from Your News: Moscow and Tehran formalized a comprehensive defense and economic agreement Monday, adding complexity to ongoing U.S. negotiations with both nations. By yourNEWS Media Newsroom Russia on Monday formalized a comprehensive defense and economic cooperation treaty with Iran, codifying a broad alliance that stretches across key sectors including defense, counterterrorism, energy, finance, transport, industry, agriculture, […]

by Rick Mills, Ahead Of The Herd: Rick Mills, Editor/ Publisher, Ahead of the Herd: What are your sentiment indicators saying to you? Bob Moriarty, Founder, 321gold: Well I’ll tell you something interesting, you’ve known me long enough. I’m a contrarian and in my books I literally argue that you don’t have to know anything about […]

  In the Arthurian legends, Lancelot is one of the most famous and popular characters. He was one of Arthur’s best and most powerful knights. However, despite his initial loyalty, he eventually turned on Arthur, engaging in an affair with the king’s wife, Guinevere. This dramatic story is a key feature of the Arthurian legends today. However, Lancelot is commonly understood by scholars as an invention of French writers. In other words, he did not exist in the earliest versions of the legends. But not all scholars agree. Might his origins be within the Welsh tradition?   Lancelot’s Apparent Origin Lancelot Crossing the Sword Bridge, by Evrard d’Espinques, 1475. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The earliest known appearance of Lancelot by that name is in the writing of Chretien de Troyes. He was a French writer who lived in the 12th century. He wrote shortly after Geoffrey of Monmouth produced his hugely influential Historia Regum Britanniae in c. 1137. Chretien’s version contains many notable differences from Geoffrey’s account.   One of these differences is the presence of Lancelot. In fact, Lancelot gets an entire story devoted to him, known as Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart. Since Lancelot does not explicitly appear with this name until the writings of Chretien, this has led to the logical conclusion that he is Chretien’s own invention. Since “Lancelot” clearly looks like a French name, and Chretien himself was one of the earliest French writers of the Arthurian legends, this seems all the more certain.   Nevertheless, many scholars over the years have proposed pre-Chretien origins for Lancelot. There is an enormous variety of theories, some more convincing than others.   Lancelot’s Overtly French Name Lancelot’s attributed arms. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Many scholars have attempted to provide a non-French origin for this character’s name. Such scholars include Ferdinand Lot, Roger Sherman Loomis, Thomas Gwynn Jones, Norma Loore Goodrich, and others. Based on this line of investigation, they have limited themselves to attributing the origin of Lancelot to pre-Chretien figures whose names could plausibly have become “Lancelot.”   However, there is an important fact which has a large bearing on this issue. Historian Flint Johnson highlights that several manuscripts of Chretien’s work actually have the form “L’Ancelot.” The word “ancelot” is French for “servant.” Hence, “L’Ancelot” would mean “the Servant.” In other words, it is entirely possible that the name that Chretien gave to this character was actually a title. This would mean that the original character on which he was based (if not just Chretien’s invention) could have had a completely different name. Crucially, this means that there is no inherent reason to only look at figures whose names could have evolved into “Lancelot.”   Maelgwn Gwynedd The site of Deganwy Castle, possibly the stronghold of Maelgwn Gwynedd. Source: Wikimedia Commons.   When we look at the various potential origins for Lancelot that have been proposed by scholars with this key fact in mind, one candidate stands out as a particularly strong possibility. This candidate is Maelgwn Gwynedd. What is particularly interesting about Maelgwn is that he is not only a pre-Chretien figure but that he is also known to have been a historical king. He was one of the five kings mentioned by the 6th-century writer Gildas in De Excidio.   This theory involves ignoring the name, since, as we have seen, “Lancelot” likely just means “the Servant” in French. When we just look at the information about Maelgwn as a king, a convincing case can be made that he was the historical prototype for Lancelot. When this theory was first proposed in the 19th century, there were some obvious flaws in the logic and evidence used, and thus it was discarded. However, with the benefit of more modern scholarship, particularly regarding the name of Lancelot’s kingdom, it is worth another look.   Maelgwn as a Powerful Ally of King Arthur Illustration of Maelgwn Gwynedd from Brut Y Brenhinedd, a Welsh translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae (Peniarth MS 23, fol. 96v), c. 15th century. Source: National Library of Wales   When examining whether Lancelot could reasonably have been derived from the figure of Maelgwn Gwynedd, we do well to look at their overall profiles. Lancelot, as we have already seen, was famously one of Arthur’s best and most powerful knights. Does this basic concept match what the pre-Chretien sources wrote about Maelgwn Gwynedd? Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote about Maelgwn:   “After him succeeded Malgo (Maelgwn), one of the handsomest of men in Britain, a great scourge of tyrants, and a man of great strength, extraordinary munificence, and matchless valor.”   There is no doubt that this basic description of Maelgwn is a good match for Lancelot. This fundamental match is something which perhaps no other proposed candidate for the historical Lancelot achieves. Maelgwn was allegedly handsome, brave, and powerful, and all this to a remarkable degree.   While Geoffrey does go on to mention Maelgwn engaging in homosexual conduct, which does not feature in the tales of Lancelot, this is not present in any other record of Maelgwn either.   St. David’s Cathedral in the city of St. Davids (Mynwy), where Maelgwn was said to have been Chief Elder. Source: Wikimedia Commons   What about the concept of Lancelot being an ally of Arthur? Geoffrey of Monmouth does not specifically mention this point regarding Maelgwn. Nevertheless, we can find this elsewhere in early tradition. We find it in the Welsh Triads, which are a collection of medieval traditions grouped into sets of threes. Triad One is called the Three Tribal Thrones of the Island of Britain. It lists King Arthur’s three most notable royal courts. The first entry reads as follows:   “Arthur as Chief of Princes in Mynyw, and Dewi as Chief of Bishops, and Maelgwn Gwynedd as Chief of Elders.”   According to this relatively early trace of Welsh tradition, Maelgwn was held to be the Chief Elder at one of King Arthur’s most important royal courts. Although the tradition of Maelgwn as one of Arthur’s allies does not have a prominent part in later records, this demonstrates that it was originally there. In fact, he was held to have been one of Arthur’s most important and privileged allies.   Lancelot’s Kingdom Depiction of Ulrich von Zatzikhoven and the opening lines of his Lanzelet, from the Codex Palatinus Germanicus 371, 1420. Source: Heidelberg University Library   So far, we have seen that Maelgwn matches the basic profile of Lancelot, as a handsome, brave, powerful ally of Arthur. However, while an excellent match, this is also rather generic. To connect the two figures on a more specific level, let us now examine Lancelot’s kingdom. The name of this kingdom is variously seen as Benwick, Benoic, Genewis, and other variants. The form “Genewis” is used by Ulrich von Zatzikhoven in his German Lanzelet. This appears to be a variant of “Gomeret,” the name of the kingdom of Ban (Lancelot’s father) according to Chretien.   Many scholars have argued that the name of Lancelot’s kingdom is a reference to Vannes in Brittany. This certainly seems to be the case for Gannes, the kingdom ruled by the brother of Lancelot’s father. Scholars have argued that Lancelot’s father’s own kingdom is just a duplicate of this. In other words, both his father and his uncle ruled the same kingdom. The forms “Genewis,” “Gomeret,” and even “Benwick” have all been argued to be alterations of “Guenet,” the Breton name for Vannes.   Manuscript showing Maelgwn’s name and epithet on the second line, Jesus College MS 20, fol. 38r., c. 14th century. Source: Bodleian Libraries   The reason that this is so significant is that the Breton name for Vannes, “Guenet,” is virtually identical to the name of Maelgwn’s kingdom. The modern spelling is “Gwynedd,” although it is often seen as “Gwyned” in medieval manuscripts, such as the Jesus College MS 20. Therefore, it would have been extremely easy for a French writer to have mistaken Gwynedd for Guenet, or Vannes. This is especially so given that a French writer would obviously have been more familiar with the Breton location, since it is within France.   Some scholars have even identified Lancelot’s kingdom directly as Gwynedd, as noted by historian Christopher W Bruce. Prominent Arthurian scholar Elspeth Kennedy mentioned both identifications in a footnote, without commenting on which one she felt was more likely.   Whether the name came from Guenet or directly from Gwynedd, the connection to Maelgwn is easy to make. This provides very strong support to the conclusion that Maelgwn was the historical origin behind the figure of Lancelot.   Other Evidence That Maelgwn Was the Historical Prototype of Lancelot The church at Llanrhos, where Maelgwn died according to tradition. Source: Wikipedia Commons   The fact that Maelgwn was a powerful and important ally of Arthur, whose kingdom corresponds to the name of Lancelot’s kingdom, is not the end of the story. There are various other details about Maelgwn that match the character of Lancelot. For example, Maelgwn ruled in the generation immediately following Arthur’s supposed reign. Recall that Geoffrey of Monmouth presents him as a “scourge of tyrants.” Similarly, Lancelot is presented in the legends as putting down the rebellions of Mordred’s two sons in the years following Arthur’s death. We see this as early as the Vulgate Mort Artu, written just 50 years or so after Lancelot’s first appearance.   Interestingly, this same source notes that Lancelot ended up dying of illness. This is notable in view of the persistent tradition that Maelgwn Gwynedd died of plague, first seen in the 10th-century chronicle Annales Cambriae.   Before his death, Lancelot is described as abandoning society and becoming a monk. Interestingly, Gildas mentions the fact that Maelgwn at one point gave up his throne to pursue a religious life.   Did the Character of Lancelot Come From Maelgwn? Lancelot fighting dragons in the Vale of No Return, by unknown artists, c. 1404-1460. Source: Bibliothèque nationale de France   Even more details could be mentioned. To provide just one more example, Lancelot’s son Galahad was famous for his virtue and his position as a “perfect knight.” Similarly, Maelgwn’s son Rhun is remembered in the Welsh Triads as one of the Three Fair Princes of the Island of Britain. Both Galahad and Rhun were also remembered for being illegitimate.   What can we conclude from this evidence? Of course, we cannot be dogmatic about the origin of Lancelot. Perhaps he really was just an invention of Chrétien de Troyes. However, what this analysis has shown is that a good case can be made that the character of Lancelot actually originated with Maelgwn Gwynedd, a historical figure. This powerful king was remembered as a brave and handsome ally of King Arthur. The name of his kingdom is likely the origin of the name of Lancelot’s kingdom. He had a leading position in the period immediately after Arthur’s reign. At some point after abandoning the throne to pursue a religious life, he is reported to have died of illness, just like Lancelot. Maelgwn Gwynedd can surely be considered a leading candidate for the prototypical Lancelot.

  Titus Caesar Vespasianus ruled Rome for just two years from 79-81 CE after the death of his father Vespasian, the founder of the Flavian Dynasty. His younger brother and successor, Domitian, implied that Titus was just a historical footnote and that he was his father’s true successor. But Titus’s reign was eventful and his achievements considerable. He destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem ending the Roman-Jewish War, served as praetorian prefect and enforcer for his father, and inaugurated the Colosseum.   Titus also died with his reputation intact, with the generally critical imperial biographer Suetonius calling him “the delight and darling of the human race.”   Young Titus Bust of Titus, Roman, c. 80 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Despite establishing Rome’s second imperial dynasty, the Flavians had relatively humble origins. An equestrian family from the Sabine region of Italy, they were able to rise in power and position due to the number of aristocratic families killed during the civil wars of the 1st century BCE and the prosecution of threats by the Julio-Claudians through treason trials in the 1st century CE. Vespasian, Titus’s father, and his brother Titus Flavius Sabinus were the first Flavians to reach senatorial rank.   But Vespasian did well for himself under the Julio-Claudian emperors Gaius, Claudius, and Nero. He began the cursus honorum, the standard succession of public offices, under Gaius, and was made consul in 51 CE under Claudius, under whom he also joined the invasion of Britain. He was also favored under Nero, being invited to accompany the emperor on his tour of Greece. However, he briefly fell out of favor after falling asleep during one of Nero’s musical performances.   Titus was born in Rome on December 30, 39 CE, the eldest of Vespasian’s three children. Titus’s sister Domitilla was born in 45 CE, and his brother Domitian in 51 CE. According to the Roman imperial biographer Suetonius, while Vespasian had a humble upbringing, his father’s favor at court meant that Titus was raised alongside Britannicus, the son of the emperor Claudius. This gave Titus a classical education. He was said to be an accomplished orator and poet in both Latin and Greek.   The Death of Britannicus, by Alexandre Denis Abel de Pujol, 1814. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   According to Suetonius, Titus was dining with Britannicus when the young prince drank the poison that Nero used to kill him. He also records that one of Claudius’s freedmen, Narcissus, called in a physiognomist to examine Britannicus’s features and prophesy his future. He was told that Britannicus would never succeed his father, whereas Titus, who was present, would achieve that distinction. Titus is also said to have posthumously awarded Britannicus honors such as statues in the palace when he came to power.   After his education, Titus followed the standard career for an aspiring Roman politician and general. He served as a military tribune in Germania between 57-59 CE and went to Britannia the following year. He would have been involved in the clean-up after the bloody revolt of Boudicca.   In 63 CE, Titus returned to Rome to focus on his political career. This included making advantageous marriages. First, he married Arrecina Tertulla, the daughter of a former praetorian prefect, Marcus Arrecinus Clemens. They had a daughter, Julia Flavia, who would survive into adulthood. Her mother would pass away after only a few years of marriage. Titus then married Marcia Furnilla, a member of a prestigious family, but her family was later tainted by association with the Pisonian Conspiracy against Nero in 65 CE. To avoid losing Nero’s favor, Titus divorced her. He does not seem to have had time to marry again before the Flavians rose to power.   Titus in the East Sestertius of Vespasian with Judea Capta on the reverse, Rome, 71 CE. Source: British Museum   In 66 CE, the province of Judea revolted against Roman rule. The Judean client King Agrippa II, and his sister Berenice, fled the capital of Jerusalem for Galilee and called on the Romans for help. Initially, a nearby Syrian legion was sent in under the general Cestius Gallus. They suffered a humiliating defeat with 6,000 Roman troops slaughtered and their legionary standard seized. Nero decided to send a much bigger force.   Vespasian was probably chosen to lead this military effort because he had proven himself in Britannia, but also because of his humble origins. Surely, he did not have the aristocratic connections or support to use the military force under his command to try and seize power for himself?   Nevertheless, nepotism was alive and well in the Roman world. When Vespasian headed for Judea in late 66 or early 67 CE, he appointed his inexperienced son Titus, who was in his mid-20s, as one of his legionary commanders. While Vespasian went straight to Judea with the Vth and XIIth legions, Titus was sent via Alexandria, in Egypt, to collect the Xth legion and local allies.   Vespasian’s campaign was extremely successful and within a few months, he had taken most of Galilee. Titus was the most junior of his three military commanders and had relatively simple tasks. Furthermore, the one military exercise Titus was given full command of was an embarrassment.   Engraving of Roman troops in Judea, by Alfred J. Church, 1881. Source: Project Gutenberg   According to Josephus, Vespasian sent Titus with a thousand horsemen to take Gischala, the last city in Galilee not to be conquered. This was considered an easy task as the city had no choice but to surrender. When Titus arrived, the city’s leader, John of Gischala, agreed to surrender but asked Titus to wait until the next day because it was the Sabbath. Titus agreed, and that night, John escaped unnoticed to Jerusalem with many of his followers.   When the city opened its gates to Titus the next day, he was angered to have been tricked and sent some of his men after John. While they did not capture the leader, they reportedly killed 6,000 women and children who had followed him. Josephus says that Titus was mortified.   Titus’s real skill seems to have been as a diplomat, and Vespasian used him for that purpose. He spent large parts of his father’s campaign as his representative to the governor of Syria, Gaius Lucius Mucianus, whose sphere of influence overlapped with Vespasian’s. Titus also spent time with the Judean client King Agrippa II and his sister Berenice. It was probably at this time that Titus started his love affair with the Eastern queen, who was ten years his senior.   Imperial Ambitions Gem featuring Vespasian, Italian, c. 15-16th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Nero died in disgrace in June 68 CE and the Roman Senate recognized Galba as the new princeps, with the support of the Praetorian Guard. When news of this reached Vespasian, he seemed to accept the change in leadership but considered it prudent to ingratiate himself with the new emperor. He sent his diplomatic son Titus to Rome to pay his respects to Galba and confirm his orders.   But when Titus reached Corinth in Greece, he received the news that Galba had been killed by Otho, who had assumed power, and that the legions in Germania were supporting their general Vitellius as an alternative emperor. The sources suggest that Titus worried about being taken hostage, so he returned to the East.   But it seems that Titus may already have been considering a Flavian bid for power. The sources suggest that Vespasian trusted in omens and prophecies, something Titus would have known. On his return journey, Titus stopped at the Temple of Paphian Venus in Cyprus. He received favorable oracles there that he shared with his father. It was then Titus’s friend Mucianus who finally convinced Vespasian to make a bid for power in June of 69 CE. By the end of the year, Vespasian was the new emperor of the Roman Empire, and Titus was his presumed successor.   Siege of Jerusalem Relief showing spoils from the Temple of Jerusalem on the Arch of Titus, Rome, c. 86-96 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   When Vespasian went off to pursue his imperial ambitions, he did not forget his obligation to finish putting down the Judean revolt. Most of the province had been retaken and it only remained to take Jerusalem itself. The Jews were doing much of the work for the Romans as infighting was tearing the city apart. Vespasian left Titus in charge of finishing the Judean mission, but sent the governor of Egypt, Tiberius Julius Alexander, to support the inexperienced general.   According to Josephus, who was a Jewish general who had defected to the Romans and was with Titus when he laid siege to Jerusalem in 70 CE, he himself tried to negotiate with the city to surrender. But in the end, the Romans had to besiege and storm the city.   The Destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, by Francesco Hayez, 1867. Source: Gallerie dell Accademia, Venice   The final conflict was bloody. When the Romans breached the outer walls, they crucified any Jewish deserters to intimidate the people who remained inside. When they breached the third wall, the Romans focused their attack on the Antonia Fortress, built by Herod the Great to protect the Second Temple of Jerusalem. They used the fort to launch their attack on the holy structure.   Titus apparently ordered the whole city destroyed so that no one living would remember the name Jerusalem. While there were certainly survivors, the temple was looted and destroyed. According to the Babylonian Talmud, Titus was having sex with a prostitute on the Torah scrolls while the temple was burning. While this is probably not true, it shows that Titus was considered to have completely disrespected the Jews when dealing the final blow.   Returning to Rome Statue of the Apis Bull, Egypt, c. 381-343 BCE. Source: Brooklyn Museum   With the destruction of Jerusalem, Titus was free to join his father in Rome. He had to delay in the East for a while because the siege ended in winter, and it was not good sailing weather. He traveled around the region celebrating his victory in Judea and his father’s victory in Rome. He held games at Caesarea Maritima and Berytus, and was presented with a victory crown by Vologases I of Parthia.   In Egypt, on his way to Alexandra, he stopped at Memphis, where he participated in an important ceremony to consecrate the sacred Apis bull. This required Titus to wear a diadem, something that was considered taboo in Rome where kingship was loathed. This led to rumors that Titus intended to rally the troops loyal to him in the East and usurp his own father.   This is probably not the case. Vespasian was not a young man and Titus was his clear heir. Titus had no reason to go against his father. It is more likely that he got carried away with the honors that were offered to him and may have been encouraged by people close to him, such as Princess Berenice. According to Suetonius, even as a young man, he enjoyed a certain level of decadence. Titus quickly realized his mistake and returned to Rome.   Triumphator relief from the Arch of Titus, Rome, c. 1st century CE. Source: Columbia University   When he arrived in Rome in 71 CE, Titus celebrated a joint triumph with his father for the conquest of Judea. If the imagery on the surviving Arch of Titus in Rome is to be believed, Vespasian let Titus take the central role in the triumph. This was no doubt part of Vespasian’s plan to mark Titus as his clear successor. While he might seem like the obvious choice in retrospect, Titus was actually the first biological son to succeed his father as emperor in Roman history.   Other steps were also taken to make it clear that Titus was next in the line of succession. Both Titus and Domitian were given the name Caesar, like the princes of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty before them. In 71 CE Domitian was only 20 years old and had no military experience, so was not a rival to his brother. Titus also shared tribunician power with his father, as Tiberius had with Augustus. Titus shared several consulships with his father, held the censorship jointly with Vespasian in 73 CE, and acted as his father’s secretary, often representing him in the Senate.   Something else that Vespasian did to secure power for himself and his son was to make Titus the prefect of the Praetorian Guard, the only military force allowed in Rome. Many of the Julio-Claudian emperors were brought down by the Praetorians, so he needed someone he could trust as their leader.   Relief showing Praetorian guardsmen, Rome, 51-52 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Titus made a name for himself while prefect as a ruthless enforcer who would do Vespasian’s “dirty work” for him, leaving the new emperor unsullied. He earned a reputation for executing suspected traitors on the spot without the need for hard evidence. Titus was described as arrogant and tyrannical and as a skilled forger, suggesting that he may have set people up when needed.   In 75 CE, Berenice joined the unmarried Titus in Rome and stayed in the palace with him as a de facto wife. This upset the Romans, who did not trust eastern queens after seeing the influence that Cleopatra exercised over Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Under immense public pressure, Titus sent her away.   Another Nero Engraving of Titus, after Titian, London, c. 18th century. Source: Wellcome Collection   When Vespasian died of natural causes in June 79 CE, Titus was immediately named as the new emperor of Rome. Nevertheless, it took Titus six months to have the Senate confirm Vespasian’s deification. This probably reflects a desire to cut back on some of the decadence of the Julio-Claudian Period rather than any disrespect for Vespasian.   Titus did not have a good reputation when he came to power. He was known for his tyrannical stint as a praetorian prefect, was associated with an eastern queen, and had a talent for music and poetry that reminded the people of Nero. Many feared that he would be another problematic princeps. But Titus quickly proved them wrong.   One of his first acts was to call an end to treason trials and to change the law so that men could no longer be tried for treason for simply insulting the emperor or imperial family. This seems like quite a turnaround considering his ruthless behavior under Vespasian. But, according to Cassius Dio, Titus claimed not to be worried about insults for himself because he was above reproach. He also reportedly said that if the dead emperors were truly divine, they could defend themselves. According to Roman historians, no senators were put to death during his reign.   Major Achievements The Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, by Pierre-Jaques Volaire, 1777. Source: North Carolina Museum of Art   Only a few months after he came to power, the volcano of Mount Vesuvius erupted and decimated much of the Bay of Naples. Most famously, Pompeii and Herculaneum were covered by volcanic lava and frozen in time. Titus proved himself generous. He sent two ex-consuls to the region to manage the disaster and used imperial funds to help the victims. When the volcano erupted again in early 80 CE, Titus himself traveled to the area.   While Titus was out of the city, a terrible fire that burned for three days and three nights broke out in Rome. Unlike the devastating fire under Nero which destroyed many common homes, it was largely Rome’s great monuments that were destroyed including the Pantheon of Agrippa, the Temple of Jupiter, the Theatre of Pompey, and Saepta Julia. Again, Titus spent generously from imperial coffers to restore the city, and the destruction gave his successor Domitian a chance to rebuild much of Rome.   According to his propaganda, Titus focused on building things for the public, rather than to aggrandize himself and his family as Nero had done. In doing this, he was probably following the example of his father. For example, Titus turned a portion of Nero’s famously decadent golden palace into public baths, known as the Baths of Titus. These opened in 80 CE at the same time as the Colosseum, the grand stadium begun by Vespasian.   Sestertius of Titus featuring the Colosseum on the reverse, Rome, 80-81 CE. Source: British Museum   While the Colosseum was a gift to the people of Rome, it was also a way to control them. Around 20 years after the reign of Titus, the Roman satirist Juvenal would coin the phrase panem et circenses or “bread and circuses,” suggesting that to control the Roman people you needed to keep them fed and entertained. Titus seemed to understand that, inaugurating the Colosseum with 100 days of extravagant games including gladiatorial combats, exotic imported animals, naval battles that required flooding the Colosseum, and chariot racing. Reportedly, wooden balls with prizes written on them were dropped into the arena. Lucky recipients could exchange the balls for prizes such as gold or slaves.   Titus resumed expansion of the Roman empire, sending Gnaeus Julius Agricola to Britain, where the general started expanding Roman territory north. This campaign is recounted in detail by the contemporary Roman historian and son-in-law of Agricola, Tacitus.   Untimely Demise Statue of Titus, Rome, c. 1st century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While many feared the kind of emperor that Titus would be when he came to power, in the years following his death, he gained a reputation as one of Rome’s best emperors. That is not to say that his position was never challenged. At some point in his reign, Terentius Maximus led a rebellion against Titus, claiming to be Nero. In the years following Nero’s death, he remained popular in the East, and several false Neros emerged to challenge Flavian power. But Titus dealt with them quickly and decisively.   Less decisive were his dealings with his brother Domitian. The Roman historians claim that Domitian also conspired against his brother to take power for himself, but that Titus refused to execute or even exile him. There is little evidence to support this charge, and this conspiracy was probably invented due to Domitian’s later unpopularity. The sources say that Titus took steps to groom Domitian as his successor, as Vespasian had for him.   However, there is also no doubt that Domitian wanted more, especially the opportunity to prove himself in the military, and Titus told him to be patient. Nevertheless, throughout Titus’s reign, Domitian was the presumed heir. Titus even suggested that Domitian marry his daughter Julia to further secure the succession, but the young prince refused because of his desire to marry Domitia Longina.   Titus never remarried or tried for a son. When Berenice returned to Rome at the start of his reign, he sent her away again. Part of the reason Titus did not remarry could have been failing health. Titus knew that he was unwell when he left Rome and headed to his family’s Sabine home following the close of the Colosseum games. He died there on the 13th of September 81 CE.   Apotheosis panel from the Arch of Titus, Rome, c. 1st century CE. Source: Columbia University   Suetonius and Cassius Dio say that he died of natural causes, though Philostratus accused Domitian of murdering him. The Jewish tradition suggests that he was slowly tortured and killed by God in revenge for what he did in Jerusalem. While Domitian probably did not kill his brother, he wasted no time presenting himself to the Praetorians and the Senate to be made emperor.   Domitian immediately secured the deification of his brother, and he joined his father among the deified emperors as Divus Titus. While the sources suggest that Domitian had no love for his brother, he did dedicate several temples and monuments to him, ensuring his legacy.   Domitian also ensured Titus’s legacy in another way. Domitian was known for his autocratic rule, which made him unpopular with the Senate. When Domitian was killed by a conspiracy, rather than being deified, he underwent damnatio memoriae, and his name and image were struck from most public buildings. Rome’s historians also took aim at Domitian, accusing him of many personal failings and crimes, just as they had with Nero before him. The last ruler of one dynasty must suffer posthumously to justify the rise of the next dynasty.   In many ways, this did Titus a favor, as authors could compare Domitian unfavorably with his noble brother. We will never know if he deserved to be considered the darling of the Roman people, or if he just died before he could become vilified like Tiberius and Claudius before him.

  In the late 10th century, a nomadic chief named Seljuk broke away from his Khazar overlords in the north of the Caspian Sea. Thus began his tribe’s migration from the lands of modern-day Kazakhstan down to Iran and Azerbaijan.   The Great Seljuks (ca. 1038-1194), a nomadic people culturally related to the Mongols, adopted Persian and Islamic customs. This helped them establish themselves as conquerors and Sultans of Western and Central Asia.   When the Great Seljuk Empire crumbled in 1194, an offshoot of their state, called the “Anatolian Seljuks” was created in modern-day Turkey.   Traditional Life on the Central Asian Steppes Shepherd on the Kazhak Steppe. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Before they established the Great Seljuk Empire, the Oghuz Turks lived a pastoralist life on the harsh steppes of Central Asia. These wide-open plains gave their herds of horses, sheep, and goats plenty of sustenance. In turn, these nomads lived off animal produce. Staples of their diet included dairy products like milk, yogurt, cheese, and kimiz, a fermented mare’s milk drink still popular in Central Asia. Wool was taken from sheep and goats and woven by women into fabrics and kilims, a traditional flat-woven carpet or wall-hanging.   Like the Mongols, another nomadic Asian people, the Oghuz had strong tribal and clan ties. The 10th-century warlord Seljuk, along with his clan, belonged to the Kinik tribe of the Oghuz Turkic people. This tribe was considered a kingly and respected one. From time to time, the Kinik went to war with other tribes who, like the Seljuks, revered horse archers, warriors, and raiders.   Tribes frequently joined alliances and confederations to ensure the protection of their people and possessions. It is believed that Seljuk was either a mercenary or chief who worked for the Khazars, a semi-nomadic Turkic people who formed a powerful buffer state on the borders of Southeastern Russia, Kazakhstan, and Crimea.   Due to a possible falling out, or Seljuk’s conversion to Islam, his tribe left Khazaria and began a tiresome migration across Central Asia. His grandsons, Tughril and Chağri bey (lord), were responsible for the formation of the Great Seljuk Empire, although it was known by their ancestors’ name.   Adapting to a Sedentary Islamic Life Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, Iran. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Tughril (d.1063) and Chağri conquered Nishapur (Iran), and Merv (Turkmenistan) and besieged the great Islamic capital of Baghdad. They were now the Sultans of these Islamic centers. However, their volatile upbringing on the Central Asian steppe had only prepared them for a life of raids, plunder, and war.   Tughril realized that to maintain power, he would have to adopt all the trappings of a sedentary lifestyle. Persian culture, seen as more refined than Turkic culture, was adopted in court. Rather than beys (lords) or khans, the Great Seljuks began to refer to themselves as Sultans, a tradition that would be carried into Anatolia.   Ruling over a sedentary empire also required a palace, rather than the felt tents that the nomads were accustomed to. In addition to palaces, the Seljuks built architecture like caravanserais, mosques, and madrasas for townspeople to use. Persio-Islamic motifs and architectural styles, such as the gonbad or Persian dome, were adopted.   The Many Languages of the Seljuk Court Persian Epic Shahnameh, Tabriz, c.1300. Source: The Chester Beatty Collection   Turks made up the bulk of the military class in the Seljuk Empire. Commanders, soldiers, beys (lords), and shihna (representatives of frontier nomads) were responsibilities dominated by Turkic men. The steppe nomadic heritage of the Turks made them experts in the art of war. Aware of this, the Seljuks preferred to assign military positions to the Oghuz. These positions often used Turkic names, such as bey and subashi (commander-in-chief).  The administration of this growing empire, however, was left to Persians who understood how to govern sedentary populations. As a result, Persian became the lingua franca of the Great Seljuk Empire. Poetry, epic tales, and other literary works were all commissioned in written Persian. Persian epics, like the Shahnameh, also gained popularity. The Anatolian offshoots of the Seljuks, the Sultans of Rum, would even name newborn princes after the heroes of this epic.   The last common language spoken in the Seljuk Empire was Arabic. This was mainly used as the language of Islamic theology and jurisprudence. Scholars who memorized, taught, and interpreted the Qur’an and Quranic Law stuck to this language as it was the language in which the Qur’an was first introduced.   Women’s Roles in the Seljuk Empire Seljuk-era Bottle Depicting a Nursing Woman with Child, ca.1200s. Source: Museum of Islamic Art, Berlin   A new culture, a mix of Turkic and Persian elements, was formed by the Seljuk conquests. What were women’s roles in these changes? Women were active participants in the transition from a nomadic steppe life to a sedentary one. As a semi-nomadic group, Oghuz women had greater visibility and a more active lifestyle than their sedentary counterparts.   They were tasked with not only the upkeep of the tent but also the tending of animals and the creation of textiles to be sold or traded. The militarized lifestyle of the Turks also allowed women to do traditionally “masculine” activities. Seljuk women learned to ride horses and use weapons like swords, and bows and arrows.   However, over the 11th century, some of the Seljuks began to adopt a sedentary lifestyle, swapping their herds and tents for life in towns and cities. This meant that women spent more and more hours inside the domestic sphere, performing household tasks like cleaning and cooking.   This does not mean that women had no opportunities or freedoms in the Great Seljuk Empire. Women, such as Inanch Hatun and Terken Hatun, played important roles as queens, advisors, administrators, and commanders of the armed forces. Syriac historian Bar Hebraeus (d.1286) mentioned that Khatun, the wife of Tughril Bey, administered the business of the kingdom and was much loved by her husband.   A Nomadic Turkic Interpretation of Islam Dancing Dervishes, Miniature by Kamal ad-Din Behzad, ca. 1490. Source: Met Museum of Art   The Great Seljuks were officially adherents of Sunni Islam. As recent converts, they learned Islamic theology, doctrine, and practice from the Sunni Persians and Sufi dervishes. Madrasas that they built in Baghdad and Isfahan were run by Hanafi scholars, adherents of one of the four main schools of orthodox Islamic jurisprudence.   Yet the bulk of the Seljuks’ followers were semi-nomadic Turks, whose conversion to Islam was still very superficial. These nomads continued to follow pagan and shamanistic practices and beliefs, mixing them with newer Islamic ideals. In place of the shamans who practiced spiritual ritual dances and healed the sick, they followed Sufi saints who claimed to have spiritual powers.   This nomadic heritage also influenced Seljuk art and cultural practices. Orthodox Islamic communities discouraged the creation of statues and human figures. Yet, human figures appeared in Seljuk miniatures, and large stone figures, elaborately carved and painted, graced Seljuk palaces.   Culture and Science in Seljuk Lands Painted Seljuk Statue, Late 12th-13th century, Iran. Source: Met Museum of Art   Many different cultures existed in the lands ruled by the Great Seljuk Empire. In the cities of Isfahan and Tabriz, Persian culture reigned supreme. While in Baghdad, Arab and Abbasid culture was dominant. The arrival of the Seljuk Turks added not only a Turkic but also a steppe nomadic element to these civilizations. However, Turkic culture was never adopted by the local populations who saw Turks as uncivilized nomads.   Written histories and mirrors for princes, like the Siyasatnama, were patronized by the Seljuks, who originally came from a Turkic society based on orality. Seljuk miniatures and pottery were painted with Central Asian figures and motifs. Ceramic works from the late 12th century reveal that the Seljuks liked to paint figures in the steppe nomadic tradition: with long braided hair, knee-length kaftans, and serpush — hats with pointy triangular fronts.   Under the Seljuks, great strides were made in the fields of literature, science, philosophy, and mathematics. The polymath Omar Khayyam made precise calculations of the solar year and formulated several mathematical equations. Today, he is commonly known as the author of the Rubaiyat, poetry discussing the complexities of love, life, death, and God. The famous polymath Al-Ghazali (d.1111) who lived in the Great Seljuk Empire, critiqued Aristotelian scientific methods centuries before European scientists would.   The Continuation of the Seljuk Dynasty Tughril III (d.1194), the Last Ruler of the Great Seljuk Dynasty in Iraq. Source: Wikimedia Commons   By 1100, the Great Seljuk Dynasty had begun to show signs of internal weakness. The vizier Nizam-ul-Mulk and Terken Hatun, wife of Sultan Malikshah, were in a bitter rivalry for power. After Malikshah died, his brother and four sons attempted to divide the empire, as per Oghuz Turkic tradition. Apart from this internecine war, the Great Seljukids were also faced with the First and Second Crusades.   The empire lost territory around Central Asia due to revolts by the Karluks, another Turkic tribe, and various dynasties like the Karakhanids and Ghurids. The final nail in the coffin was the revolts of the Oghuz—the original semi-nomadic Turkic followers of Seljuk—in 1153. In 1154, Sancar, the last sultan of the Iranian branch of the Seljuks, died. The Great Seljuk Empire was soon broken up into two states: the Sultanate of Rum (Anatolian Seljuks) and Kirman Seljuks (Kirman, Iran).   The Anatolian Seljuks were the more powerful and longer-lasting of these two states. They continued the administrative, political, and cultural traditions of the Great Seljuks, albeit in a Byzantine Anatolian milieu. The Anatolian Seljuks would crumble in 1308, following devastating Mongol sieges and popular revolts in the 13th century.

  In 1071, a small nomadic dynasty—named the Seljuks after their founder—fought a battle against Byzantine forces under the command of Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes. The Seljuk victory in this battle opened up Anatolia to nomadic Turkic settlers, including the likes of Osman, founder of the Ottoman Empire.   Nomads From the East Seljukid Sultan Sancar, from Jami-al Tawarih, by Rashid-al-Din, 14th century depiction. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Nomadic invaders from the east had always been a cause for fear in Europe and Asia. In the 3rd century BCE, the Chinese Qin Dynasty began the construction of the Great Wall of China to fortify their country against the nomadic Xiongnu Confederation. Later, in the 4th and 5th centuries, the Huns, likely connected to the Xiongnu, terrorized the Roman Empire. These threats repeated themselves throughout the Middle Ages with the arrival of the Turks into Eurasia.   The Seljuks were initially a semi-nomadic pastoralist people who, in the 10th century,  were likely either employed in military positions under the Khazar Khaganate or the Oghuz Yabghū state. They were part of a larger ethno-tribal confederation called the Oghuz. The Oghuz were comprised of 24 Turkic tribes, each claiming descent from Oghuz Khan, a semi-mythical Turkic ruler and hero who purportedly united the Turkic clans.   Seljuk, an Oghuz warlord/ chieftain, led his tribe through the Central Asian Steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. His grandsons, Tughril and Cagri Bey (lord) expanded their small chieftaincy into an empire when they defeated the powerful Ghaznavids at the Battle of Dandanaqan in 1040. This left a critical power vacuum in Greater Khorasan, a broad region comprised of Modern-day Iran, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan.   In the 1040s, the Seljuks began a rapid expansion westward, conquering the Persian provinces of Ray and Hamadan. In 1055, Tughril besieged Baghdad, the seat of the Abbasid Caliphate, eventually having himself declared a Sultan in the Islamic tradition.   How Did the Seljuks End Up in Anatolia? Traditional Yurt (dwelling) of Central Asian nomads. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Born on the steppes of Central Asia, Tughril and his family were trained in the ways of nomadic conquerors, warriors, and horse archers. However, as an intelligent and farsighted man, Tughril understood that to develop his state, he would have to adopt the features of sedentary empires, such as bureaucracy and trade networks. In addition to this, as Muslims, they desired the blessing of the Abbasid caliph and his support in their imperial endeavors.   Cleverly, the Seljuks used the chaotic energy of their nomadic warriors to increase their own legitimacy and power. The Turkmen, the Seljuks’ nomadic followers, were sent on raids disguised as ghaza (holy war) across Anatolian, Georgian, and Armenian borders. In 1069, the Seljuk raiders had reached as far as Iconium (modern-day Konya) in Central Anatolia.   The aim of these raids was never to establish a permanent Turkic state in Anatolia. Rather, they were important nomadic pastimes, ways that the Seljuks could plunder livestock, and ways that they could gain the status of Islamic warriors. During the reign of Sultan Alp Arslan (1063-72), Turkmen tribes were settled along the borders of Georgia and Armenia, strengthening the Seljuk border and providing a base for Turkmen military activities.   Anatolia: A Melting Pot  The political landscape of Anatolia (circled) ca.1180. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Anatolia was an ethnically and politically diverse place in the 11th century. In the East were the Armenian states such as the Bagratids and the Kingdom of Vaspurakan. The Byzantines—or more accurately the Eastern Roman Empire—ruled important Western provinces such as Nicaea and Smyrna, with their capital in Constantinople. Yet, internal rivalries, inflation, and the East-West Schism of 1054 negatively affected these regional powers.   Despite their growing military weakness, the Byzantines managed to conquer Bulgaria and defeat the nomadic Pecheneg Turkic tribes who constantly harassed their borders. However, the Byzantine army was no match for the Seljuks who, as skilled raiders and conquerors, ravaged the eastern provinces that were neglected by the Byzantines.   Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes attempted to block these raids with his large army comprised of Greeks, Armenians, and even Pecheneg mercenaries (who later defected to the side of their Turkic cousins). He met Alp Arslan’s army at the Battle of Manzikert (modern-day Malazgirt) in 1071. However, his army was defeated by the tribal forces of the Seljuks who employed superior steppe warfare tactics; the “feigned retreat,” for instance, was used to convince the Byzantines that the Turks were fleeing. The Turkmen tribesmen swiftly turned back and ambushed the unsuspecting soldiers. When Emperor Diogenes was taken captive, the already shaky Byzantine Empire was thrown into a deeper political crisis.   Laying the Foundations of Turkish Rule Monument of Suleyman Kutalmish, founder of the Anatolian Seljuk state (Mersin, Turkey). Source: Wikimedia Commons   Following the Battle of Manzikert, Turkmen tribes flooded Anatolia. Although they were only around 5-10% of the total population, they quickly established principalities and political confederations. The continuation of raids and mass migrations probably exacerbated the growing Turkic influence. Local populations, including Greeks and Armenians, often abandoned their towns, while others may have converted, been taken as slaves, or killed.   Suleyman Kutalmish (d.1086), a member of the Seljuk Dynasty, used this opportunity to form a small offshoot of the Seljuk state in Anatolia. This branch of the Seljukids was called the “Sultanate of Rum,” of which Konya was to be the capital city for the next two centuries. Although they had an overarching authority in the vast Central Anatolian plateau, the Turkic tribes that were encouraged to settle on the borderlands slowly began to consolidate power in their names. The Danishmendid and Saltukid dynasties were two principalities formed by Turkmen generals (emirs) after the Battle of Malazgirt.   The Beyliks: Lords and Ladies A Turkmen bey and the Turkmen principalities, from Catalan Atlas, by Abraham Cresques, ca. 1375. Source: Wikimedia Commons   To cement their stronghold in Anatolia, the Seljuks sometimes supported (but mostly could not prevent) the establishment of beyliks (principalities). A chieftain, called a bey, ruled these principalities. He was often a popular warrior, military commander, or tribal leader who had proved his skill in battle. In rare cases, they were ruled by women like Mama Hatun (r.1191-1200) of the Saltukid Dynasty. In any case, these principalities conquered towns and cities around Anatolia, establishing centers of culture, art, and trade.   The Seljuks had a rocky relationship with the Turkic principalities. They employed them as buffer states against the Byzantines, Mamluks, and even Venetians. Chaka Bey (d.1093), a military commander and father-in-law of Seljuk Sultan Kilich Arslan I (r.1092-1107), formed a beylik that rivaled Byzantine power in the Eastern Aegean. He was, however, assassinated by the sultan, revealing how much influence the Seljuks had in both the consolidation and destruction of these polities.   The Beyliks likewise had an impact on Seljuk rule. They often disregarded Seljuk authority or—like the Karamanids in the 13th century—openly rebelled against the Seljuks. This eventually caused centralized Seljuk power in Anatolia to weaken in the 13th century.   What Went Wrong? Mongols pursuing Seljuk troops at the Battle of Kôse Dağ, from Fleur des histories d’orient, by Hayton of Corycus, ca.1350. Source: National Library of France   Internal and external pressures caused the collapse of the Sultanate of Rum. A series of Crusades in 1096, 1101, and 1147, and the occupation of Konya by the Crusaders in 1190, put a strain on the Seljuk military and economy. The state was also ravaged by civil war and a breakup of territory after the death of Sultan Kilich Arslan II (1192).   Despite recouping and experiencing a cultural and architectural golden age under Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad I (r. 1220-1237), the Seljuks suffered several catastrophic events in the 13th century. They were faced with the unpredictable and ambitious Turkmen principalities who were quick to ally with other regional powers against the Seljuk government. The Babaii Revolts, a series of religio-political rebellions, also revealed growing discontent among the local populace.   The final nail in the coffin was the Mongol invasions of the 1240s. Seljuk Sultan Kayhusrev II’s refusal to swear allegiance to the Mongols after the death of Khan Ogedei was seen as an act of hostility. After a series of sieges in Anatolia, the Mongol army met their Seljuk counterparts in the mountains of Köse Dağ in 1243. The stunning victory of the Mongols led to the breakdown of Seljuk rule, as the dynasty became vassals of the Mongol Empire, and were replaced by new Turkmen beyliks, like the Ottomans.   The Sons of Osman Later Ottoman depiction of Osman I, dressed in 15th -16th century Ottoman fashions. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Ottomans, referred to as the “sons of Osman” in the Late Medieval Period, were just one of several Turkic semi-nomadic chieftaincies that tried to fill the vacuum of power left by the end of Seljuk rule in 1308. The founder of the group, Osman I (d.1323), was a chieftain who raided Byzantine territories and controlled the region around Sögüt. However, his resourcefulness and drive attracted non-Turkic peoples to his cause and grew his small chieftaincy. His desire to co-exist with Byzantine locals was seen in his friendships with Byzantine governors like Köse Mihal, and the special protections he afforded to Greek townspeople and marketgoers.   Early modern Ottoman chroniclers liked to claim that the Seljuks had bestowed the title of uch beyi (frontier warrior/lord) on both Osman and his father Ertughrul. Modern scholars have suggested that Ertughrul was most likely a nomad—possibly even a shepherd—who settled in Anatolia after fleeing the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. However, the Seljuks were well known to settle warlike Turkmen tribes around Byzantine borderlands. Many of these tribes, including the Kayi (to which the Ottomans belonged) simply waited for the right time to declare their independent rule.   The Ottomans—like several other beyliks—claimed to be the political heirs of the Seljuks, allegedly continuing the latter’s holy wars. These claims were recorded by Ottoman chroniclers around the 15th and 16th centuries because Ottoman political legitimacy was often questioned by other Islamic states, like the Timurids, the Turkmen chieftaincies, and even by unorthodox religious leaders like Seyh Bedreddin (ca.1416).   Seljuk Heritage The Çifte Minareli Mosque, Built by Hudavent Hatun, daughter of Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad, ca. 1250s. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Seljuks had been great patrons of architecture in the centuries before Ottoman rule. They built mosques, bridges, bathhouses, foundations, trading posts, caravanserais, hospitals, and more. After taking control of Seljuk towns, the Ottomans continued (at least in the Late Medieval Era) to make use of these buildings, while simultaneously constructing their own.   The Seljuk and Ottoman political systems also had some similarities. Like the Seljuks, the Ottomans had a sovereign called the sultan. The sultan had a grand vizier, the highest-ranking government officer comparable to a modern-day prime minister. Although Seljuk queens were afforded greater public visibility and participation in governance than their Ottoman counterparts, their harem system (the women’s only quarters) was inherited by the Ottomans around the late 14th century.

The Pennsylvania hard rockers promise their new song isn’t as pessimistic as its title makes it sound

Marvin Gaye was born in Washington, D.C., and raised in a strict Pentecostal household led by his father, a minister. Music offered a refuge from a turbulent home life, and Gaye found early comfort singing in church and later joining local doo-wop groups. His talents quickly distinguished him from his peers, leading him to Detroit, where he became a session drummer at Motown Records. By 1961, he had signed as a solo artist with the label, beginning a long and complex relationship with its founder, Berry Gordy. Gaye’s early recordings were steeped in the polished pop-soul sound Motown was known The post Complete List Of Marvin Gaye Songs From A to Z appeared first on ClassicRockHistory.com.

Some catastrophes unfold slowly, with warning signs ignored for years. Others happen in an instant—triggered by one tiny flaw in a vast, complex system. These are the disasters that didn’t require sabotage, invasion, or neglect—just a single line of bad code, a misread sensor, or one overlooked spreadsheet limit. In each case, billions of dollars, […] The post 10 Disasters Caused by a Single Point of Failure appeared first on Listverse.