathered three kings of France, and one Queen of England—something that other monarchs have seldom achieved. Read on to find out about the incredible life and reign of this brilliant medieval French king.   Philip’s Early Life Philip IV the Fair, from Recueil des rois de France, by Jean du Tillet, 1550. Source: BnF   Philip was born into the House of Capet in the spring of 1268 in the Palace of Fontainebleau, France. His father was King Philip III of France (r. 1270-85) and his mother was Isabella of Aragon.   Philip’s early life was fairly tumultuous. In 1270, his grandfather, King Louis IX, died while on crusade, and his father became king. In January 1271, when Philip was not quite three years old, his mother died while horseriding, and she was pregnant with her fifth child.   Just a few months later, one of Philip’s younger brothers, Robert, died. On August 15 of the same year, Philip’s father was formally crowned King Philip III of France at Rheims, and he married six days later.   In May 1276, Philip’s older brother, Louis, the heir apparent, died. This then made Philip the heir to the French throne. A rumor circulated that Philip and Louis’s stepmother, Marie, had poisoned Louis as she had recently given birth to her own son, who could be in contention to become king. However, this is unlikely, as Philip lived to become king, and his younger biological brother Charles also lived well into adulthood.   Little else is known about Philip’s early years, save that he received a good education under the guidance of his father’s almoner, Guillaume d’Ercuis.   On August 16, 1284, aged 16, Philip married Joan I of Navarre, a marriage which would last until her death in 1305. The couple were known to be genuinely devoted to each other, with Philip refusing to marry after her death, even for lucrative political and financial rewards.   Philip IV’s Early Reign Coin of Philip IV of France, 1285-1314. Source: The British Museum   Philip III died of dysentery while on the Aragonese Crusade aged 40 on October 5, 1285, leaving the throne to his 17-year-old son, who was officially crowned as King Philip IV of France at Reims on January 6, 1286.   Philip was determined to strengthen the monarchy throughout his reign at the expense of reducing the wealth and power of the clergy and nobility. Despite this, Philip was known to be pious and donated a lot of money to the Church throughout his reign.   Philip’s desire to strengthen the monarchy ultimately led to the transformation of France from a feudal state into a centralized early modern state, and he became one of the most highly-revered European monarchs of the 13th and 14th centuries.   Because of his ambitious nature, he was very well respected around Europe, and, similarly to many of his contemporaries, he sought to place as many of his relatives on various European thrones as possible.   Troubles With England Edward I paying homage to Philip IV, by Jean Fouquet, 1455. Source: BnF   As Duke of Aquitaine, King Edward I of England was supposed to pay Philip homage, but after the Crusaders lost Acre in 1291, the two kings began to show animosity toward each other.   In 1293, La Rochelle, a coastal town in France, was sacked by English sailors, and Philip summoned Edward to France to offer an explanation. Philip only addressed Edward as a vassal and a duke, yet despite this insult, Edward wanted to avert war at all costs.   An agreement was made between the two monarchs that Edward would temporarily relinquish Gascony to Philip, and that Edward was to marry Philip’s sister, Margaret.   On May 19, 1294, Edward (after refusing to attend Philip’s court earlier in the year) was relieved of Aquitaine, Gascony, and other Plantagenet territories in France. In response, Edward renounced his homage to Philip and began to prepare for war. This conflict would rage on until 1303 and became known as the Gascon War.   The Gascon War (1294-1303) Depiction of a conflict during the Gascon War, c. 1350. Source: Wikimedia Commons   France initially turned to Scotland for support in the war, renewing the Auld Alliance, as Edward had been busy fighting the Scots in the First Scottish Wars of Independence at the same time, and now had war on both fronts of his kingdom to deal with.   However, France was not just fighting one battle; Edward assisted the Kingdom of Flanders in their war against the French, so France ended up fighting wars on two fronts.   The Gascon War was arguably Philip’s biggest humiliation as king of France. Not only did the war cost thousands of lives, and was incredibly expensive, but Philip ended up coming out of it worse off than Edward.   The French defeat at the Battle of the Golden Spurs on July 11, 1302 was the final nail in the coffin which forced Philip to give Aquitaine back to Edward.   To seal the deal at the end of the war, Philip’s daughter Isabella was betrothed to Edward’s son, Edward, who would go on to rule as King Edward II of England. This marriage produced an heir (the unborn but future King Edward III of England), who would therefore have a rightful claim to the French throne through his mother. Who knew at the time, then, that this decision of betrothal would eventually lead to one of the bloodiest conflicts in European history: the Hundred Years’ War?   The Beginning of the Avignon Papacy Pope Clement V, by Andrea di Bonaaiuto, c. 1365-67. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As mentioned above, Philip was an incredibly strong leader. Sometimes, he was too strong for his own good.   He attempted to impose state control over the Catholic Church in France, which led to conflict with Pope Boniface VIII.   This conflict turned violent, and the pope’s residence at Anagni, just south of Rome, was attacked in September 1303 by French forces supported by the Colonna family.   This put the pope in great danger, and he was even captured before being released a few days later.   Naturally, he had to move. The move eventually became known as the Avignon Papacy (1309-76), as seven successive popes resided in Avignon, rather than Rome. At the time Avignon was in the Holy Roman Empire, but it is now in modern-day France.   Relations With the Mongols Khan Öljaitü accepts Yuan ambassadors, from the Compendium of Chronicles, 1438. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Another key aspect of Philip’s reign was the correspondence between himself and the greatest force from the East that Europe had ever seen: the Mongols.   In April 1305, the Mongol leader, Öljaitü sent letters to Philip as well as to Edward I and Pope Clement V, offering a collaboration between the European Christian nations and the Mongols against the Mamluk Turks.   While this is a mere footnote in Philip IV’s reign, it nevertheless shows how powerful he was as a monarch, that a Mongol leader reached out to him for assistance. While a crusade was planned but never materialized, Philip (against the will of his advisers) took the cross, pledging himself to go on a crusade should the opportunity arise.   The End of the Knights Templar Templars being Burned at the stake, 1270-1380. Source: British Library   One of the major stains on King Philip IV’s reign was how he brutally ended the Knights Templar.   The Knights Templar were formed in 1118 as a monastic military order, designed to protect Christian soldiers while on Crusade in the Latin East.   However, through his various military campaigns and the devaluation of the French currency, Philip was in a lot of debt, much of which he had borrowed from the Knights Templar.   Many of the services that the Knights Templar had originally offered had largely been replaced by banking, and crusading fever was not as strong as it had been in the 11th and 12th centuries. Philip used this decline in their services as an excuse to have them eradicated as an order.   On Friday the 13th of October 1307, at dawn, under instruction from Philip IV, hundreds of Templars in France were simultaneously arrested. They would then be tortured into confessing their alleged heresy.   Pope Clement V was a weak pope, and Philip frequently saw him as a puppet. Clement wanted the Knights Templar to have fair trials (as they were originally only answerable to the Pope), but Philip reminded him how many of them had admitted their heresy (with the aid of torture). Many of the Knights were burned at the stake due to their confessions before proper trials could be held.   Jacques de Molay, and Geoffroi de Charnay, the last leaders of the Templar, were formally burned at the stake in March 1314, bringing an end to one of the greatest Crusading organizations of the Middle Ages.   The Tour de Nesle Affair Relatives console Philip IV, c. 13th century. Source: BnF   In 1314, two of Philip’s daughters-in-law (Margaret of Burgundy, married to Prince Louis and Blanche of Burgundy married to Prince Charles) were accused of adultery. Their alleged lovers were first tortured, before being flayed and then executed, as a way of sending a message to anyone who would be unfaithful to a member of the French royal family.   Later on, Philip’s other daughter-in-law, Joan II, Countess of Burgundy (wife of Prince Philip) was accused of knowing about the affairs and doing nothing about them.   Philip IV’s Death and Legacy Modern portrait, Philip IV of France. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Later in the same year, Philip had a stroke while out hunting in the Forest of Halatte. The stroke severely inhibited him, and he ended up only surviving for a few weeks. He died, aged 46, in Fontainebleau. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Louis, who would go on to be crowned King Louis X of France.   The legacy that Philip IV left behind cannot be understated. He was a strong monarch, who helped to transform the country through his leadership. While there were some dark moments, such as the Gascon War and the Knights Templar affair, he nevertheless left France a stronger country than the one he had inherited from his father.   He also went on to father three future kings of France: Louis X (r. 1314-16), Philip V (r. 1316-22), and Charles IV (r. 1322-28). On top of this, the diplomatic relations that he formed with his daughters showed France as a medieval European powerhouse.   While some of these relations unfortunately led to the Hundred Years’ War and some bad years for France, Philip IV’s legacy is that, without question, he was one of the most influential monarchs in French

  Richard I of England, also known as “Richard the Lionheart,” became one of the most famous royals to go on the crusades. His leadership in the Third Crusade against Saladin shaped not only the course of medieval warfare but shaped his image of royal piety and heroism that continues even today.   The Crusades in Summary A knight in a typical Norman hauberk and nasal helmet demonstrates deadly mounted force in this 19th-century depiction of Crusader Robert of Normandy. Robert de Normandie at the Siege of Antioch, by J. J. Dassy,1850. Source: Britannica   The crusades were a series of wars that were centered primarily on religion, specifically the differences between European Christians and Muslims. They took place between the 11th and 13th centuries. At their heart lay the tension between the expansion of Muslim territories. The subsequent spread of Islam was worrisome to the church. In order to retake the area and “conquer pagan areas” they created what would become a series of wars in order to reclaim or secure what they viewed as sacred land, particularly Jerusalem. What was seen as a simple expedition turned into hundreds of years of warfare.   Pope Urban II Preaching the Crusades in the Square of Clermont, by Francesco Hayez, 1835. Source: Artgate   The First Crusade was called by Pope Urban II, in order to take control of Jerusalem in 1095. The city had religious historical importance to the church. The Pope’s speech at Clermont was both spiritual and political, an appeal to unity in often warring kingdoms under a shared Christian cause. It was believed that participation in these wars meant the forgiveness of sins and eternal reward.   By the time Richard the Lionheart joined the cause, the crusades had evolved from spontaneous holy wars into highly organized campaigns that involved massive wealth and armies of kings. The wars shaped European religious identities and deepened divisions between Christianity and Islam.   Richard the Lionheart Before the Crusades Richard I and Philip II receiving the keys of Acre, from Grandes Chroniques de France, 1375-80. Source: BnF   Before he would become a traditional crusading king, Richard I was already a soldier created in a court full of intrigue and rebellion. He was exposed to warfare and military tactics and had experience in leadership that he would later carry with him to the Third Crusade.   Richard I was born in 1157 into the Angevin Empire, the son of King Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was the third son. Much of his formative life was spent with his mother in Aquitaine. By his late teens, he was already a strong commander, leading campaigns and suppressing revolts. After his father died, he was crowned king. During his ten-year reign as the King of England, he only spent about half a year in total in England. His reputation, however, was made by his actions as a crusader.   Richard I and the Third Crusade The Crusaders Cross the Bosphorus, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Theatrics and religious differences played a large part in rallying support for the crusades. When Jerusalem fell to Saladin in 1187, Europe felt it as a collective blow. When the papacy called for a new crusade, Richard saw an opportunity to prove himself as king. Chroniclers described how he prepared by gathering fleets, raising taxes, and having oaths sworn throughout his lands. Unlike his father, who focused on diplomacy, Richard was determined to go to war in the East. Richard’s reasons for joining the crusade were both religious and practical. By taking the cross, he showed his faith and also took on a leadership role that could help bring together his divided lands.   How Richard’s Leadership Transformed the Third Crusade Depiction of Richard (L) and Saladin ®, c. 1250-1260, on tiles from the Chertsey Abbey in Surrey, now at the British Museum. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Richard I’s work in the Third Crusade was important for minor victories. He not only knew what it took to rule, but he had a knack for tactics and the charisma to rally troops. One of his first major victories when he went there was the capture of Acre in 1191. At the time Saladin had controlled much of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which also included the city of Acre. He won the fortress city after heavy losses by the crusaders, including the Battle of Hattin. When it was won back by Richard I and the other Crusaders it became a headquarters of military and diplomacy.   Richard’s Use of Diplomacy A statue of Saladin in Al-Karak, Jordan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While Richard I was known for his military skill, his diplomatic abilities were important to his victories. Battles and negotiation were important in warfare during the Medieval time period, and Richard I knew that victory could be formed from both the sword as well as the written and spoken word. His relationship with Saladin, the Muslim leader and Sultan of Egypt, was part of this.   After years of battles without any real victory, both sides recognized a stalemate. The crusaders were unable to “take back” Jerusalem. The fight so far from home also was a huge drain on resources for both sides. Richard I was vital in negotiating the Treaty of Ramla in 1192. The Treaty of Ramla was signed by Saladin and Richard I. It allowed the city of Jerusalem to be under Muslim control and for Christians to visit safely on pilgrimages.   How Richard’s Legacy Shaped the Crusading Kingship The Cathedral of Saint Anne in Jerusalem, built by crusaders in the 1130s to replace a Byzantine church. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Richard I was far from the only king to go on a crusade. Philip II of France, Frederick Babarossa of Germany and Louis IX of France also led military campaigns. Still, Richard I’s reign redefined what being a crusading king actually meant. While historically kings took place in wars and battles, the interest in keeping the lineage safe and the line unbroken meant it was safer and more important for them to do this from home base.   In contrast, Richard embodied the knightly ideal that we hold from tales like King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. He was a warrior-king who led his armies and lived by the chivalry code. His courage and leadership during battle in the Crusade became a model for other kings. His death only made his legend grow exponentially. Chroniclers and poets turned him into a symbol of Christianity, the “righteousness” of the Crusades, and he has since been woven into rich and lavish forms of art and literature.

  Every culture across time has told stories of fantastical, mythical creatures. Some are described as wondrous and incredible, while others occupy a darker, more terrifying place in the imagination. The purpose of these darker mythical creatures is seemingly to wreak havoc and destruction, strike fear, torment their victims, and commit inhumane atrocities. These horror myths are strangely appealing, drawing on fears and insecurities inherent in human nature and sometimes acting as cautionary tales. Let’s look at 16 of the most terrifying mythical creatures from around the world.   1. Jorogumo: Terrifying Japanese Spider Seducer Night Procession of One Hundred Demons, by Toriyama Seikien, 1915. Source: British Museum   In Japanese mythology, a Jorogumo was a deadly hybrid creature that could transform from a spider into a beautiful woman to seduce and kill its victims. The story goes that when a Jorogumo spider, a common species found in Japan, reached 400 years, it gained the power to shapeshift and developed an appetite for human flesh.   Disguised as beautiful women, these creepy creatures were able to enchant and lure men into their web of lies. Their webs were constructed of silk threads so robust that, once trapped, no man could escape. According to Japanese folklore, the Jorogumo would then administer its lethal venom, gradually weakening its victim, to savor its prey as long as possible. A slow and painful demise for their sorry victim.   2. Gashadokuro: Skeletal Giant of Japan Mitsukuni defying the skeleton specter conjured up by Princess Takiyasha, by Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 1797-1861. Source: Sotheby’s   Gashadokuro are gigantic mythological creatures amalgamated from the bones of human skeletons in Japanese mythology. In situations of mass death, such as famines or wars, individuals could not receive proper funeral rites. That mean that they were unable to move on after death. As their bodies decayed, their souls became twisted with wrath and resentment towards the living. Their souls and bones merged into one enormous being called a Gashadokuro, translated as the “starving skeleton.”   Terrifyingly silent, aside from the unnerving chattering of their teeth, these mythical creatures skulked around deep in the night, looking for prey. Finding their victim, they decapitated them and drank their blood. A Gashadokuro would continue terrorizing the night until the resentment of every soul residing within the creature had dwindled, no longer animating the skeletal monster.   3. Penanggalan: Malay Disembodied Vampire Penanggalan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Penanggalan are infamous mythological creatures known by different names throughout Southeast Asia. In Malay myth, a Penanggalan was once a mortal woman who performed witchcraft and black magic.   A popular version of the myth states that one woman agreed to become a vegetarian for 40 days in exchange for youthful beauty. Ultimately, she broke her pact and was cursed to become a flesh-eating Penanggalan. During the day, she resembled an ordinary woman, but at night, her head would detach from her body, floating around with her trailing entrails. This disembodied figure flew around searching for sustenance in the form of pregnant women and infants, draining them of their blood. Those fed on by this vampiric creature ended up contracting a fatal disease. Returning to her abode, a Penanggalan would soak herself in vinegar to shrink her organs back into her body. A Penanggalan, therefore, could be recognized during the day by this tell-tale smell of vinegar.   4. Lamashtu: Mesopotamian Mother of Demons Neo-Assyrian Lamashtu Amulet, 800BC-550 BCE. Source: British Museum   The demon goddess of Mesopotamian mythology, Lamashtu, was a hellish hybrid creature usually depicted as pregnant, covered with thick hair, and with two skulls over her breasts, a snake’s tail, large wings, three eyes, and taloned feet. The head of this beast was said to be either a jackal, lioness, snake, or hawk, depending on the source.   Lamashtu was known to enact destruction by polluting nature and water, spreading disease, causing nightmares, as well as drinking the blood and devouring human flesh. She is said to have especially terrorized pregnant women and children. The demoness would force miscarriages to occur and kidnap infants, feeding them with her own poisonous milk before chomping on their bones and satisfying her thirst with their blood. Lamashtu herself was considered the mother of many demonic creatures and monsters who carried out her malevolent bidding.   5. Ammit: Egyptian Devourer of the Dead Ammit & Thoth Await the Judgement of a Soul, 1250 BCE. Source: British Museum   In Ancient Egyptian mythology, Ammit was a beastly goddess with the head of a crocodile, the frontal body of a lion, and the rear of a hippopotamus. Known as the “Devourer of the Dead,” Ammit fulfilled a particularly gruesome role in the judgment of souls. In the underworld, Thoth would weigh the heart of an individual against the feather of Ma’at, the goddess of truth.   The scales remained balanced if the individual was pure, but would be tipped if this was not the case. A heavy heart meant that the person was unworthy of eternal bliss. These hearts of the impure were thrown to Ammit. The beast, devouring their hearts, would ensure that these souls ceased to exist forever. This was the worst fate in a culture focused on life after death.   6. Typhon: Greek Monster of Monsters Alabastron with Typhon, 600-575 BCE. Source: Yale University Art Gallery   In Greek mythology, Typhon was regarded as the fiercest, deadliest, and biggest of giants, monsters, and gods. He generally possessed the upper body of a man, while hundreds of snakes comprised his bottom half. His eyes gleamed red with fire, and wings sprouted from his back. Although descriptions of Typhon vary, it is generally understood that he was an immeasurably colossal being with numerous wings, heads, hands, and snakes.   According to Hesiod, this monstrous creation of Gaia and Tartarus attempted to overthrow Zeus and rule over the heavens. Unsuccessful in this attempt, Zeus conquered Typhon with a hundred lightning bolts and imprisoned him within the pits of Tartarus. Indeed, Typhon is said to have been buried under Mount Etna, his constant rage resulting in any volcanic activity. The most terrifying monster in Greek mythology, Typhon was also said to father other infamous Greek monsters such as Cerberus, the Hydra, and the Chimera.   7. Hydra: Serpentine Leviathan of Greece    Hercules and the Lernaean Hydra, by Gustave Moreau, 1875-1876. Source: Art Institute of Chicago   The Hydra was a gigantic serpent with numerous heads; the number varies according to different sources. It resided in Lerna’s lakes. The water-dwelling monster is said to have poisonous breath and blood.   Several versions of the myth claim that the monster possessed a regenerative ability, for each head that was decapitated, two more grew in its place. The most infamous tale of the Hydra is the completion of Hercules‘ Second Labor. The hero is sent to slay the monster. With the aid of his nephew, Iolaus, Hercules decapitated and, importantly, cauterized each head to hinder the Hydra’s regenerative power. Finally, Hercules beheaded the last immortal head of the serpent, dipped his arrows in its poisonous blood for future enemies, and buried its head, still alive, under a heavy rock.   8. Mare: Norse Nightmare Giver The Nightmare, by Henry Fuseli, 1781. Source: Detroit Institute of Arts   In Norse mythology, a mare was a demonic spirit who could induce nightmares in sleeping people. During the night, this mythological creature would sneak into a person’s home through their keyhole. Climbing upon the chest of the sleeping individual, they would provoke terrifying nightmares based upon the sleeper’s fears and anxieties. Their victim would experience a heavy weight on their chest, awareness of a dark presence, and find themselves unable to move or wake up. This was perhaps a Medieval explanation of what is now known as sleep paralysis.   Unlike the above painting, a mare was considered a female demon, typically depicted as either a youthful, beautiful woman or an old, hideous hag.   9. Draugr: Norse Undead Revenant Ink drawing of a draugr, by Kim Diaz Holm, 2024. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The draugr, the resurrected corpses of Viking warriors, were terrifying, zombie-like mythical creatures that roamed the world searching for their victims. They could be clearly recognized by the stench of rotting flesh and their deathly black or blue skin. The draugr possessed staggering strength, could increase their body size as they wished, and haunted the dreams of the living.   In some versions of the myth, these undead mythological creatures were also thought to have several magical powers, such as shapeshifting, premonitions, and weather control. The only motivation for these bloodthirsty, creepy creatures was to slaughter any living being, whether humans or livestock, to satiate their thirst for flesh and blood. The draugr condition appeared to be contagious, like modern ideas of zombies, as those killed by the draugr would resurrect themselves as these creatures. The draugr were pretty indestructible, and the only way to kill them was through decapitation, incineration of the body, and discarding of the ashes in the sea.   10. Banshee: Terrifying Irish Screacher The Hateful Banshee, illustration from McAnally’s Irish Wonders, 2006 edition. Source: British Library; with The Banshee, by Henry Meynell Rheam, 1897-1901. Source: Wikimedia Commons   One of the more infamous mythical creatures on this list is the banshee, a female spirit or fairy known in Irish folklore as the harbinger of death. Depending on the version of the myth, she is either described as a hauntingly striking beauty or an ancient crone. She is said to have long white hair, a grey cloak, and eyes permanently red from her tears.   This mythological creature was known to be a foreteller of death to those who laid their eyes on her, killed by her piercing scream. Indeed, the most terrifying quality of the banshee was her painfully disturbing wail. Their scream was so bloodcurdling that it was said to affect a person’s mind and could be heard from a great distance.   11. Nuckelavee: Creature of the Orkney Isles The Nuckelavee chasing an islander, painting by James Torrance, c. 1859–1916. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While the Loch Ness monster might be the most famous creature from Scottish folklore, the most terrifying is the Nuckelavee. Described as a horse-like demon with a human rider fused to its back, the Nuckelavee is said to emerge from the sea. Its skinless body reveals muscle and sinew. The mere sight of the Nuckelavee is enough to cause illness, and its breath is toxic. It brings disease and destruction wherever it roams.   12. Wendigo: Native American Cannibal Artsitic rediction of a Wendigo. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Wendigo comes from American Algonquian folklore. It is a malevolent spirit that can possess human beings and inflict them with an insatiable hunger that can only be satisfied by eating other humans. It is said to turn their heart to ice, resulting in the possessed person being cold to the touch. While the Wendigo can blend in early during possession, when the possessed person cannot satisfy their hunger, they become gaunt and desiccated.   In modern psychiatry, Wendigo Psychosis is characterized by the desire to eat human flesh and engage in cannibalism.   13. Skin Walkers: Native American Shapeshifters A figure representing Zahadolzha, a Navajo god, published in Volume I of The North American Indian (1907) by Edward S. Curtis. Source: Universal History Archive   A skin-walker is a shape-shifting witch from the Navajo tradition. They were once shamans but chose to use their gifts for evil purposes. They can assume the shape of any animal or human they choose to assume their identity, and are also sometimes described as possessing people. The Navajo name directly translates as “by means of it, it goes on all fours” due to its penchant for taking the form of an animal. Whatever shape it chooses, its purpose is always malevolent, and they are considered among the most dangerous Native American mythical creatures.   14. Patasola: Hunting Vampires of Latin American Folklore Patasola, by Danny Gonzalez   The Patasola comes from Colombian folklore and is a female monster that lives in the jungle. It approaches male hunters in the wilderness when they are thinking about women. She appears as a beautiful seductress or even like a loved one of her victims and lures the man deep into the jungle. There, she reveals her true nature as a hideous one-legged creature with an appetite for human flesh and blood. She sucks the blood of her victims dry and then devours their flesh, and they are never seen again.   15. Jersey Devil: Mythical Creature of Modern America The Jersey Devil, an illustration in The Evening Bulletin Philadelphia in January 21, 1909. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Urban legends from Jersey and Philadelphia report a creature that inhabits the Pine Barrens in South Jersey. It is described in many different ways, but it walks on two legs and has the hooves of a horse, a goat-like head, leathery bat wings, horns, small arms with clawed hands, and a forked tail like the devil. The Jersey Devil can move quickly through the barrens and often lets out a high-pitched, blood-curdling scream. It was apparently the 13th child of a woman in the area who cursed the baby to be a devil during childbirth. There have been many sightings over the years, and in the 1960s, the Philadelphia Zoo offered a reward for the creature.   16. Chupacabra: The World’s Newest Monster? Illustration of a Chupacabra. Source: BBC   <p>In 1975, a series of livestock killings in a small town in Puerto Rico was attributed to either a vampire or a satanic cult. But the livestock killings continued, with all the animals bled dry through a series of circular incisions, a new theory emerged. By 1995, these attacks were blamed on chupacabra, which means “goat sucker,” a legendary creature from folklore that drinks blood to sate its insatiable hunger. A reptile-like creature the size of a small bear, it has a row of spines reaching from the neck to the base of the tail. Eyewitnesses report they have seen the creature across Latin America, and a 2019 video may provide further evidence.

Children are not a commodity to be bought and sold, but this what surrogacy boils down to. A recent story of a surrogate mother and the couple she thought she was helping only proves this point. Carole-Anne Kelly agreed to be a surrogate for a "desperate" couple, Todd and Lisa,...

When it comes to political rhetoric, in both style and substance, Democrats have no answer for Vice President JD Vance. The vice president proved as much again Wednesday evening during a Turning Point USA event at the University of Mississippi. When confronted by a (generally polite) young immigrant woman who...

It’s time to shine a light on this…. A massive, 100 watt giant spotlight. Because Minneapolis has fallen and most people don’t even have any idea what is happening over there. Let me show you… Minneapolis has always been Left-Leaning, perhaps even Far-Left Leaning.  Heck, Minnesota was the only State Ronald Reagan didn’t win in his Second Term, sweeping the other 49 States. But while it was always Far-Left leaning, it was still American.  It was still clearly part of the United States.  It still flied our American Flag. Not anymore. Here is leading Minneapolis Mayoral Candidate Omar Fateh at a campaign rally, waving the Somali Flag (not American flag) and speaking only in Somali. It’s disgusting and I have to ask if you’re flying a DIFFERENT flag within our country, is that treason?  Is that an outright act of war, a declaration that you do not hold yourself and your city to the ideas, laws, rules, regulations, and shared values that make us ONE country? Watch here: Curious about what exactly he was saying? Me too. So I went ahead and transcribed it for us. First is the original Somali and below that is the translation to English, with time-stamps for everything included: 0:03 – 0:06: “As-salamu alaykum.” (Peace be upon you – a standard Islamic greeting) 0:06 – 0:08: “Assalamualaikum.” (Peace be upon you – repeated for emphasis or response) 0:09 – 0:13: “Somalia ha noolaato.” (Long live Somalia – corrected from subtitle ‘Somalia Hira State,’ which appears to be a phonetic misspelling of the common chant ‘Somalia ha noolaato’) 0:13 – 0:15: “Ma’awisle.” (My dear brothers/sisters or a term of endearment; could be a phonetic rendering of “ma’awis le,” meaning “my relatives” or “folks”) 0:15 – 0:20: “Early voting until November 4.” (Direct English; referring to the election timeline, likely the 2025 Minneapolis mayoral election) 0:20 – 0:22: “I need your vote.” (Direct English) 0:22 – 0:23: “Waan idin jeclahay.” (I love you all – corrected from subtitle ‘Wani Dibahnahai,’ a phonetic approximation) 0:23 – 0:26: “I need you.” (Direct English; emphasizing reliance on the audience) 0:26 – 0:28: (Inferred from context and gestures: additional Somali encouragement, possibly “Waxaan u baahanahay taageeradiinna,” meaning “I need your support”) 0:28 – 0:30: “Hadaan u dooranno… Hello, we’re gonna win.” (If you choose/vote for me… Hello, we’re gonna win – the subtitle combines Somali “Hadaan u dooranno,” meaning “if we choose” or “if you vote,” with an English motivational close) We cannot allow this to stand. You want to run for office waving the Somali flag?  Fine.  Great!  Go do it in Somalia. Get these people the hell out of our country, they clearly don’t want to be here! Tom Homan, send in the troops and round these traitors up! And as always, I have to end with his face.  Those eyes!  The crazy eyes! You know what I’m talking about? Why do they all have the CRAZY EYES? pic.twitter.com/zW63KwYrsC — Noah Christopher (@DailyNoahNews) January 10, 2024 And these: Who are the crazy ones? Look at their eyes. pic.twitter.com/t2ZuGDea9U — Noah Christopher (@DailyNoahNews) October 24, 2024 Why do they all have it? But I think this guy is the worst of all… Look at those Buggers! Yikes!