Although it began in the United States‚ the Great Depression spread around the world thanks to the interconnected nature of finance and trade. Europe was still recovering economically from World War I‚ and Germany had experienced hyperinflation in the 1920s due to printing currency. When American creditors attempted to call loans made to Europe in order to stave off their own collapse‚ they worsened the economic situation. After American politicians raised tariffs to try and generate revenue from imports‚ European nations responded in kind. The wave of higher tariffs worsened the Depression worldwide. Ultimately‚ the Great Depression in Europe had tremendous ramifications as it influenced the rise of fascism and the start of World War II.   Setting the Stage: Post-World War I Chaos Civil unrest in Germany in late 1918 and 1919 immediately after the end of World War I. Source: Imperial War Museums (UK)   In high school history classes‚ the Great Depression is typically portrayed as the simple and direct result of the US stock market crash of 1929. However‚ the actual cause of the severe economic recession is more complicated. Most individuals did not own many shares of stock and thus were relatively unaffected by the crash itself. However‚ underlying economic and business conditions turned the stock market crash into bankruptcies‚ panics‚ bank runs‚ and a swift reduction in production and trade.   In Europe‚ underlying economic conditions were weaker than in the United States due to the ravages of World War I‚ which had ended a dozen years earlier. Germany suffered the most as the loser of the war‚ facing both economic strife and political chaos. France also struggled‚ as a substantial portion of its territory had been destroyed by four and half years of warfare. Britain faced an economic slump due to the vast amounts of money expended on the war effort. The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia threatened to spread to Western Europe as high unemployment and shortages of essential goods raged. All this economic strife was not fully healed when the Depression struck‚ making it more severe than it otherwise would have been.   Setting the Stage: War Debts A newspaper political cartoon criticizing the United States for demanding repayment of World War I debts by fellow allies. Source: University of Massachusetts Amherst   Allied nations like Britain and France emerged more financially intact from the war than did Germany‚ but this financial safety net was largely provided by wartime loans from the United States. During the war‚ billions were loaned by American bankers‚ mostly to the Allies (prior to America’s entry into the war on the side of the Allies). By the end of the war‚ seventeen countries had borrowed money from the United States‚ and the status of repayment quickly became controversial. An economically devastated Germany quickly defaulted on its war reparations payments‚ which had been inflicted on it by the Treaty of Versailles. Under the Dawes Plan of 1924‚ Germany’s reparations payments were reduced in exchange for foreign oversight of its economic policies.   In addition to having to repay the United States‚ European nations struggled to secure foreign loans to help rebuild. The political chaos in the aftermath of World War I‚ akin to the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia‚ made many Americans feel that loans to Europe were too risky. Attempts by European governments to get private loans from American banks could be denied by the US government over political disputes. For example‚ when France refused to use German reparation income to repay the US for the costs of its temporary occupation duties in Germany‚ the State Department refused to allow a $100‚000‚000 loan from the J.P. Morgan &; Company Bank to France.   1920s Hyperinflation in Germany A photograph of children in Germany using nearly worthless paper money for play during the hyperinflation of the 1920s. Source: American Institute for Economic Research (AIER)   The final precursor to the Great Depression in Europe was hyperinflation in Germany. When the war ended‚ so did wartime price controls that had relatively limited price increases. Then‚ to make matters worse‚ the new government decided to print additional currency to pay off Germany’s war reparations. Inflation rose to levels unprecedented in history‚ with prices for common goods and services doubling within days. Germans would have to rush to buy goods as soon as they were paid‚ as waiting even a few days would severely diminish their purchasing power. By November 1923‚ violence and looting were erupting in major cities.   Fortunately‚ Germany got a hand in inflation by creating a new currency backed by gold: the Reichsmark. Unfortunately‚ the political and social damage was already done – many Germans now distrusted the government and each other. Foreign actions during the period of hyperinflation‚ including the seizure of German territory by France when Germany defaulted on its war reparations‚ created bitterness. It was during this era that a small political party‚ the National Socialist (Nazi) party‚ formed in Germany.   Banking Crisis in America Leads to Calls on Loans A cartoon in Puck from 1911 satirizing the wealth of J.P. Morgan‚ whose bank was later a major American lender to Europe during World War I. Source: Bowdoin College   When the US stock market crashed in the autumn of 1929‚ Europe was in a far better place economically than it had been at the beginning of the decade. Unfortunately‚ much of the recovery was built on loans from American banks. When the stock market crash triggered a growing recession in the United States‚ these banks began to call (demand immediate payment) their loans in Europe. Quickly‚ the German financial system collapsed‚ as it had been largely rebuilt during the 1920s with loans from American banks.   When German banks collapsed‚ they could not repay loans to banks in France or Britain‚ either. By 1934‚ all three nations were in default on their loans to American banks. When Germany defaulted on its foreign-made loans‚ it hurt smaller British banks more than larger American ones and essentially froze credit markets (lending markets). Thus‚ there was little international cooperation to try and stop growing financial crises. Instead of being able to get money flowing again‚ as would occur today under Keynesian economic principles‚ Europe largely “shut down” financially.   Smoot-Hawley Tariff Hurts International Trade A graph showing a decrease in US exports after the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act took effect‚ revealing that the policy was a failure. Source: Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR)   Europe was also impacted by the United States’ attempt to generate revenue early in the Depression through higher tariffs. Tariffs had begun rising in the United States in 1928‚ at first in an attempt to help farmers who had faced falling crop prices as European farmers recovered after World War I. However‚ tariffs on imported European agriculture quickly spread to most other goods. In 1930‚ the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act raised tariffs substantially. Instead of raising revenue for a struggling America‚ the tariff act prompted a wave of retaliatory tariffs. Before long‚ European nations were even decreasing trade with each other.   A textbook page explaining the similar economic effects in North America and Europe during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Source: Princeton University   International trade fell by almost two-thirds between 1929 and 1934‚ when Congress repealed the tariff act. The Smoot-Hawley tariffs worsened the Great Depression on both sides of the Atlantic by reducing the revenue generated by net exports. Britain reduced its trade with the United States and sought substitute trade with its own colonies‚ such as India.   France‚ Italy‚ and Spain quickly responded with retaliatory tariffs against the United States. Ironically‚ these nations were not as harmed by the loss of international trade as they had been focused on restoring domestic production after World War I. Having suffered worse during the war meant they were less impacted by the loss of imports a dozen years later.   Economic Depression Strengthens Push for Fascism The Nazi Party (above) quickly became popular in Germany due to its populist rhetoric and promise of economic improvements. Source: Museum of Jewish Heritage   Italy had become Europe’s first fascist state in the 1920s under Benito Mussolini. Economic turmoil in Spain in 1930 led to the resignation of dictator Primo de Rivera‚ prompting an era of political unrest that slid into the Spanish Civil War (1936-39). At the end of this bloody civil war‚ fought between pro-fascist Nationalists under Francisco Franco and the socialists‚ Spain became a de facto fascist state. Many had come to support Franco’s Nationalists after a period of leftist governance between 1931 and 1933 failed to improve the economy and public confidence.   In Germany‚ economic turmoil from the hyperinflation of the 1920s and the arrival of the Great Depression in Europe‚ which hit Germany hardest of all states‚ led to the growing popularity of the Nazi Party. As in Italy and Spain‚ people gravitated toward a charismatic strongman figure who promised economic aid. After Hitler was appointed chancellor in 1933‚ he became an increasingly dictatorial figure. Within a few years‚ he decreed that Germany would no longer abide by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles‚ which had included disarmament and territorial loss in addition to reparations.   Nazis Rise as States Focus on Own Woes An illustration criticizing the America First movement for ignoring the rise of Nazism during the 1930s. Source: University of Minnesota   Although many were concerned about the rise of Adolf Hitler‚ few nations wanted to confront the bombastic German leader. In 1936‚ Hitler sent German troops to re-occupy the Rhineland‚ which bordered France and had been demilitarized after World War I. France and Britain were outraged but had little motivation to risk war during their ongoing economic woes. Instead‚ an era of appeasement won out‚ with Germany allowed to continue to violate Treaty of Versailles policies.   With economic distress and high unemployment‚ plus low public support for any return of warfare‚ European leaders did not push back forcefully against Hitler’s expansionist goals. Britain and France allowed Germany to rearm‚ secretly at first and then openly. In 1938‚ at the Munich Conference‚ an agreement among Britain‚ France‚ Italy‚ and Germany was struck to allow Germany to annex the German-speaking Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia. Hitler received this permission in exchange for a promise of no more territorial ambitions…which he promptly violated.   Effects of the Great Depression in Europe on the US An art installation commemorating the 1936 Jarrow March protest against unemployment in Britain during the Great Depression. Source: Arts Council England   As in the United States‚ all nations in Europe saw an increase in unemployment and a decrease in industrial output. Central Europe‚ especially Germany and Austria‚ suffered the most. At the outset of the Depression‚ few nations believed in deficit spending and were forced to cut government spending and raise taxes as the economy faltered. This quickly worsened the recession‚ with unemployment in England doubling during 1930. France suffered less than most other countries‚ arguably due to its relatively slow and steady recovery from World War I. Its industries had not overextended themselves during the Roaring Twenties‚ taking on debt that would bankrupt them after the stock market crash.   The lingering Depression in Britain prompted economist John Maynard Keynes to write The General Theory of Employment‚ Interest and Money. Keynesian theory argued that government spending should increase during recessions to build infrastructure and reduce unemployment. This increase in total spending‚ known as aggregate demand‚ would pay for itself through higher tax revenue later on when output was restored. Many world leaders‚ including US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and German dictator Adolf Hitler‚ had already been working with the same principles. By late in the Depression‚ virtually every European leader was a Keynesian.   Foreign Policy Effects of the Depression in Europe Italian dictator Benito Mussolini (left) and German dictator Adolf Hitler (right) pulled their respective countries out of the League of Nations during the 1930s. Source: Yale University Press   Due to the economic malaise‚ few European leaders were worried about foreign policy that was not related to economic benefit. Most significantly‚ the Depression almost certainly doomed the League of Nations‚ which had been created by the Treaty of Versailles as an international body to solve geopolitical disputes. Germany left the League in October 1933‚ followed by Italy in December 1937. The League’s charter‚ combined with little appetite for confrontation from Britain and France‚ made the organization toothless in terms of physical power.   The inward focus of most European nations during the 1930s allowed fascists like Mussolini‚ Hitler‚ and Franco to amass power unchecked. By the time Britain and France were willing to confront Hitler in September 1939‚ after he had invaded Poland‚ it was too late to avoid a tremendous war. In the history books‚ isolationism and appeasement have gone down as failures of the 1930s‚ blamed for allowing fascist Italy‚ Nazi Germany‚ and imperialist Japan to arise as warmongering powers.   Great Depression’s Effect on World War II in Europe German’s illegal rearmament program during the 1930s bolstered the economy‚ but set the stage for war. Source: Council on Foreign Relations (CFR)   The Great Depression in Europe gave the Nazis an advantage: their foes were underprepared for conflict in 1939. Indeed‚ when Germany did strike westward‚ it defeated France in only six weeks. The sight of German soldiers marching in Paris was a shock to the world‚ as France had been one of the world’s foremost powers. Fortunately‚ US economic recovery allowed it to swiftly give military aid to Britain under the Lend-Lease Act. Thousands of tons of weapons and aid flowed from America to Britain before Hitler could truly contemplate an invasion of the island.   On the Eastern Front‚ the Depression in Europe may have given Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin a false sense of security about Germany’s strength. Potentially‚ this is what led Stalin to believe that a nonaggression pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union would be honored by Hitler. On June 22‚ 1941‚ Germany violated the 1939 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact by invading the Soviet Union with its handful of Axis-Power allies in Europe. Now fighting Germany and allied with Britain‚ the Soviet Union also became a recipient of Lend-Lease weaponry from the United States. This aid helped save Moscow in December 1941‚ with the US joining the war only days later.

  During the Cold War‚ East Germany’s secret police deployed 90‚000 spies and 100‚000 informers to keep tabs on 6 million people. Beyond the Berlin Wall‚ the CIA employed jazz ambassadors to penetrate the Iron Curtain with their secret countercultural weapon. Voice of America broadcasts captured the airways to beam jazzy democracy into the Soviet zone. Musicians and activists also risked their lives to smuggle contraband records across the border. Meanwhile‚ Stasi spies infiltrated clubs to track down subversive influences and harvest information on real or imagined enemies of the state.   Jazz and Cultural Espionage in the GDR “A view of Checkpoint Charlie‚ the crossing point for foreigners visiting East Berlin‚ May 1‚ 1977.” Source: Helga T. H. Mellman / National Archives   In April 1955‚ the heads of the East German Ministry of Culture gathered for an urgent‚ 3-hour meeting about jazz.   After a heated debate‚ the men decided that jazz‚ embedded in African American music traditions and popular among urban nightclubs‚ did not reflect German cultural values. During the Cold War‚ the German Democratic Republic (GDR) authorities showed confusion about whether jazz reflected a “people’s art” or a tool for Western infiltration. Under the previous Nazi regime‚ jazz became a voice of dissent and social decay.   Other experts disagreed.   Jazz represented freedom‚ and freedom came with an American swing and accent. For many everyday people in the GDR‚ jazz became synonymous with American democracy.   Officially‚ the GDR banned jazz. This censorship failed to stop jazz from flourishing nationwide. Despite the risk‚ fans smuggled black-market jazz records across the border. Over the next decade‚ jazz played a vital role as a psychological weapon deployed by the CIA in the cultural Cold War. As the nuclear arms race escalated‚ Western intelligence agencies worked to undermine Soviet power on every level.   While the Stasi viewed jazz as a threat‚ they also saw it as an opportunity. Even as the Stasi seized recordings‚ they embedded their spies at the heart of the jazz scene. This tactic enabled the secret police to keep their finger on the pulse of jazz activism‚ compromise clubgoers‚ and recruit them as Stasi agents.   Even before the 1961 Berlin Crisis‚ the CIA disseminated American culture to the people trapped in Soviet-controlled areas.   Soft Power in a Cold War  Members of the 11th AB Division kneel on the ground as they watch the mushroom cloud of an atomic bomb test‚ Frenchman’s Flat‚ Nevada‚ 1951. Source: Library of Congress   At its core‚ the Cold War was a war of ideas. As America competed with the Soviets for nuclear superiority‚ military power‚ and moral high ground‚ they had to confront racial issues at home and find ways to combat disinformation. Communist governments spread propaganda to create fear‚ mask a failing political and economic system‚ and keep people from accessing outside information.   For America‚ culture offered an opportunity to showcase American talents and fight Soviet portrayals. They aimed to use sound to gain allies behind the Iron Curtain and win the ideological Cold War.   With the Civil Rights Movement in full swing and racial tensions increasing at home‚ the US State Department had a brilliant idea. They decided to send both black and white musicians as jazz ambassadors to play worldwide. Jazz diplomacy had a twofold purpose: to undermine the Soviet Union’s cultural superiority claims‚ and to show racial unity to combat Soviet propaganda about racial tensions in America.   Then‚ the CIA got involved. At the height of the Cold War‚ the CIA created the Congress for Cultural Freedom (CCF). They sent “Goodwill Jazz Ambassadors” to export American jazz during the 1950s and 1960s.   The plan worked. When the State Department made black musicians the face of their Cold War foreign policy‚ they also gave entertainers to help shape politics back home.   John A. McCone‚ head of the CIA‚ rushes to a White House meeting‚ 1962. Source: Library of Congress   Radio stations such as Radio Free Europe (RFE) and Voice of America (VOA) punched holes in the barriers that the GDR used to soundproof their socialist state.   While jazz could not physically dismantle the Berlin Wall‚ it inspired a spirit of individualism and resistance that drove political change. Together‚ jazz ambassadors‚ radio broadcasters‚ and German fans helped break the Iron Curtain open from the inside.   City of Spies Glienicke Bridge in Berlin‚ where spy swaps took place during the Cold War. Source: dpa / picture-alliance / Deutsche Welle   Grim‚ gray‚ and gritty‚ East Berlin represented the dark side of a divided city. It stood in stark contrast to its well-lit twin on the other side of the Wall. Sodium lights cast a harsh orange glow over Soviet-style architecture and streets. But at night‚ the city came alive. Cabaret‚ once popular under the pre-Nazi Weimar government‚ had deep historical roots in the cultural and political substructure of the city. Jazz clubs flourished underground. People came to dance‚ mingle‚ and spill secrets.   After the Allies defeated Nazi Germany in the Second World War‚ the victorious Allied powers split Germany into four military zones to ensure that a dictator like Adolf Hitler would never rise to power again. In 1949‚ the regions occupied by the United States‚ France‚ and the UK became the Federal Republic of Germany. The Soviets established East Germany‚ or the GDR‚ in the Russian zone.   Map of East and West Germany. Source: Central Intelligence Agency / Library of Congress   Despite its name‚ the GDR did not represent a democracy or a republic. Instead‚ it held power as a communist dictatorship. In this totalitarian state‚ free speech‚ free elections‚ and freedom of movement did not exist.   By 1950‚ the Staatssicherheit‚ or the Stasi secret police‚ became a massive surveillance tool that acted as a proxy for the KGB.   After the Second World War‚ German leaders noticed how popular American culture affected young Germans’ ideas‚ tastes‚ and behavior. Debates over jazz‚ westerns‚ and comic books made the authorities on both sides of the Iron Curtain worry about how these influences might erode traditional German culture.   This created an uneasy and hostile relationship between GDR leaders and jazz cultural expression. Fearful of jazz as a tool for cultural infiltration‚ the Stasi employed their vast network of spies and informers to monitor and utilize the jazz scene inside the country.   Jazz Diplomacy: How the CIA Promoted Freedom Behind the Iron Curtain “A view of the Brandenburg Gate‚ with East Berlin in the background‚” February 1983. Source: Thomas Farr / National Archives   In 1956‚ the State Department launched ANTA’s International Exchange Program with Dizzy Gillespie and his band on a European tour. Gillespie’s band visited eleven countries‚ including West Germany‚ in an epic‚ eight-week tour. Crowds met them so enthusiastically that managers had to cordon off the stage.   In a few years‚ Louis Armstrong became the most recognizable face of American jazz entertainment abroad. Known as “Ambassador Satch‚” the singer and trumpet player toured Europe with his All-Stars group. Before the Berlin Wall went up‚ East Germans would do anything to hear Armstrong play. In a December 1955 interview‚ Armstrong revealed that he met excited young men at the West Berlin Hot Club who managed to slip across the border and did not know how to return.   Ella Fitzgerald. Source: The Rudy Calvo Collection Cache Agency / NPR   Even after the Berlin Wall virtually made travel a suicide mission‚ fans kept the jazz fever alive. Harlem Renaissance jazz giants such as Ella Fitzgerald toured East and West Berlin on cultural missions.   The “First Lady of Jazz‚” Ella Fitzgerald‚ sang to packed crowds at the cavernous Sportpalast Arena in West Berlin in 1962. In 1965‚ Armstrong became the first American jazz entertainer to play in East Germany.   Jazz diplomats brought the allure of New York lights‚ American democracy‚ and cultural change to vast audiences across Berlin. Beneath the excitement‚ the East German intelligence services unleashed spies to gather intelligence in jazz clubs’ fertile hunting grounds.   Satchmo Fights the Cold War Louis Armstrong playing the trumpet‚ 1953. Source: Library of Congress   During his single‚ brief tour to the GDR‚ Armstrong played his heart out to packed houses. As crowds celebrated Armstrong’s appearance‚ only jazz musicians and journalists knew the effort and danger it took to attend.   Contrary to official Soviet disdain for jazz music‚ fans expressed a rabid enthusiasm for jazz that exceeded expectations. Armstrong’s popularity floored the East German authorities since his records had not officially appeared yet. One jazz journalist‚ Karlheinz Dreschsel‚ risked his life and career to promote jazz. Later‚ he toured with Armstrong and announced his concerts while navigating sensitive political waters.   In March 1965‚ Armstrong gave two performances per day for three days to 18‚000 people at the Friedrichstadt-Palast Music Hall in East Berlin. Armstrong also traveled to Leipzig‚ where he played to awed audiences at the city’s massive trade fair hall. Armstrong only swung one tour thanks to political restrictions‚ but his impact ignited a Free Jazz scene that spread like wildfire behind the Berlin Wall.   The Stasi recognized this movement as more dangerous than the music. They wanted to stop people inspired by democratic ideas from escaping East Germany. By the time the Berlin Wall went up overnight in August 1961‚ the Stasi had planted their own informants in the jazz scene.   Jazz‚ Suppression‚ &; Resistance  A march for democracy by East Germans at the Brandenburg Gate‚ 1953. Source: The Associated Press / The Guardian   After World War II‚ German authorities hurried to distance themselves from the Nazi’s anti-jazz sentiments and promote a thriving socialist culture. Soon‚ the GDR prioritized saving German culture from a disastrous slide into American jazz‚ jeans‚ and democracy.   By February 1950‚ a shift in the political wind brought a crackdown. The authorities did not just ban jazz but also dancing that caused excessive arm‚ hip‚ and leg movement and threatened to energize people enough into thinking about dangerous things like freedom.   After Soviet tanks crushed an anti-communist demonstration by thousands of young East Germans in 1953‚ the GDR’s prime minister denounced the protestors who wanted to overthrow the communist regime.   In response‚ Moscow launched a frontal assault on jazz and insisted that the GDR toe the party line.   The GDR‚ armed by the Stasi‚ hastened to obey. They disbanded jazz bands‚ banned jazz music from playing on radio stations‚ promoted “civilized” German dancing without a whiff of racial mixing‚ and seized jazz records at every border stop.   Predictably‚ banning jazz had the opposite effect. Music became a popular medium for both men and women to resist the communist system.   A Dangerous Game Bone recording from the Eastern Soviet Bloc. Source: The X-Ray Audio Project / ABC News Australia   In this atmosphere‚ East Germans could not just buy jazz recordings. The 13-foot-tall and 27-mile-long concrete Berlin Wall‚ watched by guard towers and laced with 55‚000 landmines‚ meant that East Berliners lost access to West Berlin music stores.   Very little jazz music played on the radio. When producers did play swing music‚ they labeled it Tanzmusic‚ or dance music‚ instead of jazz. Instead‚ fans scanned newspapers for second-hand records or placed ambiguous ads for “dance music records” (Helma Kaldewey‚ A People’s Music: Jazz in East Germany‚ 93).   People listened to swing‚ bebop‚ and jazz via bootleg roentgenizdat records from GDR bands such as Schmidt-Joos‚ the Helmut-Brandt-Combo‚ and Zschockelt’s “That Da-Da Strain” band.   Suffocated by the tense atmosphere and reduced to speaking in double-talk‚ many jazz artists like Horst Lippman fled to the West in a cultural hemorrhage during the 1950s. There‚ they produced labels that fans and profiteers smuggled into the GDR.   Bone Records Kept People Dancing X-ray record‚ Cold War period. Source: The X-ray Audio Project / ABC News Australia   Intrepid fans also circumvented state censorship by pressing records from discarded X-rays scavenged from clinics or hospitals. This practice introduced bootleg copies known as “ribs” or “bone records.”   Conspirators cut the X-ray plates into 7-inch discs. Then‚ they burned a hole into the center of the disc with a cigarette. Next‚ they used a wax cylinder‚ an old phonograph‚ or a dubplate reference machine (that pressed test records) to cut grooves into the disc at 78rpm. While these records had poor sound quality and users could only play them five to ten times‚ rib records became an enterprising way to get around censorship.   On the street‚ illegal jazz record sales flourished like the drug trade. Sellers and buyers met in clubs‚ on corners‚ dark alleys‚ and city parks to sell contraband records impressed with ghostly bone images. This fitting symbol of mortality reminded fans that a passion for jazz could land you in jail or worse.   Friends of friends also met up to exchange recordings. Others tossed packaged records from moving cars on the highway. Even the Americans organized a covert jazz lift to drop records behind the Iron Curtain. When reel-to-reel records appeared‚ bone records became obsolete.   Despite the oppressive atmosphere‚ professional jazz orchestras and amateur bands thrived. Before Zschockelt escaped to the West‚ he received an invitation from jazz activist and journalist Karlheinz Drechsel to play in Dresden. While Zschockelt managed to flee the country‚ Dreschel stayed behind and risked his life to promote jazz. After communism fell‚ the German government awarded Dreschel for his tireless efforts to bring jazz freedom to the nation.   “My Spies Were Everywhere” Caf&;eacute; Moskau‚ Berlin‚ 1978. Source: Ute Mahler / The Guardian   The Stasi knew everything: what you said‚ where you went‚ and who you slept with. Or at least‚ it felt that way to East Germans‚ thanks to the secret police’s extensive spy network.   In the 1950s‚ jazz club critics conjured up images of smoky hot clubs‚ drugs‚ alcohol‚ and seedy individuals. Intelligentsia and black marketeers danced on tables to jazz music in hot clubs (Uta G. Poiger‚ Jazz‚ Rock‚ and Rebels‚ 56-57). Homosexuals‚ prostitutes‚ misfits‚ and musicians already found themselves outcasts in a society that criminalized and policed behavior.   The Stasi’s attitude towards jazz swung just as much as the music. The mood depended on the local authorities. Even some jazz fans who doubled as Stasi informers became reluctant to denounce fellow jazz artists for fear that they would not have anyone left with whom to play. Others‚ such as Horst Lippman‚ the founder of the Frankfurt Hot Club‚ fled to West Germany. There‚ they campaigned for jazz culture and other freedoms back home.   Jazz nightlife at the Badewanne in Sch&;ouml;neberg in Berlin‚ 1950s. Source: DPA picture alliance / ullstein bild / Berliner-Zeitung   When Caf&;eacute; Moskau opened on Karl-Marx Allee in Berlin in 1964‚ visitors sipped mocha‚ swung to jazz in the dance caf&;eacute;‚ or headed to the night bar located in the basement. The Bojar Bar‚ within sight of Checkpoint Charlie‚ became a favorite meetup point for journalists‚ secret agents‚ and Russian aristocrats in exile during the early Cold War. Over time‚ the exchange of rumors and intelligence slowed‚ but the bar’s vibe remained.   Whether you came for the coffee or stuck around for the music‚ you ran the risk of bumping into a reporter or a spy at Berlin’s jazz clubs and caf&;eacute;s.   How German authorities pictured jazz clubs’ mythologized decadence: Marlene Dietrich in Der Blaue Engel (The Blue Angel)‚ 1930. Source: DPA / Picture Alliance / Deutsche Welle   As jazz agitation simmered in the oppressive atmosphere‚ jazz clubs sprang out of the ground like mushrooms. In Leipzig‚ Eisenach‚ and Halle Universities‚ students played jazz‚ turned clubs into jazz halls‚ and even tried to organize a public three-day jazz festival.   Meanwhile‚ the Stasi had been busy.   Worried about subversive influences‚ the Stasi even reported jazz activities as high up as Walter Ulbricht‚ the head of the GDR. Stasi agents glided through smoky cellars like sharks in the jazz club’s shadowy underworld.   Some agents‚ like Werner Sellhorn and Ulrich Blobel‚ doubled as regular artists at the Berlin Jazz Club. They played alongside German jazz stars like Ruth Hohmann while reporting the names‚ political affiliations‚ and activities of the 90 club members back to their Stasi handlers (Barbara Miller‚ Narratives of Guilt and Compliance in Unified Germany‚ 139).   Thanks to the Stasi’s mass surveillance capabilities‚ this network of agents and informers successfully infiltrated jazz clubs. Markus Wolf‚ the faceless spymaster who ran the Stasi for 34 years‚ integrated espionage into the fabric of East German society. “My spies were everywhere‚” Wolf later claimed.   Secret police kept regular tabs on small jazz groups‚ the Berlin Jazz Club‚ and American jazz concerts. The Stasi even spied on their informers. As Blobel reported on his comrades‚ dozens of invisible Stasi informers watched his every move. They also monitored each piece of mail that he sent or received to and from the West (Kaldewey‚ 134‚ 218).   A Hotbed for Spies East German VOPO‚ a quasi-military border policeman standing guard on one of the bridges linking East and West Berlin‚ 1961. Source: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill   Many Stasi informers expressed no regrets for their collaboration. Others‚ less willing‚ found themselves trapped in an impossible situation. Nevertheless‚ this Stasi-informer collaboration helped shape the jazz scene in Berlin and East Germany.   Despite cinema tropes of seductive female spies‚ the Stasi used far more men than women spies. Despite women’s contributions‚ most Cold War authorities considered espionage a male-dominated sphere. American spy Leslie Woodhead had a narrow escape from a probable Stasi spy who tried to lure him home from the Eierschale jazz club‚ a popular Stasi honey-trap spot. At the NAAFI bar‚ gay Stasi agents targeted American servicemembers out for a good time (Leslie Woodhead‚ My Life as a Spy‚ 220).   Blackmail remained an evergreen spy-craft tool. The Stasi regularly recruited gay men to meet new contacts and gather intelligence. In a time that criminalized homosexuality and linked it to a heightened spy risk‚ the threat of same-sex blackmail had explosive potential.   The Stasi did not limit their operations to jazz clubs on their side of the Wall. In a clever tactic‚ they stopped West Germans while speeding in the East and frightened them into spying for them at the Dandy Club‚ the Big Apple‚ and the Eden Saloon in West Berlin.   Many informers‚ pressed into Stasi service‚ frequented jazz clubs. Their handlers wanted to know how Berlin’s subversive gay subculture and jazz dissident networks worked.   “Attention&;#33; You will be leaving West Berlin in 40 meters.” Source: Allan Hailstone‚ Berlin in the Cold War: 1956 to 1966 / CNN Travel   The Stasi needed eyes and ears on both sides of the Wall. People who had something to hide became the easiest ones to control.   In November 1961‚ Berlin Jazz Club musician Werner Sellhorn‚ codenamed “Zirkel‚” met with his Stasi handlers to report on Humboldt University students’ jazz activities. As the meeting wrapped up‚ the secret police warned Sellhorn to avoid jazz demonstrations and not to cross the gray line into “negative influences.” The chilling warning highlighted the uneasy dual existence of jazz musicians and informers.   As the years passed‚ Sellhorn started skipping Stasi meetings and dragged his feet when asked to report on his fellow musicians (Kaldewey‚ 138). Other reluctant Stasi informers also helped destabilize the surveillance state from the inside.   When time unmasked him as a Stasi informer‚ his fellow musicians did not appear to hold this role against him‚ thanks to his genuine contributions to jazz‚ despite the Stasi’s constraints and the relationships forged.   A Risky Career Broadcasting VOA‚ 1957. Source: Thomas J. O’Halloran / Library of Congress   Many jazz singers and musicians started their careers in jazz bars or clubs. Jazz producers or singers such as Angelika Weiz used their jazz expression to criticize the socialist system openly. As a result‚ the GDR banned a defiant Weiz from recording any records during her career.   Ruth Hohmann‚ known as the Ella Fitzgerald of the East‚ became the first East German to obtain a professional jazz singer license before 1965 (Kaldewey‚ 185). She even performed at the House of German-Soviet Friendship with the Jazz Optimists Berlin group in 1961. Her powerful‚ versatile voice made listeners laugh‚ cry‚ or punch the air with their fists as she reached the chorus.   By 1966‚ the government moved to silence her. They canceled her bookings on short notice. Before a television interview‚ the station received anonymous complaints. Sometimes‚ she fought back. In the 1970s‚ attitudes began to thaw. When Erich Honecker replaced Ulbricht at the nation’s helm‚ Hohmann resumed her jazz circuit.   Today‚ Germany remembers jazz activists for their intense devotion to improvisation‚ free expression‚ and banned music. They developed networks that stretched across the GDR and even penetrated beyond the Iron Curtain.   War on the Airwaves Voice of America studio radio system. Source: Thomas J. O’Halloran / Library of Congress   The CIA did not stop at jazz diplomacy. They also covertly funded the Voice of America’s radio broadcast program. VOA’s contrarian broadcaster and producer‚ Willis Conover‚ insisted on doing things his way. A tall‚ thin man with black-framed glasses‚ Willis helped convince a reluctant Congress that‚ rather than wasting taxpayers’ dollars‚ jazz had the potential to win the Cold War.   At the height of the Cold War‚ the West waged psychological warfare against the Soviets via radio stations‚ which beamed music and news to the Soviet satellite states‚ including East Germany. In response‚ Soviet authorities ramped up their efforts to jam VOA radio signals.   Up until the 1980s‚ the Stasi used local and long-distance jamming methods to block the airways and soundproof East Germany. In return‚ shortwave radios used high power and numerous frequencies to outmaneuver jamming efforts. The Stasi also launched propaganda crusades against the corrupting influence of jazz.   Voice of America studio interior‚ 1957. Source: Thomas J. O’Halloran / Library of Congress   Despite this‚ millions of listeners fine-tuned their radio dials daily to catch the familiar surging theme music and the slow‚ sugary baritone voice that greeted them‚ “This is Willis Conover in Washington DC‚ with the Voice of America Jazz Hour.”   For over 30 years‚ Willis Conover and the Voice of America bombarded the Eastern Bloc with forbidden music. This hour of freedom reached millions of people in communist states. It not only helped Soviet citizens survive‚ but it helped pave the way for more cultural acceptance.   A Secret Sonic Victory East German students sit on the Berlin Wall in front of the border guards. The fall of the Berlin Wall meant the end of a divided Germany‚ November 1989. Source: University of Minnesota Institute of Advanced Studies / US National Guard   Across the Eastern Bloc‚ Soviet authorities fought a losing battle against the lure of jazz and democracy. By the 1980s‚ Glasnost and Perestroika’s “openness” and “restructuring” policies meant that resistance to popular music began to collapse.   In November 1989‚ an official slip-up resulted in a watershed moment. An official announced that East Germans could now cross the border. In response‚ crowds attacked the Berlin Wall with hammers‚ pickaxes‚ and their bare hands. Afterward‚ thousands of fans poured through to hit West Berlin music stores and get their hands on their favorite jazz artists’ records.   US jazz diplomacy and VOA broadcasts played a dual role in the cultural Cold War. America’s information war introduced new ideas that drove grassroots dissent. It also helped destabilize Soviet culture from the inside. This cultural invasion on an international scale may only have worked with the backing of the federal government. It certainly could not have succeeded without the efforts of millions of Germans.   Despite intense censorship‚ East Germans created jazz ensembles‚ clubs‚ and networks that crisscrossed the country. The combined force of musicians and journalists turned a musical passion into a popular form of unconscious resistance.   While it is impossible to quantify jazz’s impact on the GDR‚ jazz diplomacy‚ broadcasting‚ and activism launched a powerful cultural force. This triple threat helped break down ideological barriers and tested the limits of the communist regime.   Selected Bibliography   Kaldewey‚ Helma. (2020). A People’s Music: Jazz in East Germany‚ 1945-1990. Cambridge University Press. Miller‚ Barbara. (1999). Narratives of Guilt and Compliance in Unified Germany: Stasi Informers and Their Impact on Society. London and New York: Routledge. Poiger‚ Uta G. (2000). Jazz‚ Rock‚ and Rebels: Cold War Politics and American Culture in a Divided Germany. University of California Press. Woodhead‚ Leslie. (2005). My Life as a Spy. London: Macmillan.

  The Reformation in England is misleadingly credited to King Henry VIII. While Martin Luther was a contemporary of Henry‚ the association between the two was not cordial. Henry railed against Luther’s “heresies” and even after breaking with Rome continued to prosecute‚ torture‚ and execute reformers who challenged his nationalized Catholic beliefs.   The Reformation in Europe was not just fueled by spiritual differences with the Catholic Church‚ the religious and political powerhouse of Western Europe. It was the last part – the Church’s involvement in politics — that helped the Reformation bud‚ with local leaders throughout the continent looking for more autonomy‚ and protecting religious reformers. While this could apply to Henry VIII‚ he never disagreed with Catholic doctrine — only foreign control over his court.   Reformation Europe Jan Huss burning at the stake‚ from the Jensky Codex‚ 1490-1510‚ Source: Narodni Museum   Early in the 15th century‚ Jan Huss started the Bohemian Reformation. Papal politics were mixed into the politics of European states‚ especially within the Holy Roman Empire with its myriad of component cultural groups. Huss publicly spoke out against certain tenets of Catholicism‚ and his arguments were allowed by local leaders looking to weaken the papacy’s involvement in their local affairs.   Huss was invited to defend his position at the Council of Constance (1414-1418) — a meeting that was meant to resolve the Western Schism‚ which had created three competing popes. Unfortunately for Huss‚ who was granted a pass of safe conduct‚ one thing the rival popes could agree on was revoking his pass‚ convicting him of heresy‚ and then burning him at the stake. Designed to suppress opposition‚ Huss nevertheless became a (local) reforming martyr.   When Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses in 1517 it was heralded as the birth of Protestantism‚ despite earlier‚ suppressed examples. Luther‚ like Huss‚ was given local protection‚ and then‚ like Huss‚ was invited to an ecclesiastical council (The Diet of Worms‚ 1521)‚ under a pass of safe conduct to defend his position.   Luther held firm and rather than revoking the pass and preparing another stake burning‚ the Church‚ surprisingly‚ gave him the opportunity to go home and consider his “errors.” One can almost hear the ashes of Huss cough in indignation.   Luther’s points had gone international (“viral” in other words) thanks to the printing press‚ so he was essentially sent to his room to think about what he had done. To be ignored rather than martyred.   Luther at the Diet of Worms‚ by Anton van Werner‚ 1877‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   Perhaps Luther is considered the father of the Protestant Reformation because he survived. After his “time out”‚ the Church convicted him‚ but it was too late — the word was out and he was under the protection of Frederick III‚ Elector of Saxony.   Others followed his lead. Local religions‚ based on local interpretations of the Bible (a few even Luther found disagreeable but he had let the genie out of the bottle) were supported by local political authorities. Without whom these reformers would have gone the way that “heresies” had before.   Henry VIII Henry VIII‚ by Hans Holbein‚ 1540‚ Source: The Museum of Fine Arts‚ Houston   By 1521‚ Henry VIII‚ 30‚ had a decade on the throne‚ as the second monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The Tudors came to power in 1485 after winning the War of the Roses — a thirty-year civil war among English royal cousins‚ during which‚ Henry’s father‚ Henry VII‚ defeated Richard III. Though Richard lost both crown and life‚ he had a strong claim to the throne‚ one that Henry VII needed to equal to keep another cousin from challenging him in turn. Support came from the Catholic Church endorsing his authority.   When Henry VIII came to power upon his father’s death in 1509‚ he was 18‚ and his first act was to marry Catherine of Aragon. This marriage had been on hold because Catherine was the widow of Henry VIII’s brother‚ Prince Arthur. Married at the end of 1501 Arthur succumbed to illness in April of 1502. Henry VII was loath to return Catherine’s dowry but also not ready to redirect plans for his second son‚ Henry Jr. (future VIII). Instead‚ he kept Catherine on the back burner.   Church support was important to Henry Sr‚ and while likely not a primary concern‚ biblical law cited Leviticus (20:21) prohibiting one from marrying his brother’s widow. The debate centered on whether Arthur and Catherine consummated their marriage. Catherine insisted they had not. Seven years this went on until Prince Henry‚ already taken with Catherine‚ became king and the Church (eager to have the two kingdoms remain allied) ruled the previous marriage unconsummated; a Church dispensation allowed Catherine to marry Henry.   Catherine of Aragon‚ by Lucas Horenbout‚ 1525‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   The couple had at least six pregnancies‚ but only the fifth‚ their daughter Mary (b. 1516)‚ survived. Henry was the second monarch of a dynasty who were the victors of a decades-long civil war‚ during which nobody could agree who was king. His father resolved that‚ but without a legitimate son of his own‚ Henry VIII could let England descend back into chaos. English history had one example of a daughter succeeding her father to the throne (Henry I and his daughter Matilda)‚ an event that is literally known as the Anarchy. This put pressure on the King to produce.   In the 1510s‚ Henry had several mistresses. One‚ Elizabeth Blount‚ delivered a surviving infant son (Henry FitzRoy 1519-1536). Henry acknowledged him‚ but his illegitimacy caused no fewer problems than a daughter would. However‚ it provided an example of differential diagnostics: Henry could sire a son with someone else.   Martin Luther‚ by Mucas Cranach the Elder‚ 1529‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   In addition to (or because of) his philandering‚ Henry also attended to religious matters‚ including the Lutheran “heresy.” Henry opposed reformation‚ to the point that he had penned his own treatise‚ the Defense of the Seven Sacraments (Assertio Septem Sacramentorum)‚ against Luther. This started a 16th-century blog-battle between Luther and the King that earned Henry the title Defender of the Faith (Fidei Defensor) from the papacy. The Church and the King presented a united front against Lutheranism.   When the idea that Henry should set aside Catherine (she was his senior by half a decade‚ and each pregnancy had ended in despair or disappointment) the “logical” reason‚ to Henry‚ was that his marriage to Catherine violated Levitical law. The Church merely had to recognize God’s “obvious” disfavor and issue a new dispensation nullifying the earlier dispensation that allowed the marriage. Easy.   The issue was that the papacy was not in a position to support Henry’s wishes. Catherine’s nephew‚ Emperor Charles V‚ and the papacy were having their own disagreements‚ with Imperial troops in Rome‚ even the Pope’s personal safety was threatened. Charles had an opinion on Aunt Catherine’s premarital purity and was not shy in supporting his point with force. This was 1527.   By 1532 Henry was not getting younger‚ and while a young Anne Boleyn was an agreeable replacement bride the Church would not nullify Catherine or their earlier decision. Henry tried to play by the Church rules‚ with heavy reliance on his trusted advisor‚ Cardinal Thomas Wolsey‚ but even the Cardinal could not get the annulment passed‚ hastening Wolsey’s fall from favor.   Henry was the protector of England but could not protect it because a priest in Italy could not understand the stakes. When it was suggested that the King take matters into his own hands for the good of the kingdom‚ he agreed.   The Act of Supremacy Protestant Martyr Anne Askew‚ by Hans Eworth‚ 1560‚ Source: Artuk.org   The Act of Supremacy (1534) placed the king at the head of the Church of England‚ which severed all ties with the Church of Rome. This was followed by the Treasons Act‚ making anyone who would not pledge support to the Act of Supremacy (and Henry’s divorce from Catherine and remarriage to Anne) a traitor worthy of death; the most prominent conviction under this Act was that of Sir Thomas More.   These acts did not change English religion — just politics. Henry as king was head of the Church.  Not the Pope. All Church property was accordingly redistributed — making a few rather wealthy and upsetting quite a few others (during the Pilgrimage of Grace for example). Wolsey’s successor‚ Thomas Cromwell‚ served as a scapegoat for the unpleasantness and followed More to the gallows. In ecclesiastical practices‚ the Church of England changed very little from the Church of Rome.   Religious reformers in England hoping to find safety were disappointed. Over 60 people were condemned to death (often after a turn at torture) for Protestantism/heresy under Henry VIII between 1530 and the end of his reign in 1547.   Henry’s last wife (number six for those keeping count) Catherine Parr expressed Protestant ideas at court where she risked running afoul of her husband. Henry’s heresy hunters even secured an arrest warrant for her‚ which was only reversed by the King the moment it was being served. Catherine wisely corrected her course and became a source of relative calm in the last years of Henry’s reign.   Protestantism After Henry VIII The Execution of Lady Jane Grey‚ by Paul Delaroche‚ 1833‚ Source: The National Gallery   It was some time‚ and many lives before Protestantism was safe in England: Edward VI‚ the long sought-after son of Henry VIII (via wife #3‚ Jane Seymour) succeeded in 1547‚ at the age of nine.  It was Edward’s advisors (mostly his maternal Seymour uncles) who brought Protestantism into England — clearing out the last vestiges of Catholicism that Henry had held onto. The young king‚ however‚ fell terminally ill at 16.   This encouraged the Protestant leaders in power‚ fearful of a return to Rome‚ to circumvent Edward’s successor — Princess Mary‚ the only surviving (and very Catholic) child of Catherine of Aragon (remember her&;#63;). This circumvention — a coup-d’&;eacute;tat promoting a royal cousin‚ the reluctant Lady Jane Grey — was such a hijacking of the state that even English moderates threw their support behind the woman later known as Bloody Mary. Jane was an uncrowned queen for nine days before happily handing over the crown. She was sent to the executioner to prevent her later becoming a Protestant phoenix rising in another revolt. She was just 17.   Mary Tudor‚ by Anthonis Mor‚ 1554‚ Source: Museo Del Prado   Mary’s reign lasted four years — in that time she executed over 200 Protestants earning her that sanguinary moniker — before she too died and was succeeded in 1558 by her half-sister‚ Elizabeth‚ daughter of Anne Boleyn.   Elizabeth‚ an outed Protestant at her coronation‚ admirably stated she would not build windows into men’s souls so long as they remained loyal to her. Unfortunately‚ numerous plots to overthrow or simply assassinate her by parties promoting Catholicism made those who subscribed to the religion of Rome less and less free to practice and the English government more and more hostile to “popery” during Elizabeth’s 45-year reign. Elizabeth cemented Protestantism in England because‚ like Luther — she survived.   While few reformations of the 16th century could have survived without secular support‚ their motivations were religious and political. Henry was a devoted Catholic to his end intent on securing his kingdom’s future. Henry’s “reformation” had little to do with religious ideology and everything to do with authority. To him‚ the suggestion that he was a Protestant would get the suggester sent to the gallows.

  From the times of Hippocrates and Galen to the contemporary era of the Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)‚ depression‚ historically referred to as melancholia‚ has been recognized as a pervasive disorder of low mood. Critically‚ beyond ordinary “sadness‚” depression often lacks an identifiable trigger or exhibits an intensity and duration disproportionate to any specific cause. Since the mid-twentieth century depression has been treated with drugs. However‚ in the context of modern society‚ depression is connected to a complex interplay of social factors that transcend mere biochemical explanations.   The Definition of Depression Melancholy (1892) by Edvard Munch. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Depression often begins with a strange sense of detachment. Persistent sadness‚ fatigue‚ low energy‚ changes in appetite‚ weight‚ quality of sleep. In severe cases‚ feelings of worthlessness progress‚ until one is left with the pain of existing and very little else.   The prevailing modern belief is that depression is caused by chemical imbalances in the brain – and can be treated by drugs. Effective treatment can also include lifestyle changes‚ exercise‚ and therapy. Yet in particularly acute cases‚ neither pharmacological nor therapeutic intervention works. An estimated 95 percent of people who commit suicide are also clinically depressed.   The hallmark symptoms of depression have been recognized for millennia. From Hippocrates (406-370BC) – who used the term “melancholia” – to the modern Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)‚ the concept of depression is described in remarkably similar terms.   Melancholy and Humeral Theory Bust of Hippocrates‚ Greek physician and “father of medicine”‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   According to the Humeral Theory of Hippocrates‚ the equilibrium – health – of the human body depends on the four humors: phlegm‚ blood‚ yellow bile‚ and black bile. These vital bodily fluids‚ when imbalanced – either in excess or deficiency – caused sickness.    Hippocrates delineated melancholia – from the Greek melas (black) and khole (bile) – as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical effects. Aristotle wrote further on the dangers of black bile. Likening black bile to wine‚ he claimed that it provoked hypercondric diseases like melancholy‚ and was prone to ferment‚ producing depression and anger.    According to the Roman physician Galen (129-216 AD)‚ moderate imbalances in the humors also produced behavioral patterns‚ or “temperaments” –  melancholia being the prime example. Although Humoral Theory was disproved and supplanted by Germ Theory in the 1850s‚ the concept of melancholy‚ understood as a disorder of low mood‚ survived.     From Melancholia to Depression  “A wretched man approaching depression‚ represented by encroaching little devils”. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The modern concept of depression finds its roots in the earlier concept of melancholia‚ which spans from ancient Greece to the physicians of the early modern period. Therefore‚ to trace the history of the term “depression” is to connect it to the history of melancholia. Thus‚ while depression is sometimes perceived to be a modern disease‚ the historical evidence suggests otherwise.    Through time many ideas about melancholia have taken root. Aristotle claimed that it was associated with men of learning and a natural hazard of intellectual brilliance. Melancholy was likewise seen as “fashionable” by many eighteenth-century artists and intellectuals. In 1917‚ Sigmund Freud linked melancholia to mourning‚ albeit arguing that in mourning the world becomes ‘poor and empty’ whereas in melancholia‚ ‘it is the ego itself.’ In the late nineteenth century‚ the terms melancholia and “depression” were largely interchangeable for a time. However‚ by the mid-20th century‚ depression more or less replaced the older word.    Anti-Depressants Fluoxetine‚ brand name Prozac‚ is one of the world’s most prescribed antidepressants‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   As melancholia became depression‚ new treatments and new ways of seeing began to emerge. By the mid-1950s‚ anti-depressant drugs marked a significant breakthrough. However‚ early options like Tricyclics and MAOIs‚ marketed under brand names such as Norpramin and Nardil were plagued by a wide range of unpleasant side effects.    Then‚ in the 1980s‚ came the SSRI revolution. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors‚ free from many of the side effects of the older generation of drugs‚ were hailed as miraculous “anti-depressants.” Yet‚ despite the success of this class of drugs‚ what was once a relatively small population treated for depression in the 1950s has ballooned into millions in the twenty-first century. Many attribute the proliferation of anti-depressants in the modern world to the prominence of aggressive‚ profit-driven pharmaceutical companies. However‚ while big pharma has effectively monetized depression‚ at the same time‚ for many people around the world‚ anti-depressants “work.”     Depression in the Modern World Melancholy (1894)‚ by Edvard Munch. Source: Wikimedia Commons   According to the sociologist of depression‚ Alain Ehrenberg‚ since the 1950s‚ depression has undergone a transformation. No longer viewed in terms of psychic pain and melancholic anguish‚ it is increasingly understood as a “pathology of action”. To be depressed signifies one’s inability to engage in work and relationships and a lack of energy to function. In a society that prioritizes individual responsibility and entrepreneurial energy above all else‚ depression poses a serious problem.    Thus‚ while depression may well be caused by low levels of serotonin – a chemical imbalance in the brain – it is therefore unquestionably a social issue: why do some people have lower levels of serotonin than others&;#63; Amidst the stresses and uncertainties of modern life: rising inequality‚ the shifting nature of work‚ saturation of social life by technology‚ and increasing social isolation of the individual‚ depression manifests as a complex interplay of social factors that transcend mere biochemical explanations.

  The Holocaust remains the greatest tragedy in modern history. The crimes committed by the Nazi Party continue to horrify generation after generation‚ demonstrating how frightening the world can be when evil men come to power.   But despite the risks involved‚ plenty of individuals were still willing to fight back against this atrocity.   Oskar Schindler was one of these brave heroes. Initially driven by greed and profit‚ he changed his attitude after witnessing the persecution of the Jewish community. With a combination of intellect‚ bribery‚ and flattery‚ he saved over one thousand Jews from the horrors of the Holocaust.   Oskar Schindler: A Man Driven By Pleasure A photograph of a young Oskar Schindler with his father‚ 1929. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum‚ Washington DC   Oskar Schindler was born into wealth. His family was well-known and influential in the town of Zwittau‚ with Schindler’s father owning a factory that produced farming machinery.   At the end of the First World War‚ Zwittau became part of the newly formed Czechoslovakia. The economic fallout of the conflict resulted in financial hardship for many people. But owing to his family’s wealth‚ Schindler had plenty of fun during his adolescence‚ driving cars‚ racing motorbikes‚ and attending parties.   On March 6‚ 1928‚ Schindler married a young woman named Emilie Pelzl. The father of the bride offered up a dowry of 100‚000 Czech crowns. This money was meant to help the newlyweds have a strong start in life. But Schindler instead spent it on partying and a new luxury car. He was not a faithful husband‚ frequently dating other women and having sexual affairs. However‚ Emilie did not seek a divorce.   War &; Business Opportunities A photograph of the Nazi invasion of Poland‚ 1939. Source: Military Times   1935 was a grim year for Oskar Schindler. He lost his mother‚ and the family business went bankrupt‚ forcing him to work as a salesman for a company called Moravian Electrotechnic.   The same year‚ he joined a political party: the Sudeten German Party. Members of the party wanted the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia to be part of Germany. They were also openly anti-Semitic. Yet Schindler’s decision to join the Sudeten German Party was not really political. He was interested in making business deals‚ widening his connections‚ and selling more contracts.   Hoping to make more money‚ he worked as a spy for a Nazi intelligence-gathering service called Abwehr‚ collecting information from inside Czechoslovakia for the Nazis. Following the German invasion of the Sudetenland in September 1938‚ Schindler joined the Nazi Party.   Sensing another opportunity to make money‚ Schindler followed the Nazis into Poland in September 1939. He decided to start a business selling military equipment to Germany. Schindler saw the war as a golden opportunity to make money while avoiding serving in the military.   At this point‚ the plight of the Jews did not concern Schindler. All he cared about was money.   A Change of Heart A photograph of Oskar Schindler’s factory (Emalia) in Krak&;oacute;w‚ c.1943-1944. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum‚ Washington DC   Through his contacts in the military‚ Oskar Schindler agreed to manufacture goods for German soldiers‚ such as mess kits and kitchenware. He set up the business in the Polish city of Krak&;oacute;w and named the factory Deutsche Emailwaren Fabrik‚ also called “Emalia.”   The city around Schindler changed quickly under Nazi occupation. After the invasion of Poland‚ the Germans carried out measures that isolated and persecuted the Jewish community. They forced them to form a Jewish Council‚ wear a white armband with the Star of David‚ register their property‚ and – later on – live in an isolated ghetto. Much of Schindler’s workforce came from the Jewish community in Krak&;oacute;w. Under the new laws‚ he didn’t have to pay them as much as non-Jewish workers‚ which helped increase his profits.   In March 1941‚ the Nazis established the Krak&;oacute;w Ghetto. Between 15‚000 and 20‚000 lived inside‚ surrounded by barbed-wire fences. The only Jews who could leave were those with identification labeling them as workers in a factory. This identification also kept them safe from being sent away to a concentration camp.   Though the food situation in the Krak&;oacute;w Ghetto was not as bad as other ghettos in Nazi-occupied Poland‚ hunger was still a problem. After the Nazis banned the Jews from earning a wage‚ the Jews purchased their food from shops inside the ghetto using a ration card system. Schindler knew his workers were not getting enough nutrition‚ so he bought extra food for them.   This was not the only problem. Gradually‚ the Nazis removed more people from the ghetto. The actions of the Schutzstaffel (the SS) alarmed Schindler. He saw them use violence against the Jews and knew something had to be done about it.   Protecting the Jewish Workers A photograph of Amon Goeth in Krak&;oacute;w‚ 1944. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum‚ Washington DC   Oskar Schindler used a mixture of bribery and persuasion to ensure those in his factory were deemed essential workers in the context of the German war effort. This way‚ they avoided being sent to the extermination camps.   But there were still risks. Abraham Bankier‚ who helped Schindler finance the factory‚ almost suffered a terrible fate when he forgot his card identifying him as an essential worker. The Gestapo arrested Bankier and forced him onto a train destined for Auschwitz. Schindler managed to save him before it was too late‚ but the sight of Bankier’s terrified face was hard to shake off.   Schindler took another step to ensure his workers’ safety by altering his factory’s rosters. He listed a special skill for each worker‚ reducing the likelihood they would be taken away. But the situation worsened with the arrival of Amon Goeth.   Goeth was the new commandant of the Plaszow concentration camp. He was a violent‚ sadistic Nazi tasked with moving the Jews from the Krak&;oacute;w Ghetto to his concentration camp. This had a negative impact on Schindler’s factory. He complained about the situation‚ saying his workers arrived late and were less productive. Some of them were clearly traumatized‚ having witnessed beatings and hangings inside the concentration camp.   Hoping to save his workers from suffering or death‚ Schindler used his powers of persuasion to arrange the construction of a separate concentration camp beside his factory. This way‚ the Jews could be housed away from Goeth.   But even this scheme was far from foolproof. The accountant Itzhak Stern recalled how the SS would unexpectedly barge into the factory and inspect what was happening. Schindler would keep them distracted by bringing them to his office and offering vodka. He even bribed the SS if he had to.   Moving Back to Czechoslovakia A modern photograph of Oskar Schindler’s factory in Br&;uuml;nnlitz. Source: Smithsonian Magazine   By the middle of 1944‚ things were not looking good for the Nazis. The Soviet Army was approaching from the east‚ while British and American troops moved from the beaches of France towards the German border.   With the Soviets edging closer‚ the Nazis started to move the Jews out of Plaszow. Oskar Schindler discovered his male workers would be moved to Gross-Rosen (a concentration camp infamous for harsh conditions and hard labor) while his female workers would be taken to Auschwitz.   To prevent this from happening‚ Schindler returned to Czechoslovakia‚ looking for a new location to set up a factory and move his workers. He found a two-story building on the outskirts of Br&;uuml;nnlitz that was suitable.   Schindler had to convince the Nazis it would be good for the war effort to move his operation into Czechoslovakia away from the Soviet Army. Using a mixture of flattery and bribery‚ Schindler gained permission from superiors in Berlin. In preparation for the move‚ he compiled a list of all the Jewish workers going to the new factory.   The workers eventually arrived at the correct destination‚ but the plan did not run smoothly. The male workers initially went to Gross-Rosen for three weeks before moving to Br&;uuml;nnlitz. The female workers‚ meanwhile‚ were initially taken to Auschwitz‚ and Schindler had to intervene to ensure their safety.   By this point‚ Schindler did not care about profit anymore. He wanted to keep the Jews safe at Br&;uuml;nnlitz for the rest of the war. As food and supplies became scarce‚ Schindler spent more time bartering on the black market. He also allowed the Jews to celebrate religious festivals‚ such as Hanukkah‚ making sure to purchase extra food on these occasions.   The Final Years of Oskar Schindler A modern photograph of Oskar Schindler’s grave in Jerusalem. Source: Time   On May 7‚ 1945‚ Oskar Schindler learned from a British radio broadcast the war would end the following day. He relayed this information to his workers and delivered a speech commemorating the victims of the Holocaust.   Schindler had succeeded in protecting more than one thousand Jews from the clutches of the Nazis. But it had been an expensive operation‚ and his fortune was gone. No longer a wealthy man‚ Schindler lived in Regensburg and Munich after the war. He also provided evidence against certain Nazis‚ including Amon Goeth‚ who was hanged on September 13‚ 1946.   The final decades of Schindler’s life were not ideal. His relationship with his wife‚ which had been difficult from the beginning‚ fell apart completely. His post-war business ventures proved unsuccessful‚ though he did have financial support from the Jewish community. He even went to Israel once a year to celebrate his birthday.   A photograph of Oskar Schindler‚ 1949. Source: The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum‚ Washington DC   On October 9‚ 1974‚ Schindler died of liver failure at the age of sixty-six. He was buried in Mount Zion Cemetery in Jerusalem.   The story of Oskar Schindler – which has become more popular since the release of Steven Spielberg’s Schindler’s List in 1993 – continues to intrigue and inspire. When the Second World War broke out‚ Schindler was not an honorable man. But the cruelty of the Nazis awoke something inside of him.   In the darkest of times‚ heroes often arise from unexpected places.

  The Tripartite Pact was signed on September 17‚ 1940‚ between Nazi Germany‚ fascist Italy‚ and Japan. Also known as the Berlin Pact or‚ most commonly‚ the Axis Powers‚ the Pact intended to change the established world order by pledging to provide mutual assistance in case any of the signatory parties were attacked by a foreign state not involved in World War II. This formulation sheds light on the true purpose of the alliance: to prevent the involvement of the neutral United States in World War II. The Pact also attributed spheres of influence to the participating powers. While Nazi Germany and fascist Italy embarked on dominating the European continent‚ “Greater East Asia” remained in Japan’s sphere of influence. Just a year later‚ in 1941‚ the Pact was invoked following Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor. The United States entered the conflict by declaring war on Japan‚ proving the Pact ineffective.   The Berlin-Rome Axis as a Prerequisite of the Tripartite Pact Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini in Munich‚ Germany‚ by Eva Braun‚ 1940‚ via National Archives Catalog   By 1933‚ Adolf Hitler had consolidated power in Germany and established the Third Reich‚ regulated by Nazi ideology. Adolf Hitler’s ideology dictated territorial expansion and racial purity. However‚ the defeat in World War I and subsequent isolation from the international arena limited the possibilities of such expansion. Hitler needed allies‚ and Italy‚ led by Benito Mussolini‚ aligned with Hitler’s views. Both countries experienced similar political disturbances after World War I‚ resulting in the rise of radical nationalism.   Like Hitler‚ Mussolini sought territorial expansion based on a fascist ideology. Besides‚ Mussolini’s invasion of Abyssinia in October 1935 strained Italy’s relationships with Western powers‚ particularly Britain and France‚ providing additional incentive for Hitler to seek a closer alliance with Italy. Such an opportunity was provided in July 1936 during the Spanish Civil War. Mussolini assisted fascist rebels under the leadership of General Franco with military equipment. Adolf Hitler seized the opportunity and offered military assistance to General Franco as well. The provided assistance helped General Franco to become the new fascist dictator of Spain.   The German-Italian cooperation culminated on October 21‚ 1936. Following Hitler’s invitation to Berlin‚ the two leaders formed a formal alliance known as the Rome-Berlin Axis‚ pledging to follow a common foreign policy course‚ including forming a united front against their rivals‚ opposing communism in Europe‚ and recognizing the need for territorial expansion. According to Mussolini‚ “This Berlin-Rome protocol is not a barrier; it is rather an axis around which all European States animated by a desire for peace may collaborate on troubles‚” officially coining the term “Berlin-Rome Axis.”   The Berlin-Rome Axis laid the foundations for signing the Tripartite Pact‚ which further solidified the political and ideological ties between the two countries.   The Anti-Comintern Pact &; the Pact of Steel A 1940 map describing Italy’s plan to rebuild the Roman empire‚ taken from the newspaper The San Francisco Examiner‚ via Digital Public Library America   Soon after establishing the Berlin-Rome Axis‚ Japan found common ground with Germany and Italy. Japanese imperialism also dictated territorial expansion and racial superiority.   The beginning of the 1930s saw the rise of military dictatorships and powerful nationalist movements in the country. The Shōwa Emperor‚ Hirohito‚ ruled Japan from December 25‚ 1926‚ through January 7‚ 1989. His reign was the longest of any previous Japanese emperor and was characterized by totalitarianism‚ expansionism‚ and ultranationalism. Emperor Hirohito sought to acquire new‚ resource-rich territories to make room for Japan’s surplus population. Like Germany and Italy‚ Japan’s means to achieve the goal were coercive and invasive‚  culminating in the invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and China in 1937.   The three nations united against an international order dominated by France‚ Great Britain‚ as well as the emerging Soviet Union. The Japanese were particularly concerned with the developing relations between the Soviet Union and China. The signing of the Soviet-Chinese Non-Aggression Treaty in August 1936 further intensified Japan’s concerns as it threatened its regional influence.   The Anti-Comintern Pact between Germany and Japan‚ signed on November 15‚ 1936‚ formalized the German‚ Italian‚ and Japanese alliance and provided much-needed assurances to Japan that the spread of communism and the influence of the Soviet Union could be contained. Officially‚ it was designed to oppose the Communist International (Comintern)‚ which was advocating world communism. Italy joined the Pact in 1937.   Adolf Hitler in conversation with Japanese foreign minister Yōsuke Matsuoka‚ 1941‚ via Hitler Archive   On May 22‚ 1939‚ Italy and Germany signed the Pact of Friendship and Alliance‚ also known as the Treaty of Steel. The treaty further reinforced the Rome-Berlin Axis by officially pledging mutual support in case of war. Additionally‚ signing parties could not negotiate peace terms without each other’s consent. Secret clauses of the alliance called for the preparation of war and intensified the propaganda efforts.   The Pact of Steel and its clauses made clear that these nations were already in preparation for a major war to fulfill their expansionist policies. Adolf Hitler aimed to regain control over the lost territories after World War I by establishing the German Empire in Eastern Europe‚ while Mussolini sought to gain control over the Mediterranean and Africa. However‚ Mussolini was reluctant to implement the Pact of Steel’s provisions because he believed that Italy was not yet prepared for war.   These agreements intensified Soviet worries about growing threats from the fascist nations and encouraged the Soviet Union and Germany to sign the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact on August 23‚ 1939‚ just a few months later. This non-aggression pact divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence and approved of Hitler invading his sphere of influence‚ Poland‚ on September 1‚ 1939‚ marking the start of World War II.   The Signing of the Tripartite Pact &; the Establishment of the Axis Powers Poster created to enhance and strengthen the pact between Japan‚ Germany‚ and Italy by Gino Boccasile‚ 1941‚ via Rare Historical Photos   Even though Japan perceived the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact as a betrayal from the German side‚ by 1940‚ Japanese Emperor Hirohito had resumed his relationship with Germany. He perceived Nazi Germany’s successful conquests in Scandinavia and France in April–June 1940 as Western democracies’ weakness and the assurance that Nazi Germany would eventually succeed in the war. Additionally‚ during this period‚ the increased possibility of Hitler’s invasion of the United Kingdom and Japan’s advancements in northern Indochina in the summer of 1940 lessened the United States’ isolationist policy.   In July 1940‚ the US Congress passed the Two Ocean Navy Act‚ a massive fleet-building program. Soon‚ President Franklin D. Roosevelt decided to reposition the Pacific Fleet to Pearl Harbor on the Hawaiian Islands‚ expanding the American defensive perimeter. These moves indicated that President Franklin D. Roosevelt was preparing to intervene in World War II.   Signing ceremony for the Axis Powers Tripartite Pact by Hoffman‚ 1940‚ via US Department of Defense   To draw the Axis powers together and deter American involvement in the war‚ Adolf Hitler‚ Imperial Japan’s Ambassador to Germany‚ Saburō Kurusu‚ and Count Galeazzo Ciano‚ Mussolini’s son-in-law‚ gathered in Berlin. Building on the existing treaties (the Anti-Comintern Pact and the Pact of Steel)‚ the Tripartite Pact was signed on September 17‚ 1940‚ in Berlin‚ Germany.   The signatories pledged to provide mutual assistance in case of an attack by a state not involved in World War II or the Sino-Japanese conflict‚ referring to the United States. The Pact also stipulated non-aggression‚ the commitment to settle any existing conflict between the signatories with peaceful means‚ and non-interference in achieving each country’s strategic territorial and foreign policy goals.   The Tripartite Pact united Germany‚ Italy‚ and Japan based on similar geo-strategic aims: the dissolution of the post-World War I international order created by the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919 that had humiliated German‚ Italian‚ and Japanese nations and shrank their imperial spaces.   A political cartoon suggesting that the United States Congress feels pressured to respond to fascist aggression‚ 1939‚ via Digital Public Library of America   The Axis countries signed a second agreement known as the “No Separate Peace Agreement.” The revised accord‚ created on December 8 and signed on December 11‚ contained four provisions that specified that neither Germany‚ Italy‚ nor Japan would consent to peace terms with the United States or Britain on their terms. If the Axis powers won the war‚ it was additionally implied that the three countries would cooperate to establish a “new order in the world.”   In response‚ President Franklin D. Roosevelt decided to seize Japanese property and money in the United States and declared an embargo on exports of necessary materials such as oil‚ steel‚ and iron to Japan. Other Western nations‚ including Great Britain and the Netherlands‚ joined the embargo. As isolation and financial crises threatened Japan‚ authorities were forced to act‚ resulting in a surprise strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service against the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor on December 7‚ 1941. The United States entered the war. The other Axis powers‚ Germany and Italy‚ declared war against the United States on December 11‚ 1941.   The Axis Powers would eventually oppose the Allied powers—Great Britain‚ the United States‚ and the Soviet Union—during World War II.   Allies of the Tripartite Pact &; Its Influence Pearl Harbor‚ Thick smoke rolls out of a burning ship during the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese‚ December 7‚ 1941‚ via National Archives Catalog   The Axis Powers managed to align with different European countries without them formally joining the Tripartite Pact. For example‚ Hungary‚ Romania‚ and Bulgaria became close allies of the Axis powers and joined the war on the side of Nazi Germany‚ contributing to the military operations in Europe. Finland‚ although it did not officially join the Tripartite Pact‚ fought against the Soviet Union with Germany.   The defensive alliance under the Tripartite Pact was never invoked‚ but the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis managed to form a united front against the Allies through a combination of political coordination‚ propaganda‚ economic cooperation‚ and military collaboration‚ presenting a formidable challenge to the Allied powers during World War II.   Encouraged by the Tripartite Pact‚ the Axis Powers employed aggressive policies. Italy‚ for example‚ invaded Greece in October 1940. Facing strong resistance and suffering defeats‚ Adolf Hitler intervened in the Greco-Italian War to support Mussolini.   Even though the signing of the Tripartite Pact was not the direct reason for the start of World War II‚ the Axis Powers’ pledge for coordinated military actions and support of each other’s expansionist policies contributed to the escalation and expansion of it‚ drawing or aligning multiple countries in conflict. The Tripartite Pact was dissolved following the defeat of the Axis Powers in World War II in 1945.

  Employing Native Americans as ‘Code Talkers’ for encrypted battlefield conversations first occurred during the Great War. Cherokee speakers served with the U.S. Army‚ transmitting messages at the 2nd Battle of the Somme. Other Native American soldiers‚ the Comanche and Osage‚ served in different units. In total‚ nine Native American languages provided a secure communication method.   Native American languages as a code became known between the World Wars. By the 1930s‚ many Native American languages used or developed their own Latin alphabet. Nazi Germany even sent anthropologists to study those languages. They also used newspapers‚ opinion polls‚ or ads to discourage Native Americans from enlisting. However‚ the Navajo spoke a complex language‚ unlike other tribes. First‚ few outside the Navajo Nation spoke it fluently‚ and not having an alphabet made it a good choice for battlefield use. At best‚ only a handful of people spoke a smattering of Navajo.   Navajo Encryption Navajo Nation. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The gist for using Navajo for coded conversations occurred to Philip Johnston‚ a civil engineer‚ in 1942. Johnston had grown up on the Navajo Reservation‚ being the son of a Christian missionary. He spoke conversational Navajo and knew its uniqueness. With that knowledge and the Great War example of code talkers‚ he approached the U.S. Marines Corps.   Johnston demonstrated with several Navajos how unintelligible radio conversations could be. The Marines bought in; Johnston enlisted with twenty-nine Navajos. These initial soldiers worked with a cryptologist‚ using word substitution. Nonexistent words in Navajo got different terms‚ such as submarine‚ which turned into “iron fish.”   The first cipher contained 211 words‚ which increased to 700 by 1945. According to the U.S. Marine Corps‚ the Navajo Code remains modern history’s only unbroken military code. Besides the cipher‚ the lack of a Navajo alphabet meant no writing existed for the language to be hacked. Famous examples of World War II codes proving vulnerable are Nazi Germany’s Enigma machine by Great Britain and the U.S. Navy’s breaking the Imperial Japanese Navy code before Midway.    The program did encounter problems. First‚ there were only a certain number of qualified candidates to meet demands. Navajo is not a widely spoken language‚ unlike Spanish. As Marines‚ each Navajo needed to pass basic training as any Marine recruit would‚ using weapons‚ including speaking English and Navajo. Next came radio training‚ which involved sending messages and using the radios. Their final training was code talking‚ learning the codes‚ and helping develop them more.    Codes in World War II The Navajo Code Talker Memorial in Window Rock‚ Arizona. Katherine Locke/NHO. Source: iStock.   Eventually‚ 400 Code Talkers served in the PTO or Pacific Theater of Operations. From the Guadalcanal landings to the deadly 1945 Okinawa fighting‚ Navajo radio operators facilitated the fighting‚ their secure communications frustrating the Imperial Army. They couldn’t make sense of the weird sounds and words being broadcasted&;#33;   The Japanese captured a Navajo soldier‚ Joe Kieyoomia‚ in 1941‚ conquering the Philippines. Kieyoomia served before the Code Talkers existed. The Imperial Army learned that the Code Talkers used Navajo‚ but no one knew how. They tortured Kieyoomia regularly‚ making him listen to transmissions. He recognized his language but only as babble. It remained a mystery for the duration of the war.   They Played a Key Role in Island Landings Carl Nelson Gorman‚ one of the original 29 Navajo code talkers‚ tracks enemy movements on Saipan. 1944. Source: Rare Historical Photos   Navajo Code Talkers landed on the main beaches with Marine communication units. Only one Code Talker died in fighting out of hundreds. Their commanders happily praised the Code Talkers for their speed and efficiency. They reported critical information like enemy troop movements‚ fire support‚ coordinate operations‚ casualties‚ and unit changes. Their units landed on all the major‚ critical campaigns‚ such as Guadalcanal‚ Tarawa‚ and Iwo Jima. At Iwo Jima‚ a Marine commander bluntly stated the Navajo’s communications skills were the primary reason the Marines won. The small island’s importance as an unsinkable airfield became critical.   Success and Legacy 2015 Code Talker. Source: USMC   The Navajo Code Talkers triumphed‚ remaining an unbreakable code and happily approved by their fellow Marines. The reason is simple – being a tribal language‚ it was only translatable to native speakers. Transmissions were made in the clear. And this disturbed the Japanese badly. Japanese intelligence used English speakers to confuse and ambush Marines‚ so Navajo always remained an obstacle. Navajo Code’s other advantage was nothing needed to be developed from scratch. The Navajo Code Talkers showed the importance of tribal languages in the U.S.‚ helping preserve their language‚ and using their exclusive skills to help win a war.

  Contrary to what many might think‚ the battlefields of Europe could be an immensely colorful place. Pennants and banners fluttered in the wind. Shields carrying colorful devices marked their wielders’ allegiance‚ as did the soldiers’ uniforms‚ from spearmen to the nobles.   From the late 15th to the early 17th century‚ the battlefields became even more colorful as German mercenaries took to the fields. With wide-brimmed hats sporting brightly dyed plumage‚ flashy linen garments‚ berets‚ baggy shirts‚ and multi-colored puffs and slashes‚ these soldiers were immediately noticeable. But it was not just their clothes that drew attention.   Although most commonly seen using the pike‚ they were most associated with the Zweih&;auml;nder‚ a magnificently huge sword that could be up to eight feet in length (although around six feet was most common). They were deadly soldiers‚ feared across all of Europe.   They were the Landsknechts.   Landsknechts: A Note on the Name The Battle of Pavia tapestry by Willem and Jan Dermoyen‚ after Bernard van Orley. Landsknechte can be seen on the far left battling against Swiss mercenaries. Source: Codart via Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte‚ Naples   The term Landsknecht is derived from Middle High German and Middle Low German. Knecht means “servant.” A Landsknecht is‚ therefore‚ a servant of the land. In its original context‚ it is difficult to see how this word would do the soldiers justice. It does not conjure up images of deadly fighters.   They did‚ however‚ go by other names. One of the most common terms for them was Doppels&;ouml;ldner‚ meaning “double-pay soldier‚” and sometimes their name was rendered as Lanzknecht‚ referencing the long pikes they would employ (Lanze means “lance”).   The Late 15th Century A woodcut of a Landsknecht by J&;ouml;rg Breu II (print-maker) and Jost de Negker (block-cutter) Source: British Museum‚ London   From 1474 to 1477‚ the Burgundian State entered a war with the Swiss Confederacy. Charles the Bold‚ the Duke of Burgundy‚ had a capable army that was well-trained and well-equipped. Despite this advantage‚ his forces were routinely beaten by Swiss militia. This was due to not only issues with morale but the effectiveness of Swiss mercenaries called Reisl&;auml;ufers‚ who wielded pikes and other polearms.   These weapons would come to dominate the battlefields of Europe for the next two centuries. Polearms‚ especially pikes‚ were employed in mass formations of phalanxes that virtually negated the effect of cavalry charges‚ which had been the superweapon of the medieval era. Commoners with long‚ pointy sticks were now more effective than knights.   Maximilian I by Albrecht D&;uuml;rer. Source: National Gallery of Art‚ Washington DC   In fact‚ the Reisl&;auml;ufers were so successful that it was likely one of them who killed Charles the Bold in combat. Remnants of the order still exist today‚ guarding the Vatican‚ and are known as the Swiss Guard.   After the war‚ Archduke Maximilian‚ who later became the Holy Roman Emperor‚ took control of Burgundian lands‚ which then became the target of French claims. Maximilian had been so impressed with the Swiss Reisl&;auml;ufers that he employed troops to fight in their formations and tactics. The army comprised levied Flemish soldiers who employed the square infantry formations combined with the wagon fort tactics popular among the Hussites. After defeating the French‚ however‚ the levied troops were released from their duty‚ and Maximilian found himself wanting a permanent force of soldiers that could fight in such an effective style. The Landsknechts were founded.   The Execution of the Guardian of Kufstein by Hans Burgkmair‚ from Der Weisskunig. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   In 1486‚ the first units of Landsknechts were raised. These early units did not have the brightly colored clothing for which the Landsknechts became known. In fact‚ one of these units was named the Black Guard and served for many decades after its founding.   Landsknecht troops were drawn mainly from poorer classes in society‚ although it was not uncommon for nobles to take up positions as officers. Maximilian recruited Reisl&;auml;ufers to train the Landsknechts‚ and with the capable leadership under Georg von Frundsberg‚ known as the “Father of the Landsknechts‚” the Landsknechts became a well-trained‚ formidable fighting unit.   In 1488‚ the first Landsknecht army was raised in Germany under the command of the Swabian League. Their first campaign was a complete success when they drove the Hungarians out of Austria. Realizing their value‚ the Landsknechts put a halt to the campaign‚ stopping Maximilian from completing his victory. They demanded better pay‚ and Maximilian acceded‚ turning them into a fully professional‚ permanent army.   The 16th Century A Landsknecht reenactor with a Zweih&;auml;nder. Source: Sew Not History   The Landsknechts quickly became a force with which to be reckoned. They solidified their reputation as effective soldiers during the siege of &;Auml;lvsborg Fortress in 1502 when‚ according to the journal of a Landsknecht individual‚ 1‚800 Landsknechts were attacked by 15‚000 Swedish farmers and the Landsknechts “struck most of them dead.”   The Landsknechts became the hated enemies of the Swiss Reisl&;auml;ufers‚ and they rarely took prisoners‚ instead opting to murder all Landsknechts that were captured. Of course‚ the Landsknechts returned the favor in kind. As mercenaries‚ they took the opportunity to fight against their enemies‚ even if it meant fighting for other traditional enemies. At the Battle of Novara in 1513‚ six thousand Landsknechts fought for the French against the Swiss‚ fielding an army of Reisl&;auml;ufers‚ and were defeated. The Swiss put them to the sword.   The Landsknechts would get the better of the Reisl&;auml;ufers twice at the battles of Marignano in 1515 and Bicocca in 1521. The following years witnessed the Landsknechts achieve many victories‚ fighting mainly for the Holy Roman Empire and Spain. This is not to say that these were their only employers. The Landsknechts fought for anyone who could hire them.   They enjoyed an unusually high status as footsoldiers‚ and they used their status as bargaining power‚ managing to argue for better pay and forcing situations on the battlefield in their favor. They were sometimes difficult to control and would force fights with the enemy in protracted sieges. This is not surprising‚ as their ranks were also filled with criminals and other unsavory and violently confident characters looking for glory and plunder. A Landsknecht costume. Source: steel-mastery.com   In 1527‚ the Holy Roman Empire under Charles V defeated the French while on a campaign in Italy. Lack of funds‚ however‚ meant that many troops who fought for the Holy Roman Empire did not get paid. This resulted in a mutiny of 34‚000 soldiers‚ 14‚000 of whom were Landsknechts. They showed their displeasure by marching on and sacking Rome.   In the following decades‚ the Landknechts came under harsh criticism by those who questioned their discipline. Their reputation as Europe’s most dreaded soldiers also suffered with the success of the Spanish tercios‚ who won incredible victories due to their training‚ tactics‚ and effective use of formations‚ which took into account technological innovations revolving around gunpowder.   In the latter half of the 16th century‚ the Holy Roman Empire sought more control over its armies by switching to a system that relied far less on mercenaries‚ and the Landsknechts found themselves being slowly diminished as a fighting force. Many veterans took up jobs as bodyguards‚ but this wasn’t enough to employ the mercenaries in the many thousands to which they had grown accustomed.   In the second half of the 16th century‚ a population explosion led to unemployment‚ and many people joined the Landsknechts‚ reducing wages. With the advent of more effective firearms‚ the tactics employed by the Landsknechts also became obsolete.   Their Uniforms A Landsknecht reenactor. Source: landsknecht.se   The Landsknechts were well-known for their brightly-colored‚ flashy clothing. According to legend‚ the trend in colorful clothing started in 1477 after a particularly bloody battle. With broken and slashed clothing that needed patching‚ they took random bits of cloth from their enemies’ uniforms and standards. The patchy but colorful look developed into asymmetric uniforms with deliberate slashes and puffs.   They were exempt from sumptuary laws and were thus not confined by the rules governing the style and color of their uniforms that were found in the rest of the armies in the employ of the Holy Roman Emperor.   On their head‚ they wore large berets‚ generally adorned with dyed ostrich feathers. On their upper body‚ they wore a baggy shirt made of linen with a collar of lace. Around their neck‚ they often wore chains and amulets. The most common design was a cross‚ although many symbols could be displayed.   An historical figure of a Landsknecht mercenary. Source: Museum of Ventura County / George S. Stuart Historical Figures   Thick doublets that would withstand wear and tear were worn. Any material of significant hardiness could be used‚ such as multi-layered linen or felt. Those wealthy enough could have the inside of the doublet lined with silk.   On their legs‚ they wore stockings laced up and attached to the bottom of the doublet. Over the stockings‚ they wore pantaloons of various colored strips of cloth‚ puffed and slashed like the sleeves of the doublet. Similarly‚ they were often asymmetrical.   Of note were the large codpieces that were worn. These were stuffed with cotton‚ straw‚ or any other similar substance. Sometimes‚ it was even used as a purse to store coins&;#33;   Leather shoes called “cow-muzzle” or “bear-paw” shoes were worn on the feet. They were square-toed‚ and even these items of clothing were decorated with slashes.   A Landsknecht reenactor. Source: landsknecht.se   When the Landsknechts took to the field‚ their enemies knew they were in for a hard fight. They had a reputation that was well-deserved and was matched by their ostentatious outfits.   They were brutal. They did not observe the rules of war in the same way the nobles did. They sacked towns and cities‚ pillaging the living and the dead in their quest for loot. Their lives were short‚ and they knew it.   Their legacy is certainly one that stands out‚ and their choice of clothing influenced Renaissance fashion as people took their cues from the famous flashy soldiers of Europe.

  The fur trade‚ particularly the capture of beaver pelts‚ had a huge influence on the development of parts of the future United States and Canada. Hundreds of men made their way to the New World in hopes of striking it rich in pursuit of raw products that would fuel the fashion industry in Europe. However‚ this was not without consequences. The development of this industry would have lasting impacts‚ one of the most notable of which was the Great Beaver Wars‚ a series of conflicts that spanned time and miles.   1. The Origins of the Fighting Lay in the Competitive Fur Trade A Beaver Wars Engraving. Source: Canadian History Ehx   The Great Beaver Wars began in approximately 1640‚ when the five tribes of the Haudenosaunee‚ also known as the Iroquois Confederacy‚ originally based in what would become New York‚ began a campaign to increase their territory. Their economy had become heavily dependent on fur trade‚ particularly beaver‚ with the British and Dutch. They were running out of pelts to supply their buyers with‚ having depleted the animals in their homeland. Eager to continue their profitable alliances‚ the Haudenosaunee used their might to expand north and westward into the territory of other Indigenous peoples and French colonial fur traders‚ thus igniting hostilities.   Color Plate with beavers. Source: Oregon Natural Desert Association   Traditional enemies of the Haudenosaunee banded together with the French in hopes that their combined strength would allow them to make a stand. Eventually‚ the fight would expand into the St. Lawrence Valley‚ Ottawa Valley‚ and towards the Ohio River Valley. The Haudenosaunee did not hesitate to forcefully relocate their rivals through violence‚ though retaliatory attacks would cause suffering on the part of the Haudenosaunee as well‚ as villages‚ crops‚ and lives would be lost in the years to come.   2. The Fighting was Intermittent but Lasted Over 60 Years A Canadian postage stamp commemorating the Great Peace‚ released in 2001. Source: Postage Stamp Guide   Though it began early in the seventeenth century‚ the fighting over beaver would not end until 1701‚ when the Treaty of Grande Paix‚ or the Great Peace of Montreal‚ was signed by the British‚ the French‚ the Haudenosaunee‚ and several other Indigenous tribes affected by the conflict.   Although the Great Beaver Wars technically lasted 61 years‚ the fighting was not constant during that time. The conflict ebbed and flowed‚ with periods of heavy battles and times of quiet tension. In total‚ historians consider the wars to be divided into five periods of conflict. The Treaty that ended the wars not only ended the fighting but allowed for peaceful‚ free trade between the French and Haudenosaunee. The French would be allowed to settle in Detroit‚ an important trading location‚ and the Haudenosaunee pledged to remain neutral in case of a future war between England and France (spoiler alert‚ they wouldn’t&;#33;).   3. The Wars Resulted in the Permanent Destruction of Several First Nations The Erie nation would be brought to extinction by the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. Source: HubPages   The war waged by the Haudenosaunee on behalf of their economy was incredibly destructive to the tribes that occupied the areas they wished to move into. These tribes were forced to move westward. They allied with existing tribes or became refugees hoping for kindness. In some cases‚ tribes would be eliminated entirely.   For example‚ in 1657‚ after repeated attacks‚ what remained of the Erie tribe was absorbed into the Haudenosaunee‚ never again to stand on its own as an independent nation. By the completion of the conflict‚ the Haudenosaunee would have successfully broken up every Indigenous group‚ both individual and allied‚ that directly surrounded their original homeland.   4. The Dutch Played a Role Flag of the Dutch East India Company. Source: Hot Core   Although the French and British are most commonly remembered as major European players in the fur trade‚ the Dutch were also active in the New World. Their location on the Hudson River in present-day New York put them in close proximity with the Haudenosaunee‚ with whom they built a trading relationship.   In turn‚ they‚ like the British‚ would provide the Haudenosaunee tribes with firearms that would then be used to evict other Indigenous tribes from valuable fur-hunting territory. In 1664‚ the British would take over the colony of New Netherland (New York) from the Dutch‚ essentially removing them from a primary role in the North American fur trade.   5. Jesuit Priests Prevented the Arming of French Indigenous Allies St. Ignatius of Loyola‚ founder of the Jesuits. Source: St. Mary Magdalen Catholic Parish   Jesuits‚ a distinct arm of the Catholic religion‚ were an influential component of society in parts of the early Americas. They were religious figures‚ but the importance of religion in European society meant that they also played a huge role in the creation of the infrastructure in colonial societies. Jesuits were prominent in the French aspects of the North American colonies and held influence among officials.   As the French built alliances among tribes like the Huron and Algonquin‚ they looked to begin arming their new partners‚ as the British and Dutch had with the Haudenosaunee. However‚ Jesuit priests warned against it‚ restricting the distribution of firearms only to Indigenous people who had converted to Christianity. They claimed that these individuals were more trustworthy and reliable‚ and military officials heeded their advice‚ reducing the number of weapons available to their Indigenous allies. Their concern for their counterparts’ religious beliefs seemed to outweigh the concern that their enemies may outgun them.   6. Refugees Flooded Wisconsin‚ Creating a Humanitarian Disaster Map of Wisconsin showing traditional Indigenous territories‚ nineteenth century. Source: Encyclopedia of Milwaukee   More than 20‚000 Indigenous refugees were pushed into the region that would become the state of Wisconsin as a result of the conflicts. This area was not large enough to support this number of people in addition to the people that occupied the area. Hunting and fishing grounds were scarce‚ as was living space. Epidemics and starvation were soon commonplace in the area‚ as was infighting and disunity. Many died as a result‚ and tribes who had once occupied the land shifted and divided to survive.   7. Beavers Were Believed to Have Mystical Powers Photograph of a beaver‚ Vlad G photo. Source: One Green Planet   Beaver fur was in demand due to its high demand in European high fashion at the time‚ mainly for men’s top hats. These top hats signified wealth and high class‚ and demanded respect. In addition‚ the unique characteristics of beaver hair made the hats water-resistant‚ a key feature in rainy Western Europe.   However‚ some wearers believed that beaver fur held mystical powers that could be transferred to the wearer. It was believed that oil from a beaver pelt rubbed in the hair could improve memory and that wearing a beaver hat could aid in hearing loss.   Different Indigenous cultures had traditional beliefs surrounding the beaver. For example‚ the Mi’kmaq‚ traditionally allied with the French‚ believed that consuming beaver bones would curse one never to be able to catch a beaver again.   8. A 14-Year-Old Girl Became a Hero A statue of Marie-Madeleine Jarret de Vercheres. Source: Vercheres Municipality   In 1692‚ a fourteen-year-old French girl became a hero to her town of Fort Vercheres when she joined in with the local men to defend against Haudenosaunee attacks. Marie-Madeleine Jarret de Vercheres helped fire cannons and guns at the attackers and signal reinforcements. A statue is now dedicated to her in Quebec‚ and she later would receive a pension from the French king.   9. The Great Beaver Wars Created Lakota Horse Culture The Custer Fight by Charles Marion Russell‚ 1903‚ features Lakota warriors on horseback. Source: Black Hills Visitor   The continuous expansion of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy resulted in the Lakota people being pushed westward from their original homelands on the Eastern side of the Mississippi River onto the Great Plains. Nomadic life on the plains required constant movement that was simplified with the introduction of the horse. The Lakota became adept horsemen as a result‚ using their mounts for hunting‚ traveling‚ carrying goods‚ and waging war.   Horses were present on the Great Plains already‚ descendants of Spanish horses brought to the Americas. As the next few centuries progressed‚ the Lakota would become legendary for their skills as horsemen‚ considered by many historians to be the best light cavalry in world history. By 1831‚ the Lakota were the dominant military force for hundreds of miles in any direction on the plains.   The image of a stoic Native American atop his steed would become an iconic stereotype in the minds of many as “wild west shows” traveled the country in the late eighteenth century‚ and Americans heard stories of the “Indian Wars” taking place in the west.   10. Three “-isms” Are At the Root of the Conflict A political cartoon illustrating the policy of Mercantilism by Philip Dorf. Source: History Vault   When it comes to the root causes of the Great Beaver Wars and many other conflicts of this time‚ there are many factors at play in addition to what lies on the surface. While the apparent cause of this conflict seems to be a desire to control the beaver trade‚ three political policies and beliefs that were held in regard by European powers at the time dictated these results: imperialism‚ colonialism‚ and mercantilism.   Imperialism is the desire or action of extending a country’s power‚ often through political‚ or in this case‚ economic‚ means.   Colonialism can help countries achieve imperialism in that it is the practice of exerting power over weaker peoples. In this case‚ the French‚ British‚ and Dutch used their power and wealth to put pressure on the Haudenosaunee‚ Algonquin‚ Huron‚ and other Indigenous tribes in the Americas.   Mercantilism went hand in hand with colonialism‚ with the final goal of creating a favorable trade balance. “Mother countries” would monopolize resources in a colony and use them to create marketable goods (or sell them raw) at home. In the end‚ countries hoped to export more than they were forced to import and therefore make more money.   These three policies can all be traced to a desire for wealth and power‚ and all created hostility‚ distrust‚ and conflict.

  The year 1603 marked the beginning of the Tokugawa Era in Japan‚ also known as the Edo Period. The era began as Japan secluded itself for over two centuries‚ becoming a mystery. Yet during this period of monumental change the country’s culture flourished like never before‚ with great developments taking place across the arts‚ business‚ and wider Japanese culture.   The End of Chaos Tokugawa Ieyasu – First Shogun of the Tokugawa Shogunate. Source: Japan Visitor   In 1600‚ Japan’s two biggest rivals‚ Tokugawa Ieyasu and Toyotomi Hideyoshi‚ clashed at Sekigahara. Tokugawa won‚ eliminating his opponents‚ becoming Shogun‚ and taking over the bakufu (military government). Japan now only had one government.    Tokugawa’s victory ended the Sengoku Era‚ or “Warring States” period‚ which originated in the 1460s. As the wars ended‚ the Tokugawa clan established themselves in Edo‚ later Tokyo‚ taking it as their capital by 1603. The Tokugawa Bakufu’s grip on power remained absolute until the 1860s with their brand of government. Tokugawa had cemented his reputation as one of Japan’s three “Great Unifiers.” Much of modern Japan formed under the Tokugawa rule from business‚ culture‚ and arts.    Transformation and Edicts Dutch and Chinese ships in Nagasaki. Source: The British Museum   The first changes the Tokugawa Bakufu wrought were strict control over foreign trade‚ a rigid class structure‚ religion‚ and even the noble class‚ or daimyo. The first significant edict came in 1612 banning Christianity‚ which the Bakufu feared would subvert a control over the population. The choices Japanese Christians faced numbered only two: conversion or martyrdom. The failed 1637 Shimabara Rebellion effectively ended Christianity in the Empire until 1873.   Next‚ the Bakufu subsequently enacted sakoku‚ or “closed country‚” in the 1630s. Foreign travel was banned‚ and trade restricted to ports like Nagasaki. Nearly all foreigners were expelled except the Dutch and Chinese; any others were considered trespassers‚ and those caught typically executed.   The Tokugawa Dynasty. Source: Honolulu Museum   The Bakufu rightly feared the daimyo‚ as these men wielded much power and money. To siphon these off‚ sankin kotai or alternate attendance policy became the norm. Daimyo were forced to build extravagant residences in Edo‚ where they lived for one year away from their domain. Their families remained as hostages in Edo when the daimyo traveled home. Also‚ each domain supplied soldiers to the Bakufu‚ placing an additional expense to strain the daimyo’s finances.   Post-1630s‚ the Bakufu enforced a strict class order of samurai‚ farmers‚ artisans‚ and merchants at the bottom. Officially‚ mobility between the classes became forbidden. Despite their bottom rung‚ merchants earned money from trade‚ which bought some relief. The new social system aimed to promote social and political order‚ but with the Bakufu’s hideously expensive sankin kotai system‚ many samurai fell into debt. In Edo Period Japan‚ only the merchants possessed cash to lend. By 1640‚ Japan’s isolation was complete‚ ending most external influences.   Genroku: Culture Achieved Interior View of a Kabuki Theatre by Utagawa Toyokuni I‚ 1793. Source: Brooklyn Museum‚ New York   Prosperity increased after the Bakufu’s seclusion policy‚ especially in big cities like Edo‚ Osaka‚ and Kyoto. This took time‚ but by the 1680s as 1688 to 1704 became known as the Genroku Era. This Era led to renowned developments in varied art forms such as kabuki theater‚ which poked fun at society‚ bunraku puppetry‚ and haiku poetry. Ukiyo-e‚ or woodblock prints‚ evolved too‚ later becoming world famous in the 19th century west. This art form displayed Japanese society‚ thoughts and impressions. Popular themes were nature and town life.    The most sampled ukiyo-e‚ even over a century later‚ is Hokusai’s Great Wave off Kanagawa. Though drawn after the Genroku Era’s high‚ this image still demonstrated Japanese thoughts and inspired many Impressionists. The Wave is seen as representing a change in society and increasing foreign contact with what disruptions could affect Japan. The Genroku Era’s influence lasted for years in insulated Japan.   Stability Means Success Fish Market. Source: National Diet Library   With Japan united‚ the Bakufu implemented trade policies and built roads to encourage trade. The economy grew‚ along with the population‚ agriculture‚ and literacy. Thus‚ the demand for entertainment escalated. The daimyo’s castles‚ already administrative centers‚ became towns where a rising middle merchant class and artisans settled along with manufacturing. Some of Japan’s biggest companies‚ like the Sumitomo Group and Mitsui‚ started during the Edo Period.   Foreign Influences The Tokugawa Shogunate. Source: Norwood College Library   The Tokugawa Bakufu’s official ban on foreigners did have cracks. Through Dutch traders at Nagasaki‚ books on botany‚ anatomy‚ technology‚ and science reached scholars‚ some even legally. By the early 1800s‚ even the Bakufu realized they needed Western knowledge. The official term for Western learning was “rangaku‚” or Dutch learning.   Cracks Appear Mutsuhito‚ The Meiji Emperor‚1873. Source: The Met Museum   Japan’s isolation lasted for nearly 250 years‚ with little trouble aside from some foreign probings or peasant rebellions. But by the 1850s‚ an economic decline‚ forced treaties under military threat‚ or political intrigue ended sakoku. Civil war broke out in 1868‚ sparking the Meiji Restoration and ending the Edo Period. Despite the seclusion‚ Japan’s economy and society benefitted‚ gaining breathing room from intrusive European powers.