Music is a hobby many enjoy but is not always agreed upon by different generations. However‚ once in a while‚ an artist comes along that spans not only genres but personal tastes while standing the test of time. Elvis Presley was one of those remarkable artists‚ making an impact on multiple genres‚ starring in movies‚ and even serving in the military. He became beloved by millions‚ but his career and life were cut short by a heart attack at age 42. Check out these ten intriguing facts about this music legend.   1. Elvis Presley Dyed His Hair Young‚ blonde Elvis in the 1940s. Source: Showbiz Cheat Sheet   Elvis’ jet-black pompadour was world-famous. However‚ it was partly an illusion. Elvis was‚ in fact‚ born blonde‚ and although his hair began to darken somewhat as he aged‚ it never got darker than light brown.   Aspiring to look like his heroes Tony Curtis and Marlon Brando‚ he began dying his hair black and continued to do so throughout his career. However‚ as a young teen‚ he couldn’t always afford a dye job and had to make do with shoe polish. Once he was able to consistently afford dye‚ Elvis used a unique mixture of three different shades to achieve his signature look.   2. Elvis Had a Twin This cenotaph‚ which spells Jesse’s name incorrectly‚ is visited by thousands of tourists at Graceland annually. Source: Only in Your State   Elvis Aron (later changed to Aaron) Presley was raised as an only child by his parents. However‚ many don’t realize that Elvis had a twin brother. Jesse Garon Presley was born 33 minutes before his brother‚ a stillborn baby. The pair were born at home on January 8th‚ 1935 in Mississippi. Jesse was buried in Priceville Cemetery the next day.   Though Elvis never met his brother‚ he felt deeply connected to him throughout his life. He often visited his brother’s grave and spoke to him. Some psychology experts think that this deep bond helped Elvis in his determination to succeed in the music business and aided him in connecting with audiences around the world as if he were trying to connect with his lost brother.   3. He Met His Future Wife While in the Army Priscilla and Elvis Presley at their wedding. Source: People   Elvis served his country in the Army on active duty from 1958-1960‚ then continued in the Army Reserve for four more years after that. During his active duty‚ he was stationed in Wiesbaden‚ West Germany‚ where he met his future wife‚ Priscilla Beaulieu Wagner. She was in ninth grade at the time‚ and he was 24.   They began to date but took a short break when Elvis moved back to the US in 1960. However‚ by the time 1963 rolled around‚ they were hot and heavy again‚ and Priscilla moved to the United States to be with Elvis and finish her studies there‚ living alongside him at Graceland. They married in Las Vegas in 1967.   4. He Had a Black Belt in Martial Arts Elvis with martial arts master Ed Parker‚ giving a 1974 karate demonstration in Memphis. Photo courtesy of Graceland. Source: Commercial Appeal   Another interest Elvis picked up in Germany was the art of karate. He studied with karate masters in Germany and also during his leave time in Paris. When he moved back to the United States after his tour‚ he was ready to test for his black belt‚ a promotion he earned on July 21‚ 1960. He continued to train in the craft and eventually attained the rank of 7th-degree black belt in 1973. Friends of Elvis recall that practicing karate brought him a great deal of spiritual peace and contentment.   5. Five Halls of Fame Welcomed Him Part of the Elvis exhibit at the Rock n ’Roll Hall of Fame. Source: Rock n’ Roll Hall of Fame   Elvis has been inducted into five Halls of Fame: the Rock n’ Roll Hall of Fame‚ the Country Music Hall of Fame‚ the Gospel Hall of Fame‚ the Rockabilly Hall of Fame‚ and the R&;B Hall of Fame. He is often referred to as “The King” of rock n’ roll for the impact he had on the revolutionization and development of the genre.   6. He Bought Graceland at Just 22 Years Old The mansion‚ Graceland. Source: Graceland   Elvis’ iconic home‚ Graceland‚ is one of the most famous residences in the United States. In 1957‚ his second year of superstardom‚ when Elvis was just 22 years old‚ he purchased the house and grounds for just over $100‚000. His parents moved to the spacious home with him and his future wife‚ and later‚ their only daughter lived there as well. He bought the home‚ just over 10‚200 square feet‚ with almost 14 acres of land. Later‚ with renovations and additions‚ the size of Graceland grew to over 17‚500 square feet.   Elvis smiles in this undated photo. Source: Spinditty   It opened to the public in 1982‚ five years after Elvis’ death. The property was added to the American National Register of Historic Places in 1991 and is visited by over 600‚000 tourists annually‚ helping to make Memphis a tourism destination. Visitors can tour the mansion’s rooms‚ see Elvis’ famous jumpsuits‚ and visit the stables. Graceland was home to many animals over the years‚ not just horses but also monkeys‚ a mynah bird‚ dogs‚ and a turkey.   7. He Was Burned in Effigy Elvis’ first appearance on Ed Sullivan in September 1956. Michael Ochs photo. Source: Greenwich Time   While Elvis was wildly popular with many music fans‚ some people viewed him as public enemy number one. Those who opposed him and his style of music believed that the developing rock n’ roll genre was leading America’s young people astray‚ corrupting them and exposing them to improper ways of life. With his wild dress‚ sexy good look‚ and wild hip-thrusting dance moves‚ Elvis was everything that conservatives hated about the genre.   Elvis‚ dancing here with Ann Margaret‚ had legendary moves. Source: Las Vegas Sun   Elvis performed on the popular Ed Sullivan Show‚ a television variety program‚ multiple times while his career was taking off. His second performance on the show‚ which took place on October 28th‚ 1956‚ is perhaps the most memorable. Presley performed his hit “Hound Dog” to sky-high broadcast ratings.   However‚ not everyone was happy. Angry crowds gathered in cities such as Nashville and St. Louis‚ some even going so far as to burn effigies of the superstar in protest of his music and decorum. Partly as a result‚ on his third appearance on Ed Sullivan‚ the network required that the star only appear on camera from the waist-up to censor his provocative dance moves.   8. Elvis Inhaled His Tooth Cap‚ Requiring Surgery Elvis in a scene from Jailhouse Rock. Source: Turner Classic Movies   An accident almost halted Elvis’ career just as it was beginning. In 1957‚ he had two movies to his credit and was filming his third‚ Jailhouse Rock. In the film‚ Presley’s character was to slide down a pole in spectacular fashion. However‚ Elvis accidentally struck his face on the pole while filming‚ hitting so hard that a cap on his tooth came loose. Then‚ reeling from the injury‚ he accidentally inhaled the porcelain piece‚ though‚ at the time‚ he thought he had swallowed it.   The cap wasn’t the only famous dental work of the King’s. Elvis’ crown was sold at auction in 2007. Source: Heritage Auctions   The next morning‚ the singer experienced chest pain and was rushed to the hospital. It was soon determined that the tooth cap had lodged itself in the singer’s right lung. In order to remove the cap‚ the surgeon would have to deftly separate the performer’s precious vocal cords and access the problematic object. Fortunately‚ the doctor had a steady hand‚ and though he was a bit hoarse for a while‚ Elvis made a complete recovery and was back to work in a few days.   9. His Jumpsuits Were Flashy…and Heavy Elvis onstage during a 1972 concert in Madison Square Garden. Thomas Monaster photo. Source: CNN   Elvis’ image is closely tied to his glitzy jumpsuits‚ which he started sporting in the 70s. When he started wearing them‚ the outfits weighed 25-30 pounds with all their material and adornments‚ but as time went on‚ some weighed as many as 75 pounds‚ covered with intricate embroidery and jewels.   Elvis in his “American Eagle” Jumpsuit in 1974. Source: ThemeLoader   Elvis’ heaviest jumpsuit was also his most expensive and perhaps his most iconic. The “American Eagle” or “Aloha” suit was created in 1973 and worn for shows in Hawaii. He also later wore it on tour in 1973 and 1974. White with red pleats and a blue-lined cape to match‚ the suit became iconic. It cost $65‚000 to make and would cost over $440‚400 to manufacture in January 2024. Today‚ the suit is on display at Graceland.   10. He Couldn’t Read Music &; Didn’t Write Songs Mike Stoller contributed a number of songs that helped Elvis’ career skyrocket‚ including “Hound Dog.” Photo by Jessica Pons‚ 2022. Source: NPR   Despite his immense talent‚ Elvis never learned to read music. In addition‚ despite recording over 600 songs in his career‚ he didn’t write a single one. Instead‚ he recorded songs written by dozens of composers over the years. He is listed as a co-writer on some songs‚ such as “That’s Someone You Never Forget‚” due to demands by his label that this occur for the song to be recorded.

  One year after the Second World War began in Europe‚ the Tripartite Pact was signed‚ establishing Germany‚ Italy‚ and Japan as the core Axis powers. However‚ numerous other countries have flown under the radar of common knowledge in terms of their efforts in the war. One of those countries was Hungary‚ which signed the Tripartite Pact and joined the Axis on November 20‚ 1940‚ making it the fourth country to join this alliance.   Hungary’s contribution to the Axis war effort would not be a token force either. Geographically and strategically‚ Hungary sat in a precarious position‚ directly between Germany and the Soviet Union.   It wasn’t just the war effort in which Hungary contributed. The 1930s saw a massive rise in nationalism in the country‚ and many leads were taken from Germany. Germany also pressured Hungary to commit atrocities against Jews and other ethnic minorities. As a result‚ Hungary’s experience during the war was one of misery and death.   Background to Hungary in World War II Admiral Mikl&;oacute;s Horthy‚ the head of the Hungarian government. Source: Library of Congress   Hungary’s participation in the war as part of the Axis did not come out of nowhere. In the First World War‚ the Austro-Hungarian Empire was allied with Germany as part of the Central Powers‚ and after the war‚ the empire was split up into smaller states. The defeat was a humiliation‚ and the Treaty of Trianon signed between Hungary and the Entente served‚ in many ways‚ the same as the Treaty of Versailles that Germany was forced to sign.   When the Great Depression arrived‚ Hungary‚ like most countries‚ was hit hard‚ and like Germany‚ it pulled itself into an economically favorable position via similar methods. The prime minister‚ Gyula G&;ouml;mb&;ouml;s‚ appointed in 1932 by the regent‚ Mikl&;oacute;s Horthy‚ sought a one-party state‚ withdrawal from the League of Nations‚ and a revision of the Treaty of Trianon.   G&;ouml;mb&;ouml;s died in 1936 from kidney failure‚ but he had put Hungary on a path towards nationalism. Under his leadership‚ many positions of power were filled by like-minded individuals who continued his work in forging closer bonds with Germany and mirroring many of Germany’s policies. An anti-semitic law was put in place by K&;aacute;lm&;aacute;n Dar&;aacute;nyi‚ G&;ouml;mb&;ouml;s’ successor. This policy failed to be enough‚ and with a growing tide of Nazism and antisemitism in Hungary‚ Dar&;aacute;nyi resigned in 1938. In May that year‚ B&;eacute;la Imr&;eacute;dy was appointed the new prime minister.   Hungarian Prime Minister P&;aacute;l Teleki. Source: Library of Congress   Initially‚ Imr&;eacute;dy wanted to improve relations with the United Kingdom‚ but this move cost him popularity‚ and he focused on improving relations with Germany and Italy instead. He further strengthened the right-wing power base in Hungary‚ alienating political rivals and moving the government towards a more totalitarian outlook. As he drafted a second anti-semitic law‚ however‚ his political rivals revealed evidence that his grandfather was Jewish‚ and Imr&;eacute;dy was obliged to resign.   Count P&;aacute;l Teleki became the new prime minister and succeeded in pushing through the second law‚ which reduced Jewish participation in Hungarian society even further. Being Jewish was now seen as an ethnic issue and not just a religious one.   During this time‚ Hungary was irredentist in nature and sought to restore much of its lost empire. Diplomatic solutions were sought‚ but when these failed‚ military action sometimes became necessary. From 1938 to 1941‚ Hungary annexed parts of Czechoslovakia‚ Carpatho-Ukraine‚ Romania‚ and Yugoslavia.   World War II Begins German troops marching through Warsaw. Source: National Archives and Records Administration   When Germany invaded Poland on September 1‚ 1939‚ Hungary stayed out of the conflict. This suited the Germans‚ who were concerned about keeping the conflict localized to Poland and didn’t want it to spread to Southeastern Europe. Initially‚ Hungary refused to let German troops use Hungary for passage or staging operations but let the remnants of the Polish army‚ as well as civilians‚ including Jews‚ flee into its territory.   On November 20‚ Hungary officially joined the Axis powers‚ but the government was reticent about using military force where it could be avoided. The alliance was made mostly out of a need to ingratiate Hungary with Germany.   On December 12‚ 1940‚ Teleki signed a treaty of peace and “eternal friendship” with Yugoslavia‚ which‚ at the time‚ had a government that supported the right-wing Hungarian government.   The Yugoslav government‚ however‚ was overthrown in March of the following year‚ and a pro-Western government was installed. This provoked Germany to prepare for an invasion‚ and Hungary was asked to join. Teleki refused but allowed German troops to cross Hungarian territory. This prompted the United Kingdom to threaten war on Hungary.   Hungary’s territorial gains from 1938 to 1941. Source: Wikimedia Commons   P&;aacute;l Teleki had sought to avoid any military action involving Hungary‚ and feeling as if he had led his country into disaster‚ took his own life on April 2‚ 1941. He was replaced with L&;aacute;szl&;oacute; B&;aacute;rdossy‚ who took a measured approach to the situation. He was not a fascist‚ but he was convinced that the Axis would win the war‚ and given Hungary’s geographic location‚ he sought to appease the Axis powers.   B&;aacute;rdossy found his opportunity on April 10 when Croatia declared independence. As a former province of Yugoslavia‚ this gave B&;aacute;rdossy the excuse to declare that Yugoslavia had already disintegrated‚ and he moved Hungarian troops in to occupy a portion of Yugoslav territory.   Hungarian soldiers during World War II‚ colorized. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Within three years‚ Hungary had doubled in size‚ and with close ties to Germany‚ the country was enjoying a boom in morale. The rapid German successes had convinced the Hungarians that the war would be over soon and that helping Germany militarily would bring the benefits of a close relationship with an immense superpower.   However‚ Hungarian border disputes with Romania‚ another Axis power‚ were an issue‚ and it was believed that by aiding Germany militarily‚ German favor would be bought in settling these disputes.   Germany invaded the Soviet Union on June 22‚ 1941‚ supported by its Romanian ally. Many Hungarians felt obliged to join the war effort but assessed their options‚ especially since they did not have a casus belli. That case came on June 26 after unidentified planes bombed the town of KoÅ¡ice. It is still not known who perpetrated the attacks‚ but it is suggested that they may have been carried out by the Germans and the Romanians in order to give the Hungarians an excuse to join Operation Barbarossa and invade the Soviet Union. Whatever the truth‚ Hungary joined its Axis allies.   Hungarian Chief of the General Staff Heinrich Werth predicted it would only take six weeks before the Soviet Union capitulated.   Hungary Joins the Fight Hungarian troops in Russia‚ 1942. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Hungarians joined their German allies‚ even though Hitler did not believe Hungarian aid was necessary. Attached to the German 17th Army‚ the Hungarian forces drove deep into Soviet Ukraine. The beginning of Operation Barbarossa was a complete disaster for the Soviets as division after division found themselves encircled and captured.   On March 7‚ 1942‚ Horthy sacked B&;aacute;rdossy on account of Hungary becoming too reliant on Germany. On March 9‚ a new prime minister‚ Mikl&;oacute;s K&;aacute;llay‚ was appointed‚ who continued Hungary’s participation in the war but also began talks with the Allies. This latter move raised German ire despite Hungary’s involvement on the Eastern Front.   At the end of 1942 and the beginning of 1943‚ the tide of the war had turned. The Hungarian Second Army was devastated at Stalingrad. Of the 200‚000 Hungarian soldiers who took part‚ 143‚000 were killed‚ missing‚ or wounded. The Second Army was finished off at the Battle of Voronezh in January 1943.   Ferenc Sz&;aacute;lasi (right) greeting a troop commander in Budapest. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum‚ Washington DC   With ongoing talks with the United States and the United Kingdom‚ Hungary hoped for peace. The Germans‚ unhappy with this situation‚ prepared to invade their former ally. In March 1944‚ the Germans launched Operation Margarethe–-the invasion of Hungary.   With no effective military‚ Hungary was helpless. There was no resistance when German troops marched into Budapest. Bands played ceremoniously while the residents of the city looked on in surprise. With the Germans firmly in control‚ Horthy was placed under house arrest‚ and the pro-Nazi D&;ouml;me Szt&;oacute;jay was placed in control as a puppet of the Germans.   Meanwhile‚ the Soviet armies pushed westwards. Forced to do the bidding of the Nazis and fearing for the safety of their homeland‚ the Hungarians swiftly mobilized more armies‚ but these forces were swept aside by the might of the Soviet offensive.   In September 1944‚ the Soviet advance pierced the borders of Hungary‚ and Horthy offered an armistice. The Soviets rejected it‚ and the Germans‚ aware of this move‚ kidnapped Horthy’s son and forced him to rescind the offer. Ferenc Sz&;aacute;lasi of the pro-Nazi Arrow Cross Party was installed as prime minister‚ and the Hungarians fought on with the Germans by their side against the Red Army.   “Fight With Us&;#33;” An Arrow Cross Party poster from 1944. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Instead of an end to the war offered by Horthy‚ the country was subjected to the worst fighting within its own borders. While the armies crumbled before the Soviet advance‚ Arrow Cross hoodlums stalked the streets‚ taking out their vengeance on Jewish people and anyone else caught in their crosshairs. Horthy was taken into German custody in October 1944.   From Christmas 1944 to February 1945‚ Budapest was besieged by the Soviets. The bombardments were brutal‚ and the fighting tore much of the city to rubble.   On February 13‚ 1945‚ Hungary surrendered. German troops and their Arrow Cross allies put up resistance until April when the last of them were driven from the country.   Under Soviet control‚ the postwar period would see Hungary turned into a communist satellite of the Soviet Union and later a member of the Warsaw Pact.   After the war‚ Horthy was released by American troops in 1945 and went into exile in Portugal‚ where he lived until his death in 1957.   Hungary &; The Holocaust Jews from Carpathian Ruthenia disembarking from a train at Birkenau. Source: getarchive.net   Following Germany’s lead‚ Hungary had implemented several laws restricting Jewish people from participating in Hungarian society. After Hungary joined the war effort against the Soviet Union‚ these practices continued. A third law was adopted that prohibited sexual relations and marriage between Jews and non-Jews‚ and the Hungarian government began transferring thousands of Jewish people to German control. The vast majority of these victims were murdered.   By 1942‚ although small‚ the Hungarian army had become known for its brutality. In January of that year‚ Hungarian troops massacred 3‚000 ethnic Serbians and Jews near the city of Novi Sad.   Under K&;aacute;llay‚ the repression of Jewish people continued but was not as severe as the treatment of those under German control. For the most part‚ Jewish people living in Hungary were protected somewhat by Horthy‚ who kept the anti-Semitic groups at bay that wished to conduct physical harm against Jews.   Shoes on the Danube Bank‚ a memorial to the Jewish people killed by the Arrow Cross. Source: Wikimedia Commons   After Germany discovered Hungary’s peace talks with the Allies‚ however‚ Hungary was pressured into removing any governmental protection of the Jewish population‚ and deportation began in earnest to placate an irate Germany that threatened to invade.   After the resignation of Horthy and the appointment of Ferenc Sz&;aacute;lasi in complete control of the Hungarian government in October 1944‚ Sz&;aacute;lasi tried to restart the deportation of Jews‚ but the crumbling Axis control around him made it impossible.   By the end of the war‚ out of Hungary’s Jewish population of 750‚000‚ 550‚000 were killed.   A WWII-era Hungarian army poster urging Hungarians to fight against Bolshevism. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Hungary’s position during the Second World War was an unenviable one. Caught between the Nazis and the Soviets‚ Hungary was forced to make decisions to placate these two juggernauts‚ and in the course of doing so‚ the Hungarians had to give up on designs of forging their own path.   Today‚ the legacy of this time is ambiguous. Despite being a victim of circumstance‚ the Hungarians made choices that contributed to the Holocaust‚ as well as committing other atrocities.

  The world has an ongoing fascination with murder; the popularity of true crime in television‚ novels‚ and media is a testament to this. This obsession is nothing new‚ but unfortunately‚ it’s based on reality. Murders have haunted humankind from the beginning‚ illustrating that evil does truly exist within some individuals. Murder is not simply reserved for the lower echelons of society but has the ability to affect anyone regardless of status. Despite their places in the annals of history‚ these celebrities‚ nobles‚ and other dignitaries were drawn into murder cases‚ whether intentionally or otherwise.    1. The Lindbergh Baby Lindbergh and his plane‚ the Spirit of St. Louis. Source: Zazoo Fine Art Gallery   Riding high from the success of his solo transatlantic airplane flight in 1927 (he was the first to do so)‚ Charles “Lindy” Lindbergh was an international celebrity by 1932. He had written a Pulitzer Prize-winning book‚ toured the globe‚ and became a colonel in the Air Corps Reserve. He had married Anne Morrow in 1929‚ and the pair were enjoying time on their estate in Hopewell‚ New Jersey with their 20-month-old son‚ Charles Jr.‚ in March 1932.   Charles Lindbergh‚ Jr.‚ shortly before he was kidnapped and murdered in 1932. Associated Press Photo. Source: New Haven Register   In the late evening of March 1st‚ the absence of Charles Jr. from his nursery was discovered by his nurse‚ Betty Gow‚ and reported to Charles and Anne. The home and grounds were searched‚ uncovering a ransom note on the nursery windowsill. The town and state police were called‚ and an investigation ensued. Mud was found on the nursery floor‚ along with disheveled muddy footprints outside under the nursery window. Sections of a ladder‚ one of them broken‚ were found.   One of the Lindbergh ransom notes‚ photo by NBS/NIST. Source: National Institute of Standards and Technology   More ransom notes were received‚ and exchanges between the alleged kidnappers and an intermediary for the Lindberghs persisted through April‚ with $50‚000 eventually exchanging hands‚ though the baby was not recovered in the exchange as promised. On May 12th‚ the body of the baby was found partially buried about four and a half miles from the Lindbergh estate‚ just off the highway. The autopsy showed that the child had been dead for about two months‚ leading investigators to believe he had been likely killed the night of the abduction. The cause of death was determined to be a blow to the head.   Bruno Hauptmann’s mugshot‚ right‚ and a rendering by a police sketch artist‚ left. Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation   The police investigation‚ now a murder inquiry‚ continued for the next two years and was eventually turned over to the FBI. Eventually‚ the man who demanded and received the ransom‚ Bruno Hauptmann‚ was located and arrested. He was charged with extortion and murder and would be executed.   However‚ there is some disagreement among modern crime theorists and historians that Hauptmann was responsible for the actual kidnapping and murder‚ and perhaps he just took advantage of the situation to extort the family.   No credible evidence was ever located placing Hauptmann at the kidnapping scene‚ and he never confessed. Others postulate that others had to be involved‚ as it would be impossible for one man to orchestrate such a detailed scheme alone.   Some have even suggested that Lindbergh himself might be responsible‚ as he demonstrated odd behavior that evening‚ including skipping an event at which he was supposed to speak without notifying the hosts‚ which was very out of character for the man who loved to be adored by the public. He also called home‚ instructing that no one should enter the nursery between 8-10 PM so as not to “coddle” the child. Later‚ he would threaten to shoot any officer who didn’t follow his protocol for dealing with the kidnappers – he sent FBI agents away initially and chose to use an intermediary rather than the police.   2. Johnny Ringo John Ringo‚ from the True West Archives. Source: True West Magazine   Though his name sounds like it must be an alias‚ John Peters Ringo came by his name rightly‚ both into the Ringo family of Green Forks‚ Indiana. The charismatic young man attended college and then headed to Texas in 1869‚ where he promptly got himself into trouble. He made friends with a corrupt Texas Ranger named Scott Cooley‚ and the two got involved in a local feud that became known as the Mason County War. The two were arrested but were sprung from jail by their comrades. They escaped to Arizona‚ where Ringo fell in with a gang known as the Cochise County Cowboys. These weren’t true cowpokes but a group of cattle rustlers and outlaws who tended to find themselves on the wrong side of the law almost constantly.   Wyatt Earp (mid-1870s) and Doc Holliday (1880). Source: History Net   It just so happened that Cochise County was also home to the famed town of Tombstone‚ the stomping grounds of the legendary lawman and gambler Wyatt Earp‚ his brothers Virgil and Morgan‚ and his close compadre Doc Holliday. There was a great deal of tension between the two factions‚ and when Morgan Earp was gunned down‚ some believed that Ringo was one of the triggermen.   Michael Biehn played Johnny Ringo in 1993’s Tombstone. In the film‚ Ringo is shot and killed by Holliday in a gunfight. Source: Hollywood Pictures   On July 14‚ 1882‚ a teamster found Johnny Ringo at the base of a tree‚ a clean bullet hole through his head. A revolver was clenched in the dead man’s hand‚ and he appeared to have been scalped. A coroner’s jury ruled his death a suicide‚ but the circumstances of his outlaw life and the scalping made this a doubtful circumstance to many. In the years that followed‚ several made claims to have killed the outlaw‚ and others posited that Earp or Holliday may have done the deed. To this day‚ the true details behind Ringo’s demise remain a mystery.   3. Harry Oakes Harry Oakes. Source: Historic Places Days   Sir Harry Oakes‚ the largest landowner in the Bahamas‚ rich from a Canadian goldmine fortune‚ was found bludgeoned in his bedroom early in the morning of July 8th‚ 1943. His beautiful estate in Nassau did nothing to protect him from a horrible murder‚ evidenced by blood-stained walls and a desecrated body that appeared to have been set on fire.   Wallis Simpson and former King Edward VIII. Source: New York Post   The list of suspects was long‚ as Oakes had made many enemies due to his ruthless way of doing business and sometimes cruel methods of dealing with other people. He flaunted his wealth and buddied up to the governor of the Bahamas‚ former King Edward VIII‚ who had given up the British throne to marry American socialite Wallis Simpson.   Unfortunately‚ “Eddy” would do no favors for his late friend and is often credited with bungling the murder investigation that followed. He personally came to believe that Oakes’ son-in-law‚ Freddy de Marigny‚ whom he and Oakes both loathed‚ was responsible and set the police on him. De Marigny was arrested and essentially framed but was later found not guilty due to a lack of evidence. Oakes’ death remains an unsolved mystery.   4. Giovanni Borgia John Doman played Rodrigo Borgia in the television show Borgia from 2011 to 2014. The first season finale depicts Giovanni’s‚ or “Juan’s”‚ death. Source: IMDB   Before he became Pope Alexander‚ Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia had several children‚ the eldest of whom was Giovanni‚ born sometime between 1474 and 1476 in Rome. Giovanni held several titles‚ including two dukedoms and a governorship. He was married and had twins with his wife Maria (another daughter was born after his death).   On June 16‚ 1497‚ his body was pulled from the Tiber River‚ riddled with stab wounds. He had a purse containing cash still on his person‚ so robbery was ruled out as a motive. However‚ Borgia and his extended family were powerful and had been accused of everything from murder to bribery and buying elections‚ and he had no shortage of enemies. He also had numerous mistresses and was believed to be sleeping with his brother’s wife‚ causing tension within the family itself. Rumors multiplied‚ but little evidence was sourced‚ and the murder is still left unsolved centuries later.   5. Lord Darnley Lord Darnley‚ right‚ and his younger brother Charles painted by Hans Eworth‚ 1562. Source: Royal Collection Trust   As a new day dawned on February 10‚ 1567‚ Kirk O’ Field House in Edinburgh‚ the location of the residence of Lord Darnley‚ second husband of reigning Mary‚ Queen of Scots‚ was rocked by an explosion. Not long after‚ the body of the lord‚ Henry Stuart‚ and his servant were located‚ though they hadn’t been killed in the blast–they appeared to have been strangled.    Mary Queen of Scots and Lord Darnley by Richard Westall‚ R.A. Source: Period Portraits   At the time of his death‚ Mary and the king consort were estranged‚ as she knew him to be involved in the 1566 murder of her favorite adviser‚ David Rizzio. Public suspicion for Darnley’s death immediately turned to Mary and her lover‚ James Hepburn‚ Earl of Bothwell. Painted placards‚ handbills‚ and ballads accused the pair publicly despite Mary’s immediate order of an investigation. Bothwell was tried and acquitted of the crime‚ and the pair married three months after the funeral. Despite public opinion‚ the killer(s) was never brought to justice.   6. The Mayerling Incident Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria‚ Koller‚ 1885. Source: Royal Collection Trust   On January 30‚ 1889‚ the bodies of Crown Prince Rudolf‚ the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne‚ and his lover‚ Baroness Mary Vetsera‚ were discovered inside a hunting lodge home owned by the prince. It was reported that the prince had killed his seventeen-year-old mistress and then‚ several hours later‚ appeared to have turned the gun on himself. However‚ those closest to the prince didn’t believe it. He had a bright future ahead of him and had been in good humor the day before‚ according to friends who were spending time at the lodge.   Baroness Mary Vetsera of “Mayerling‚” Adele‚ mid to late 1800s. Source: Philadelphia Museum of Art   Theories began to rise as to the true nature of the deaths. As a high-ranking political figure‚ many people stood to benefit from the prince’s death. One in particular was the prime minister‚ Edward Taaffe‚ who reportedly showed “extraordinary elation” at news of the prince’s passing.   Suspicion also fell on household staff or a jealous husband (the prince had many affairs). The truth of the incident would never be pinned down‚ and Franz Ferdinand instead became the heir to the throne. It was his death in 1914 that would ignite the flames of World War I‚ leaving Austria to ponder if the outcome might have been different if the original heir had survived.

  Since the very beginning of civilization‚ and probably even before‚ hats have formed an important function in human society. Designed not just for protective reasons but for aesthetics‚ hats became associated with popular fashion‚ becoming associated with groups of people and national identities‚ as well as the wearer’s standing in society.   They have been made from all sorts of materials‚ from leather and fur to cotton‚ felt‚ wool‚ and even plastic.   Like the cherry on top of a cake‚ hats became the finishing touch of outfits throughout the millennia. Different styles became predominant in different places and at different times.   Here are 7 of the most popular hats in history.   1. The Medieval Hood &; its Evolution into the Chaperon A woman wearing a chaperon as a hood. Source: Celtic Webmerchant   Living a life out in the fields in Europe was a common practice amongst the vast majority of Europe’s population during the medieval era. Protective hoods were common‚ and the style at the time involved a hood with a small cape that was fastened in the front. The hood itself often had a tail called a liripipe and could be made from wool to provide warmth in the colder times of year or lighter materials that protected the wearer from the sun during the hot summer months.   Indoors‚ however‚ this hood was constrictive‚ especially when relaxing with one’s friends over a few mugs of ale. The popular fashion was to turn the hood inside out‚ roll it up‚ and wear it on the head‚ with the tail of the hood hanging down the side. Thus‚ wearing the hood as a hat was born‚ becoming the dominant fashion in many parts of medieval Europe.    The Tax Collectors by Quentin Massys‚ ca. 1525 – 1550. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the English language at the time‚ a distinction was made between the two styles‚ and the garment generally became known as a chaperon when it was worn as a hat. When worn as a hood‚ it was simply called a hood.   The styles became more ostentatious as the decades wore on‚ and more cloth was used‚ along with fancier designs to denote affluence. By the 1480s‚ however‚ the style was in decline‚ and although the chaperon continued to be worn‚ its heyday of being one of the most popular medieval hats was over.   2. The Bowler Hat A man wearing a bowler hat. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Today‚ the bowler hat is commonly associated with Englishmen in suits carrying an umbrella while walking to work. Before this stereotype‚ however‚ the bowler hat was commonplace on the heads of the British and American working classes.   The bowler hat entered English society in 1849 when hat-makers Thomas and William Bowler were contracted to provide hats for James Lock &; Co. of St James’s. The company required hats for a gamekeeper who‚ on horseback‚ had difficulty with his top hat and low-hanging branches. A more close-cropped hat style was needed‚ and Thomas and William Bowler thus introduced English society to their new design.   The hat quickly became popular throughout various parts of English society. For the first few decades after their introduction‚ they were popular amongst the working classes‚ but by the end of the 19th century‚ they had become associated with people who worked in the financial district of London.   The hat‚ however‚ wasn’t confined to the British Isles. It found a place on the heads of Americans. Contrary to popular belief‚ “cowboy hats” weren’t the most popular and widespread in the American West. It was the bowler hat‚ which in America was called the “derby‚” and it was especially popular among cowboys and railroad workers because it sat snugly on the head and didn’t blow off in windy conditions.   From South America to Norway to the Philippines‚ the bowler became part of society. In Britain‚ the hat’s popularity declined in the 1970s‚ but it is still part of the uniform for policewomen.   3. The Fedora A publicity shot for Dead Reckoning (1947) starring Lizabeth Scott and Humphrey Bogart. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The fedora appeared in the late 19th century in the United States‚ and like the Stetson‚ it has come to be widely associated with American fashion and culture.   In 1882‚ playwright Victorien Sardou performed his play F&;eacute;dora‚ named after the main character of the work‚ Princess F&;eacute;dora Romazoff. Her outfit included a soft-brimmed hat with a center crease‚ and the play made it fashionable. The hat became popular among women’s rights movements.   Fedoras became popular in Britain as well as in America‚ and in the following decades‚ the style was also adopted into men’s fashion. After Prince Edward (later King Edward VIII) started wearing one‚ the hat’s popularity soared‚ and it competed with the bowler/derby for the most popular hat in both countries.   In the United States‚ however‚ the fedora became the staple of men’s fashion‚ replacing the derby. The hat also evolved wider brims than the British counterpart and was further popularized in cinema‚ where the country’s most famous celebrities were shown wearing their fedoras.   This trend was especially prevalent in film noir‚ and as a result‚ the fedora is often associated with gumshoe detectives as well as gangsters and Tommy guns. The fedora finally went out of fashion at the end of the 1960s but made a comeback in the 2000s as part of hipster culture.   4. The Ushanka A Soviet era ushanka. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Although fur hats of similar designs have been used by many cultures in the colder climes of the Northern Hemisphere‚ one hat of this type became famous above all others – the Russian ushanka.   However‚ the popularization of this hat is a fairly modern phenomenon and started during Soviet times. From the October Revolution to the Winter War against Finland‚ the standard issue hat to the Russian army was the pointed felt hat called a budenovka. While this hat proved inadequate for the harsh winters on the Finnish border‚ the Finns were wearing hats similar to the ushanka called turkislakki‚ which proved to be much warmer.   Ushankas were adopted by the Soviet military‚ as well as in the Warsaw Pact countries after the war. The popularity of the hat even spread to Western countries and is used to various degrees by military and police personnel in Canada and in some American states.   5. The Beret A British soldier and Belgian soldiers in the background all wearing berets. Source: pxhere.com   Although used the world over‚ especially in the military‚ the beret is undeniably symbolic of French culture and a fashion statement that has found a home on the heads of soldiers everywhere.   Historically‚ the beret has its origins in ancient times in South and Southwestern Europe. It was worn in Crete by the Minoans and in Italy by the Etruscans and the Romans.   In the modern era‚ the beret achieved particular popularity in France and Spain‚ where it was associated with the working classes. After the 1920s‚ it was adopted by a broader spectrum of society and became particularly popular among the nobility as well as artists. It also became extremely popular in militaries worldwide and has even become a standard issue in countries with no cultural connection with the beret.   Further popularized by the iconic imagery of Che Guevara‚ the beret is also worn as a fashion statement relating to rebellion‚ which is ironic given its prevalence in sectors of authority.   6. The Turban A man wearing a traditional turban. Source: pexels.com   Turbans are headwear based on the idea of winding cloth around the head. Various styles of turbans are worn by various cultures from North Africa to the Balkans‚ the Middle East‚ and Southern Asia.   The earliest evidence of a turban comes from a Mesopotamian sculpture dated to 2350 BCE‚ and it is highly likely that turbans were worn long before this date.   Although worn by many cultures‚ certain styles of turbans have come to be widely representative of religious identity. The most notable of these are Islam and Sikhism‚ while the Coptic Orthodox Christians of East Africa are also noted for wearing turbans. In Hinduism‚ certain cultures in India relate the turban to religious identity.   In Afghanistan‚ the turban is part of the national dress‚ and many styles are worn throughout the country.   In Crete‚ an item of clothing called a sariki is commonly worn as part of the national dress. It is a knitted scarf with a mesh design with fringes that look like tears. It can be worn around the neck and shoulders as a scarf or on the head as a turban.   The list of specific turbans is extremely long and includes the gaung baung worn in Myanmar‚ the pagri in Bangladesh‚ the khăn vấn or khăn Ä‘&;oacute;ng worn by the ethnic Vietnamese‚ the ghutrah worn in the Arabian Peninsula‚ and many‚ many others.   7. The Baseball Cap A woman wearing a baseball cap. Source: pxhere.com   Undeniably‚ the most popular hat in the world today‚ the baseball cap‚ is‚ as its name suggests‚ a product of American baseball.   In 1860‚ the forerunner to the baseball cap was born and was worn by the Brooklyn Excelsiors baseball team. Through the decades‚ the design would evolve into the modern six-paneled round cap worn today throughout virtually the entire world.   Originally sporting baseball team logos‚ baseball caps may display company names‚ artistic designs‚ messages‚ and a host of other embroidered ideas on the front.   Despite their reputation as casual wear‚ baseball caps are also used by military and police forces around the world.   Hats. Source: pxhere.com   With so many different types of hats for different environments and so many cultures with different cultural preferences‚ hundreds of hats can be considered popular worldwide. And as fashion is an ever-changing environment‚ there will surely be new hat designs that will rise in popularity.

  Created in 1866‚ the Buffalo Soldiers were the first regular African American Army units. A special Congressional act allowed for their formation‚ lifting a previous ban. Four regiments were created to serve in the West. These men served with distinction‚ earning respect from their foes and friends‚ and fighting racism.   The Early Years Buffalo Soldiers 25th Infantry Source: Library of Congress   Many Buffalo Soldiers that joined were ex-slaves‚ often illiterate and poor. All enlistments lasted five years‚ with soldiers receiving $13 monthly‚ food‚ and some education. Most officers were white. These regiments served in the West‚ stationed at forts to battle the Native tribes. Lesser-known responsibilities included protecting settlers‚ cattle drives‚ and mail routes. All four African American regiments served at forts scattered over the West‚ from Fort Walla Washington to Fort Apache‚ Arizona.   First of the Deployments 10th Cavalry Buffalo Soldiers Source: National Park Service   By 1867‚ the first Buffalo regiments traveled quickly‚ entering the Indian Wars. From then to the early 1890s‚ the Buffalo Soldiers fought in most of the campaigns. Around twenty percent of all U.S. Army soldiers participating were African American. The regiments tangled with famous tribes such as the Apache‚ Comanche‚ and Sioux from the Great Plains to the hot Arizona deserts. The nickname of the Buffalo Soldiers may have come from the Plains Tribes‚ who thought the soldiers’ hair resembled buffalo manes. The formidable warriors respected the Buffalo Soldier’s toughness‚ similar to their namesake.   The 1870 Battle of Kickapoo Springs exemplified their bravery—the 9th Cavalry’s Troop F‚ led by Sgt. Emanuel Stance‚ searching for two kidnapped children‚ came across Native American rustlers. They charged in firing‚ and their foes retreated. The soldiers charged into two more groups the next day‚ scattering them with volleys. For his actions‚ Sgt. Stance won the Buffalo Soldiers’ earliest Medal of Honor‚ the first of eighteen.    Off to War Buffalo Soldiers San Juan Hill Source: Wikimedia Commons   Not long after‚ the1898 Spanish-American War erupted. The U.S.S. Maine had exploded‚ causing tensions between the U.S. and Spain. The U.S. declared war soon after. The U.S. Army always remained small between major wars and the war needed experienced soldiers. All four Buffalo Soldier regiments went–the 9th and 10th Cavalries and the 24th and 25th Infantry – 15‚000 soldiers in total.   The Buffalo Soldiers fought in most battles‚ including the Battle of San Juan Hill. Along with Roosevelt’s famous “Rough Riders‚” the units charged dismounted up the hill in a hail of artillery and rifle fire—many units mixed from the relentless strain. But a unit from the 10th Cavalry reached the top first but lost twenty percent of its men. Also‚ future General of the Army Pershing served in the 10th Cavalry‚ earning the nickname “Black Jack” Pershing. In his reports‚ he commended the Buffalo Soldiers for their bravery.   The Buffalo Soldiers‚ being experienced soldiers‚ next deployed to the Philippine-American War to fight guerrillas from 1899-1903. Though they fought‚ some African American soldiers had mixed feelings about the conflict‚ witnessing racism against the Filipinos. This and lousy treatment made thirty Buffalo Soldiers desert; before this‚ the Black regiments historically had the lowest desertion rate in the U.S. Army.   New Assignments U.S. Army Punitive Headquarters Source: Library of Congress   The Black regiments were reassigned to different Western forts‚ keeping the peace and patrolling. One not well-known role given was Park Ranger. Besides catching poachers or chasing timber thieves‚ the 9th Cavalry built trails in Sequoia and Yosemite National Parks. The characteristic hat now worn by Park Rangers was modeled after the Buffalo Soldiers’ hats. One experimental unit even rode bicycles across the West.   Up to and Into World War I US military forces in northern Mexico during the punitive expedition to capture Mexican rebel Pancho Villa. Source: The United States Army   America entered World War I only after Germany offered to ally with Mexico. Before this‚ war nearly occurred between Mexico and the U.S. after Mexican revolutionaries raided across the border‚ killing and looting. An expedition under “Black Jack” Pershing attempted to capture Pancho Villa‚ their leader. The 10th Cavalry participated‚ the only Buffalo unit to do so. Despite their history‚ the original Buffalo Soldier regiments stayed in the U.S. during the Great War. New Black divisions deployed instead. Many protested even this‚ but wars need manpower.   A Constant Foe 1917 Court Martial of Buffalo Soldiers Source: Library of Congress   Prevalent racism threw up obstacles against the Buffalo Soldiers from the get-go. Congress had to vote to create all four regiments- the U.S. Army was segregated. White officers refused to command such troops‚ either because of prejudice or professional stigma. Across the West‚ Buffalo Soldiers faced Jim Crow laws‚ violence‚ and hatred. Sometimes‚ their frustrations boiled over. The Buffalo Soldiers created a proud history‚ one that defied racism‚ showing that Black soldiers could serve and fight. The U.S. military finally desegregated in 1948‚ partly because of their efforts.

  The unification of England is often seen as a solely West Saxon venture‚ leaving out the role of the Kingdom of Mercia. However‚ Mercia played a vital role as Wessex’s ally and partner in the fight against Viking invaders and in establishing a unified English kingdom. This article will show how Mercia was irreversibly changed from a mighty kingdom to an Earldom subject to the West Saxon Kings as a result of this process of unification.   The Kingdom of Mercia and the Great Heathen Army Map of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms in England‚ by Earle Wilbur Dow‚ 1907‚ Source: Englishhistory.net   Ninth-century England comprised four kingdoms: East Anglia‚ Mercia‚ Northumbria‚ and Wessex. Despite a history of war‚ violence‚ and rivalry‚ the 840s-850s saw relatively peaceful relations between these kingdoms. This was likely motivated by a collective belief that Viking raiders were the real enemy.   By the mid-ninth century‚ these Scandinavian pirates had devastated several coastal regions of England. In response‚ Mercia began to work closely with its southern neighbor‚ Wessex. In the 850s‚ we see closer economic ties between the two kingdoms and more interaction between their nobles and the marriage of King Burgred of Mercia (852-874) to &;AElig;thelswith‚ the daughter of the King of Wessex‚ further strengthened relations.   Yet the invasion of the Great Viking Army in 865 would set England on an entirely new course. No longer content with loot and plunder‚ the Vikings began to conquer and settle. By 871‚ they had conquered East Anglia and Northumbria and received tribute payments from Mercia and Wessex. Mercia suffered a further setback in 874 when King Burgred was forced into exile by the Viking leaders in England. His successor‚ King Ceolwulf II (874-877/9)‚ could only appease the invaders by giving up the eastern half of Mercia.   Ealdormen &;AElig;thelred and Mercia’s Decline Map of the route of the Great Heathen Army in England‚ by David Hill‚ 2022‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   Wessex also struggled with Viking invasions‚ being attacked in 871‚ 875‚ 876‚ 877 and 878. However‚ under the leadership of King Alfred (871-899)‚ the West Saxons decisively defeated the Viking army at the Battle of Ethandun 878. The defeated Guthrum accepted baptism‚ agreed to peace with Wessex and‚ with Alfred’s blessing‚ set himself up as the new King of East Anglia.   Meanwhile‚ Ceolwulf II disappeared from the historical record in 877. A successor‚ &;AElig;thelred‚ is not recorded until 881. He inherited a Mercia‚ now half its former size and at war with the Welsh — an easy target for future Viking attacks. Since he does not appear to have had any dynastic links to his predecessors‚ some may have seen him as illegitimate‚ and he likely faced internal opposition. After a conclusive defeat in his war with the Welsh at the Battle of Conway 881‚ &;AElig;thelred turned to Wessex for protection.   By 883‚ a land charter in Worcester‚ Mercia‚ records him governing as an “Ealdormen of Mercia…with the consent of King Alfred” (Ealdormen was the senior noble title in England). Alfred was no stranger to the Mercians; his sister (Burgred’s wife) was a former Mercian Queen; his wife‚ Ealhswith‚ was Mercian and her brother‚ &;AElig;thelwulf‚ was a prominent Mercian Ealdormen.   Alfred’s “Kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons” Map of Britain in 886‚ “English Mercia and Wessex” shows Alfred’s kingdom‚ by Bodrugan‚ 2006‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   The motivations for both men are clear. &;AElig;thelred received Alfred’s backing‚ protecting him from his domestic rivals within Mercia and the Welsh and Viking threats he faced. For Alfred‚ receiving &;AElig;thelred’s submission provided him with a valuable ally in the wars with the Vikings. This provided a framework for a Southern English-Christian coalition‚ which had shared anti-Viking goals and a desire for stability after a period of chaos.   The agreements made between &;AElig;thelred and Alfred are not immediately obvious. The aforementioned land charter of 883 tells us that by using the title “Ealdormen‚” &;AElig;thelred recognized that he was no longer a king or an independent ruler. It also tells us that &;AElig;thelred acknowledged Alfred as his superior and perhaps his king.   However‚ by the late 880s‚ Alfred adopted the new title “King of the Anglo-Saxons” (Angles representing Mercia and Saxons representing Wessex). This demonstrated that Alfred’s perception of his agreement with &;AElig;thelred was not the annexation of Mercia into Wessex but rather the formation of a new kingdom with a pan-English/Anglo-Saxon identity.   The Status of &;AElig;thelred’s in Alfred’s Kingdom Monogram Penny of Alfred the Great minted in London‚ c. 871-899‚ Source: The Royal Mint Museum‚ London   &;AElig;thelred’s status in Alfred’s new kingdom is challenging to define. Historian Tim Clarkson described him as a “King in all but name.” Indeed‚ he was called “King of the Mercians” by the late 10th-century chronicler &;AElig;thelweard. Despite this‚ he never personally used this royal title after his 883 agreement with Alfred.   Furthermore‚ there are many characteristics of traditional Anglo-Saxon kingship that &;AElig;thelred did not possess. For example‚ under &;AElig;thelred‚ the Mercians followed Alfred’s law code and minted coins on his behalf. Yet‚ in some respects‚ &;AElig;thelred remained the heir to his royal Mercian predecessors. He was the leader of the Mercian army and held his own court in Mercia rather than being a regular attendee at Alfred’s court. Reflecting this ambiguity are the several titles‚ which &;AElig;thelred used in his charters‚ including Chief‚ Ealdormen‚ Lord‚ Patricius‚ Ruler‚ and Subregulus. It is perhaps most appropriate to see his status as somewhere between a king and a powerful nobleman operating within the confines of Alfred’s kingdom.   Alfred’s Respect for Mercian Customs Anglo-Saxon Charter of &;AElig;thelred and &;AElig;thefl&;aelig;d in 901‚ photographed by Dudley Mies‚ 2014‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   Alfred managed his relations with Mercia carefully‚ recognizing the need to respect their traditions and customs. We see this in Alfred’s law code‚ for example. Rather than imposing West Saxon law upon the Mercians‚ he formulated a new law code inspired by previous kings of Mercia and Wessex.   Another example is London. The town had previously been part of Mercia before it fell to Viking invaders in the early 870s. When Alfred captured London in the mid-880s‚ he handed it over to the protection of Ealdormen &;AElig;thelred‚ once again demonstrating his respect for Mercian traditions.   However‚ the greatest honor &;AElig;thelred received was his marriage to Alfred’s daughter &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d. This strengthened ties between the two men‚ who were now family. Also‚ &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d’s mother was from a respected Mercian family of royal descent‚ providing &;AElig;thelred with a degree of legitimacy he may have previously lacked in Mercia. This may be considered an insufficient exchange for Mercia’s loss of independence. However‚ &;AElig;thelred had to embrace the new reality of governing a weakened Mercia‚ which‚ above all else‚ needed stability and protection.   Edward‚ &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d and the Continued Alliance Silver Penny of Edward the Elder minted in East Anglia‚ c. 920-924‚ Source: cngcoins.com   &;AElig;thelred remained an ally of Wessex for the rest of his life. When Wessex was invaded by a Viking army from across the English Channel in 892‚ he stood with the West Saxons‚ leading the Mercian army to aid his father-in-law‚ culminating in the Viking defeat at the Battle of Butingdon in 893.   Alfred died in 899‚ being succeeded by his son‚ Edward‚ who re-established relations with &;AElig;thelred on the same terms as his father had. Edward even sent his eldest son‚ &;AElig;thelstan‚ to be brought up at the Mercian court. The success of this alliance was proved once again in 910‚ when the Viking army of York led an invasion deep into Mercia‚ only to be decisively crushed by joint Mercian-West Saxon forces at the Battle of Tettenhall‚ resulting in the death of three Danish Viking kings.   &;AElig;thelred’s death came the following year. With no male heir‚ the Mercian throne went to his wife. &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d’s succession was‚ in many ways‚ a sign of continuity. As Edward’s sister‚ she maintained links with Wessex. She had also previously led the Mercians on behalf of &;AElig;thelred when he was ill; furthermore‚ she was descended from the Mercian kings of old‚ giving her a legitimate claim to the Mercian throne.   The Conquest of the Danelaw  Statue of &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d recently built outside Tamworth Railway Station to commemorate 1‚100 years since her death‚ photographed by Anna Toone‚ 2018‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons.   The first four years of &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d’s reign consisted primarily of building fortifications on her border. Then‚ with her borders secure and the Danes weakened from Tettenhall‚ she and her brother began an offensive campaign into Viking-held territory. By 915‚ Edward had conquered Essex and established control of the towns of Hertford‚ Buckingham‚ and Bedford. After this‚ he followed up with the conquest of the kingdom of East Anglia and much of the East Midlands.   The contemporary Anglo-Saxon Chronicle describes Edward’s ruthlessness in taking the fortress of the King of East Anglia; “they broke into it [the fortress]‚ and slew the king‚ and Earl Toglos‚ and Earl Mann his son‚ and his brother‚ and all them that were therein‚ and who were resolved to defend it.” &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d similarly made progress‚ capturing the fortresses of Derby (917) and Leicester (918). She also managed to form an alliance with the rulers of Scotland and Strathclyde in opposition to the Viking leader‚ King Ragnall of York.   By 918‚ Alfred’s children had taken back almost all of Southern England. Historian Frank Stenton described this military operation as “One of the best sustained and most decisive campaigns in the whole of the Dark Ages.”    Edward’s Succession to Mercia and &;AElig;lfwynn’s Deposal Remains of St Oswald’s Priory‚ Gloucester‚ where &;AElig;thelred and &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d were buried‚ photographed by Philafrenzy‚ 2013‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   The harmony between the Mercians and the West Saxons would be briefly interrupted by the death of &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d in 918. Within months‚ a power struggle broke out between Edward and her daughter‚ &;AElig;lfwynn. &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d appears to have been grooming &;AElig;lfwynn for rule. She attended councils in Wessex in 903 and Mercia in 904 and 915. While &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d similarly was held in high status before she came to rule Mercia‚ this was only the case after marrying &;AElig;thelred.   Being involved in matters of state for an unmarried woman‚ as &;AElig;lfwynn was‚ was unprecedented and must be a sign of preparation for leadership. However‚ either by convincing the Mercian nobility or through more forceful measures‚ by the end of 918‚ Edward deposed &;AElig;lfwynn. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that &;AElig;lfwynn “was deprived of all dominion over the Mercians and carried into Wessex‚” adding that “all the population in Mercia turned to him [Edward].” Edward’s motives are not entirely certain. He may have been skeptical of &;AElig;lfwynn’s loyalty to Wessex. Or perhaps the Mercian nobility may have preferred Edward‚ who had already achieved great martial feats‚ as their leader to defend them from King Ragnall. Alternatively‚ Edward may have simply sought to exploit a moment of uncertainty in Mercia for his own ends.   An End to Mercian Autonomy  Stained glass window showing Alfred and Edward‚ photographed by Paul Kelly‚ Wells Cathedral‚ Somerset‚ Source: King-alfred.com   Rather than appointing a deputy to govern on his behalf‚ Edward assumed direct control of Mercia. This fundamentally changed the Mercian-West Saxon settlement established by &;AElig;thelred and Alfred in 883. Despite this radical shift‚ he continued the policy constructed by &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d in the north.   Working with his new northern allies‚ in 920‚ he convinced King Ragnall to agree to a peace treaty with Bamburgh‚ Mercia‚ Scotland‚ and Strathclyde. However‚ some of his new Mercian subjects were unhappy with his rule. It has suggested that Edward may have made land appropriations of Mercian estates to his West Saxon followers. He may have also initiated the division of Mercia into shires based on the West Saxon administrative model. This ignored the pre-existing organizational structure of Mercia‚ based upon ancient tribal groups.   To many in Mercia‚ Edward appeared not to be respecting their traditions and customs. A revolt at Chester in 924 demonstrated the popular discontent with his rule. While Edward defeated the uprising‚ he was fatally wounded during the campaign and died in July 924.   A Mercian Prince from Wessex Frontispiece of Bede’s Life of St Cuthbert‚ showing King &;AElig;thelstan presenting a copy to Cuthbert‚ c. 930‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   Edward’s death would again demonstrate the strain between the Mercians and the West Saxons‚ who each backed separate sons of his for the succession. Only when the West Saxon candidate‚ &;AElig;lfweard‚ died in August 924 was Edward’s kingdom restored‚ with Wessex accepting the Mercian candidate‚ &;AElig;thelstan‚ as their new king. &;AElig;thelstan appealed to both peoples‚ as he was a West Saxon by birth but had spent most of his life in Mercia.   This dualism he embodied was recognized by his coronation oath‚ pronouncing him as “equally” King of the Angles and the Saxons. &;AElig;thelstan did receive some hostility in Winchester from his younger half-brother‚ Edwin‚ and Bishop Frithestan. This‚ however‚ was not a feeling shared across Wessex‚ where &;AElig;thelstan could hold court and royal councils without issue.   After securing his kingdom‚ &;AElig;thelstan would look northwards and‚ in 927‚ conquered Northumbria. Thus‚ the new dividing line in English politics became the English of Mercia and Wessex and the Anglo-Scandinavians of Northumbria. By comparison‚ divisions between Mercia and Wessex seemed minute and irrelevant. The goal for the Southern English would now be to control their new northern subjects.   King Edgar and the Last Lords of Mercia Depiction of King Cnut fighting Edmund Ironside in 1016‚ by Matthew Paris‚ c. 1200-1259‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   Once the Northumbrians were pacified‚ the Mercian-West Saxon divide briefly returned during King Eadwig’s reign (955-959). However‚ this was a result of political rather than regional factionalism. His successor‚ King Edgar (959-975)‚ oversaw a golden age of peace and stability‚ forming a more centralized government than achieved by his predecessors. This‚ along with the appointment of his kinsman and loyal follower‚ &;AElig;lfhere‚ as Ealdormen of Mercia‚ made Mercian separatism very unlikely.   Nevertheless‚ the position of Ealdormen of Mercia remained one of the most prestigious offices in the realm. Its holder would be a dominant figure in the Midlands and a senior royal counselor. Indeed‚ &;AElig;lfhere was referred to as the “Prince of the Mercian People.” Another Mercian Ealdormen was “Ealdormen over all the kingdom of the Mercians.” It was a position of such power that King Cnut (1016-1035) in 1017 and King William I (1066-1087) in 1071 broke the Mercian Earldom into smaller lordships. Both preferred not to give such power to any one individual.   The final Earl of Mercia was Edwin (1062-1071)‚ brother-in-law of Harold Godwinson. His death‚ at the hands of his own bodyguard in 1071 after a failed revolt against William I‚ marks the end of the Earldom of Mercia.   Reflections on the Kingdom of Mercia  Offa’s Dyke‚ a series of defensive earthworks along the Mercian-Welsh border‚ one of the lasting achievements of 8th century Mercia‚ 2021‚ Source: ITV   In one sense‚ Mercia had a rather sad story. From its period of domination of Southern England during the eighth century to the death of its last earl in 1071‚ fleeing from a foreign conqueror. It was a true fall from grace. However‚ Mercia made vital military and political contributions toward forming the Kingdom of England‚ giving it an enduring legacy.   The critical turning point in its history was the Viking invasions of the 860s-870s. These invasions left Mercia plundered and cut in half‚ with weak leadership. &;AElig;thelred decision to turn to Alfred for help may have been his only realistic choice. Yet‚ it was difficult to imagine this settlement lasting in the long term.   Mercia held an awkward position‚ and its West Saxon overlord would not always share Alfred’s diplomatic skills. Nor would the rulers of Mercia and Wessex always enjoy the positive relationship that &;AElig;thelred and &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d had with Alfred and Edward. Perhaps Mercia would either have to eventually separate from Wessex or be absorbed into a larger West Saxon-led kingdom. It would ultimately come down to Edward’s deposal of &;AElig;lfwynn in 918‚ which would settle the matter. Nevertheless‚ it took West Saxon rulers who could appeal to the Mercians‚ such as &;AElig;thelstan and Edgar‚ to provide a more sustained unity.

  September 1‚ 1939‚ was the beginning of a new era. For six long years‚ Europe would be thrown into a maelstrom of chaos and destruction as the Germans and their allies expanded the Third Reich‚ humbling nations before them and subjecting the continent to the crushing authoritarian jackboot of Nazism.   Tens of millions of people would die‚ not just on the frontlines‚ but from mass executions and genocide as the Nazis stamped their rule over Europe.   Poland was the first to feel this onslaught.   The Buildup to the Invasion of Poland Map of Poland on the eve of the Second World War. Source: Saltaire Collection   Hitler came to power in 1933‚ and for the 12 years of Nazi rule in Germany‚ the country followed an irredentist policy‚ reforming the glory of the Second Reich by annexing neighboring territories in its bid to rebuild an empire that was destroyed by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles‚ which ended the First World War.   Annexation of neighboring territories was done under the justification of uniting German speakers into one country. Ethnic Germans living in Poland‚ however‚ formed a small minority of the country’s population‚ and instead‚ the Nazis claimed that the ethnic Germans living in Poland were subjected to persecution.   Whatever the truth of the matter‚ many German citizens in Poland were in favor of reunification with Germany. In the west of Poland‚ the Polish Corridor was land that had been taken away from Germany as a result of the Treaty of Versailles‚ and it separated Germany from the Free City of Danzig (today GdaÅ„sk)‚ where Germans formed a majority.   Danzig was an independent city-state formed in 1920 and was under the protection of the League of Nations‚ with special rights given to Poland as it was the only port in the Polish Corridor.   The flag of the Second Polish Republic. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Germany began making demands of Poland on the subject of Danzig. Hitler wanted to link German territory with Danzig‚ and he proposed the construction of an extraterritorial highway between Germany‚ through Polish territory‚ and into Danzig and East Prussia‚ which was a German exclave. The Polish refused‚ believing that any concessions they made would weaken their position and give the Germans increased power over their nation.   Fearing the growing power of a belligerent Germany‚ Poland signed a military alliance with France and the United Kingdom in March 1939‚ hoping that it would deter Hitler from attempting any military action.   German soldiers in 1939. Source: Store Norske Leksikon   Despite the political justifications and actions‚ Hitler viewed Poland and the Polish people with absolute contempt. In 1930‚ he wrote that the Poles and the Czechs were “rabble not worth a penny more than the inhabitants of Sudan or India.” He also stated privately that the invasion of Poland was for the purposes of Lebensraum and that Danzig was not an important issue.   Polish soldiers in 1939. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the months preceding the invasion‚ the German government began accusing the Polish government of conducting ethnic cleansing against Germans in Poland. This was part of Operation Himmler‚ a concerted propaganda effort to discredit Poland in the eyes of the local and international community.   On the night of August 31‚ the Germans carried out a series of false flag incidents along the Polish border‚ including the infamous Gleiwitz Incident‚ in which SS operatives dressed as Poles‚ seized the Gleiwitz radio station on German territory‚ and broadcast anti-German messages.   The following day‚ Poland was invaded.   The Invasion of Poland German soldiers pulling down a Polish border crossing during the initial stages of the invasion of Poland (colorized). Source: Wikimedia Commons   As dawn broke on September 1‚ 1939‚ Germany launched a surprise invasion of Poland. The main thrusts came from German-held East Prussia in the north‚ Silesia and Slovakia in the southwest‚ and from the northwest. With much of Poland’s army on the German border expecting an attack directly from the west‚ the Polish were caught completely off guard‚ and these armies were encircled.   From the very beginning‚ the Polish were overwhelmed on all fronts and in every department. Theoretically‚ they had one million men to resist the invasion‚ a not insubstantial number‚ but the Germans had mustered more than 60 divisions – over one and a half million with hundreds of thousands more to follow‚ supported by 2‚000 tanks‚ 900 bombers‚ and 400 fighter planes. The Poles planned to hold up the German armies in the west in order to buy time for the UK and France to mobilize and send troops to aid their ally. Polish hopes‚ however‚ were dashed.   The UK and France declared war on Germany on September 3‚ but neither of these countries sent troops to aid the Poles‚ and to make matters worse‚ the Soviets opened another front and invaded Poland from the east.   People looking at DC newspapers on Sept. 1‚ 1939. Source: Library of Congress   In the first days of the invasion‚ German propaganda claimed that the Polish Air Force had been destroyed on the ground. This was‚ unsurprisingly‚ a lie. The Poles had been caught unaware‚ mainly due to the direction of the German invasion and not simply the fact that it happened. The Polish had spread their air force out in expectation of conflict and were able to launch a spirited defense in the air.   The Polish‚ however‚ were outnumbered and were using vastly inferior aircraft. Polish pilots were well-trained‚ but it was not enough‚ and the Germans achieved air superiority within a very short period of time. This development would give the Germans the space to employ their Bewegungskrieg (mobile war)‚ an extremely fast and effective use of military power that combined various elements‚ all in support of each other‚ to provide an overwhelming punch through the enemy defenses. This type of warfare became more commonly known as Blitzkrieg (lightning war).   A Polish girl mourns the loss of her older sister‚ killed by a German air raid on September 13‚ 1939. Source: Julien Bryan‚ Wikimedia Commons   This new kind of warfare upset the plans not just of Poland but also the Allied intentions concerning Poland. France and the UK had declared war‚ but they felt that a few more months of military buildup were necessary before they could send any effective military relief to the beleaguered Poles. They expected the Poles to be able to hold out until then.   As for the speed of the German campaign‚ it shocked everybody involved. Even the Germans were impressed with the efficacy of their new doctrine. In the first week‚ the Poles fell back significantly under the onslaught. They abandoned the Polish Corridor‚ Greater Poland‚ and Polish Upper Silesia. Meanwhile‚ Warsaw had been suffering aerial bombardments since the beginning of the war.   German soldiers guarding a group of Jews in Sanok‚ Poland‚ September 1939. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The most significant battle during this period of the war was the Battle of Bzura‚ which lasted from September 9 to September 19. The German 8th Army had advanced rapidly eastwards and was directly west of Warsaw. With the rapid advance‚ the 8th Army’s flanks were open‚ and the Polish seized the opportunity to counterattack. They achieved temporary success but were finally overwhelmed and defeated in large part due to the uncontested superiority of the Luftwaffe.   On September 17‚ the Soviets invaded Poland from the east. This move was completely unexpected by everyone except the Germans and the Soviets themselves‚ who had created the plan to do so when they signed the non-aggression pact in late August 1939.   By the time of the Soviet invasion‚ the Polish forces had already been fragmented and operated without coordination. The day after the Soviets launched their invasion‚ the Polish government fled the country.   German troops marching through Warsaw‚ September 1939. Source: National Archives US   Polish troops were also ordered to flee the country and reorganize in France. They were also ordered to fall back from the Soviet advance and not engage the enemy. It was quite clear that the war was completely lost‚ and the Polish government tried to save what they could of the armed forces. Nevertheless‚ the fighting continued.   Just west of Warsaw‚ the city of Lw&;oacute;w (today Lviv) fell on September 22. Warsaw held out for a few days longer‚ with Polish units completely surrounded‚ offering a resilient defense. The battle‚ however‚ was a foregone conclusion‚ and the city officially surrendered on October 28.   Various pockets of Polish troops held out for a few days. The last battle of the invasion was the Battle of Kock‚ which took place between Lublin and Warsaw from October 2 to October 5. The operation was finally concluded on October 6.   As per the agreement between the Germans and the Soviets‚ Poland was split in two along the Bug River‚ with the western half being annexed by Germany and the eastern half being annexed by the Soviet Union.   Aftermath Part of the Warsaw Ghetto. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Over 100‚000 Polish soldiers managed to escape capture. They were welcomed by the British and the French and continued the fight against the Germans throughout the rest of the war. Of particular note was the high number of Polish pilots who flew combat actions against the Germans during the Battle of Britain.   Meanwhile‚ the German occupation of Poland was utterly brutal. The Warsaw Ghetto was created‚ and hundreds of thousands of Jews were interned there. From this junction‚ Jewish people were transported en masse to concentration camps and extermination camps that were built throughout Polish territory by the Nazis.   Of the 3.3 million Jews living in Poland before the war‚ only 380‚000 survived.   The ethnic Poles were also subjected to brutality on an unprecedented scale‚ with millions being killed during the occupation. Polish resistance continued throughout the occupation‚ and small groups of resistance members operated over the whole country‚ striking at targets of opportunity and harassing the Germans till the very end when they were driven out by the Soviets.   A 9-year-old boy‚ Ryszard Pajewski‚ sits in the ruins of Warsaw. Photograph by Julien Bryan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The invasion of Poland was a sad lesson for the Allied powers. They watched helplessly as Poland was struck with the power of German military might and doctrine. Such a speedy campaign had never been seen before. Seven months later‚ the French suffered the same fate as the Poles and succumbed to the same German tactics.   Fueled by faith in their ideology‚ revolutionary tactics and strategy‚ and copious amounts of drugs‚ the Nazi armies seemed unstoppable.

  It is well known that the national drink of England is tea. The country‚ however‚ also has a national alcoholic drink‚ and that drink is gin.   Originally conceived as a medicinal drink‚ gin took hold of England in the 17th century and never really let go. It served as a drink for people across the class spectrum‚ from those wishing to drown their sorrows to those wishing to relax in a summer garden.   Since then‚ gin has become a popular alcoholic drink in many countries around the world and has been the inspiration for craft enterprises wishing to bring something different to the shelves of liquor stores.   What Is Gin&;#63; Gordon’s London Dry Gin. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Gin is a colorless clear liquor made from grain mash‚ to which juniper berries are added for flavoring. There are various similar types of gin‚ with different countries having different laws as to what can be labeled as gin. In the United States‚ for example‚ gin is legally classified as an alcoholic beverage of no less than 40% alcohol with the characteristic flavor of juniper berries.   While gins may be sweetened using various ingredients and methods‚ a characteristic of “London dry gin” is that it contains no form of sweetening agent‚ and the flavor is purely botanical.   Sometimes known as “Dutch gin‚” jenever is a similar alcoholic spirit that serves as the national drink of the Netherlands. Popular varieties of it have a malty taste‚ and it is often aged in barrels previously used for American whiskey. The flavor can be reminiscent of the type of grain used to make it‚ usually barley‚ wheat‚ or rye. As such‚ the flavor of Oude Jenever can have a malty‚ woody‚ and smoky taste that resembles whiskey.   “Sloe gin” is not‚ in fact‚ gin. It is a red-colored liquor based upon gin and‚ in Britain‚ is flavored with blackthorn fruit (sloe)‚ a close relative of the plum. Sloe gin is also produced in the United States‚ with variations using fruits similar to the blackthorn.   The Forerunners of Gin Bottles of jenever on display. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The key ingredient to gin is the juniper berry‚ which gives gin its distinctive flavor. It is thought that Italian monks were using juniper berries to flavor spirits as early as the 11th century. Juniper was considered a medicinal herb and was a common ingredient found in doctors’ kits. Juniper-flavored spirits were given to patients for a wide variety of ailments. Being alcoholic‚ however‚ the medicine became more popular than it should have been.   The influence of the juniper berry in creating alcoholic drinks‚ however‚ originated in Holland and was introduced to the British Isles in the 17th century. Before it was introduced to the British Isles‚ it was introduced to English soldiers in 1585 who were stationed in Antwerp to fight the Spanish during the Eighty Years’ War.   It was handed out to soldiers about to enter combat. It is thought that the term “Dutch Courage” originated from this event.   This alcoholic beverage was jenever. Inspired by this drink‚ other spirits emerged‚ flavored with anise‚ caraway seeds‚ and other botanicals. However‚ they all had juniper added into the mix. By the 17th century‚ these drinks became widely popular in England and were sold as medicines for a host of ailments such as gallstones‚ kidney problems‚ gout‚ and lumbago.   Production Begins in England A small gin still. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In 1638‚ King Charles I created the Worshipful Company of Distillers in London‚ and forms of jenever began being produced in the English capital. Although success was marked‚ the spirit was not yet the icon of English culture that it grew to be.   Bathtub Gin. Source: wallpaperflare.com   A huge influence on the gin industry was provided by King William III‚ better known as William of Orange‚ the king of Holland‚ who also became king of England and Ireland on January 22‚ 1689. He promoted the drink in England‚ and it was heartily adopted. This massive surge in the popularity of gin became known as the Glorious Revolution‚ and London became the epicenter of gin production.   The Gin Craze Gin Lane by William Hogarth‚ 1751. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   In the 18th century‚ the “London Gin Craze‚” as it was known‚ created huge problems in London. It was similar in nature to the drug-fueled epidemics of today‚ and it caused concern enough for the English government to enact strict laws governing the production and consumption of gin. For the people of London‚ who were used to nothing stronger than beer‚ the effects of gin were disastrous‚ so much so that gin earned the nickname of “mother’s ruin.”   The scourge was taken seriously by the government. In 1729‚ the first “gin act” was passed. Seven acts followed‚ each trying to limit gin sales‚ and each time the populace found legal ways to work around the acts.   Three women in a gin shop divert the landlady’s attention while a match boy steals her money‚ mezzotint‚ c. 1765. Source: Wellcome Collection   In 1734‚ a notorious murder brought widespread social resistance to gin in society. On January 29‚ Judith Defour and her two-year-old child‚ Mary‚ lived at the Bethnal Green Parish Workhouse‚ where Judith also worked spinning thread. One day‚ the workhouse had dressed Mary in a new petticoat. Judith took her daughter out for a few hours‚ but when she came back to the workhouse‚ she was in a drunken state‚ and her daughter was nowhere to be found. After being interrogated‚ Judith admitted she had left her daughter in a field. Upon investigation‚ Mary was found dead. Judith had strangled her own daughter and sold her clothes to buy gin.   Judith was found guilty of murder and sentenced to death.   This incident drew huge attention‚ and the people of London began intense campaigns to end the abuse of gin in their communities. The government even hired informants in order to catch those flouting the acts.   The Gin Act of 1736‚ which imposed immensely expensive fees on gin producers‚ failed to bring about the necessary changes. The lawmakers tried to reduce the production and consumption of gin by making it illegal to produce gin without an enormously expensive license. The result was that only two people bought a license‚ while other distillers continued to ply an illegal trade and were producing low-quality gin that was often toxic.   A “puss and mew” gin dispenser. Source: Christopher Kimball on Twitter/X   As gin gripped the London populace‚ the birth rate declined so much that it dipped below the death rate. Gin was to blame. Drunken parents neglected their children‚ and levels of impotence rose as people became too drunk to function in society. Efforts to control the production of gin ended up creating an illegal network of gin producers who made their cheap gin‚ often with highly toxic substances such as turpentine and sulphuric acid.   The result was a very sick population. Poor people spent what little money they had on getting drunk and then spending the rest of their time unconscious‚ lying on straw in the back of gin shops. Meanwhile‚ informants were being targeted‚ and violent crime surged as a result of the illegal gin trade.   To hide their activities‚ gin vendors introduced the “Puss and Mew.” They would barricade themselves in a room and transact with customers via a drawer through which money and gin would pass. The trend was for customers to approach the drawer‚ say “puss‚” and insert money into the drawer. The vendor would respond with “mew‚” take the money‚ and submit gin through the drawer. Another form of this enterprise involved a slot for money and a pipe through which the vendor could pour the gin.   The symbol of an old tom cat was often used to mark these vending points‚ and as a result‚ cats became associated imagery with the gin trade. A form of sweeter gin called “old tom” was also invented and proved extremely popular at the time. This form of gin became much less popular after the London Gin Craze but has experienced a resurgence in recent years‚ especially in the craft gin market.   A bottle of old tom gin. Source: packagingoftheworld.com   To combat the toxic gin and the surge in violent crime‚ the gin trade had to be made legal again‚ and the Gin Act of 1736 was repealed in 1743.   Over the next few years‚ the government saw slow progress in controlling the epidemic. Licenses and tariffs were made affordable‚ and businesses became more legitimate and respectable. The criminal element faded as it became an unprofitable enterprise.   Nevertheless‚ gin continued to be a serious problem for the people of London. Crop failure in 1757 gave the government an unexpected success. Due to the lack of grain‚ the distilling of gin was banned. A poor harvest the following year resulted in the ban being extended. When the ban was finally lifted in 1760‚ costs of excise duties increased the cost of the final product‚ and it became more expensive to get drunk on gin than on beer. London society returned to a similar state of sobriety as before the London Gin Craze.   With the increase in price‚ gin became a more attractive drink to the upper classes.   Gin Spreads to the Colonies Pimm’s. Source: The Endless Meal   Gin became a staple of British colonialism‚ especially in warmer climes. To ward off mosquitoes and to treat malaria‚ a bitter medication called quinine was imbibed by adding it to tonic water. To cut the bitter taste‚ gin was added to the mixture and thus was born the “gin &; tonic‚” which has become a popular drink in many places around the world‚ and is still associated with British colonialism.   In places such as Kenya and India‚ where malaria was a particular problem (and still is)‚ gin was in very high demand.   Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries‚ many entrepreneurs experimented with gin as a base for liqueur.   In 1823‚ James Pimm introduced his brand of gin-based liqueur‚ which became known as Pimm’s No.1 Cup. Flavored with spices and citrus‚ the drink became popular mixed with other beverages such as lemonade.   Many other varieties of gin were also developed during this time‚ including sloe gin‚ which was flavored using the blackthorn fruit.   Gin in the 21st Century Bombay Sapphire. Source: pxhere.com   Through the 20th century‚ gin remained a popular drink‚ especially in Britain‚ where it formed part of British culture. From 2013 onwards‚ however‚ there has been a significant surge in the popularity of the drink as the lack of competition invigorated entrepreneurs to take up their own distilling businesses. The rise of craft gin has boomed as a result‚ and many small companies operate in Britain and in areas where British colonization left a cultural mark on the population‚ such as in South Africa and Australia.   Varieties of South African gin. Source: liquor.com   Today‚ gin is considered a fashionable drink and has become popular with younger generations. This is due in large part to the rise in the craft gin industry‚ which has marketed itself towards a broad demographic. This is especially true in South Africa‚ where craft gin has seen unprecedented growth. The gin market in South Africa reached US$36.6 million in 2023 and is expected to grow by over 14% annually over the next few years.   Gin &; tonic. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Gin continues to play a significant role in alcohol sales and consumption across the world. It is a popular drink in many European countries‚ the United States‚ the Philippines‚ Japan‚ India‚ and South Africa.   It is a vital ingredient in many cocktails‚ such as the Negroni‚ the Tom Collins‚ the classic G&;T‚ and many others. As such‚ gin will remain a staple for bartenders the world over.

  Since the dawn of man‚ human beings have stared in wonder at birds soaring through the sky above. While our bodies may not have been able to give us the capability to copy our feathered friends‚ our imagination could help us take flight.   For thousands of years‚ flying machines were the stuff of fantasy‚ but the modern era changed that and let us wonder no more. From tales of Daedalus and Icarus to the sketches of Da Vinci‚ from hot air balloons to supersonic fighter jets‚ this is the history of one of humankind’s greatest dreams – flight.   Flight in Ancient Times The Fall of Icarus by Jacob Peter Gowy‚ 1636-1638. Image: Museo del Prado‚ Madrid   The dream of flight has been with us for millennia. The earliest record of this dream comes in the form of stories told in ancient civilizations. In Greek legends‚ the hero Bellerophon captures a flying winged horse called Pegasus and rides him into battle against the three-headed Chimera.   In the story of Icarus and Daedalus‚ Daedalus and his son Icarus escape the clutches of King Minos by flying away on wings made of wax and feathers. Icarus flew too close to the sun‚ the wax on his wings melted‚ and he plunged to his death.   Greek legends aren’t the only ones that speak of flight. In ancient Persian legends‚ King Kaj Kaoos achieved flight by attaching eagles to his throne.   From the ancient days to the birth of modern flight‚ many people have tempted fate by attaching giant wings to their arms and jumping off heights. The results were often fatal but did not stop others from trying.   Anything that achieved flight in ancient times would have been limited to small models and children’s toys. In ancient China‚ children were playing with inventions made from bamboo that achieved flight by spinning a rotor in the same fashion that helicopters achieve flight today.   Da Vinci’s Sketches A diagram for a proposed flying machine by Leonardo da Vinci. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Leonardo da Vinci was not only a famous artist but also an engineer who experimented with many ideas that encapsulated the technological innovations of the Renaissance. He was fascinated with flight and even created a book entitled Codex on the Flight of Birds.   Da Vinci’s thoughts led him to design several theoretical models for achieving flight. The first was an idea that echoes the concept of flight achieved by helicopters. A sketch of his details a model that can be made with a helical construction attached to a spring. When released‚ the wound-up helix wing spins and lifts the model into the air.   Other sketches detail gliders and contraptions that fly by flapping their wings. The latter is called an ornithopter and is a theory that is still being studied by engineers and scientists to this day.   Hot-air balloons and Zeppelins Exp&;eacute;rience a&;euml;rostatique faite Versailles‚ 19 Sept 1783. Source: Library of Congress   On November 21‚ 1783‚ people from all over Paris gathered at the Palace of Versailles and watched in awe as a large balloon made of paper and silk ascended into the sky. This was a first for humanity‚ as this balloon carried two human passengers‚ Fran&;ccedil;ois Pil&;acirc;tre de Rozier and Fran&;ccedil;ois Laurent‚ Marquis of Arlanders.   They weren’t surprised‚ however. The Montgolfier Brothers had demonstrated their flying balloon before. In September‚ their device took a sheep‚ a duck‚ and a rooster into the skies above the royal residence.   Just a few days after the first manned hot-air balloon ride‚ the first gas-filled balloon took to the skies. Designed by Jacques Alexandre Charles and Louis Nicolas Robert‚ the balloon was filled with hydrogen‚ and it became the standard for air travel until the invention of propeller-driven flight.   Sketch of a flying machine‚ 1870. Source: Library of Congress via rawpixel.com   Travel in hot-air balloons was slow and unfeasible for any sort of actual value to the masses. Nevertheless‚ it was a step towards the future of flight. Journeys were made‚ with the first successful crossing of the English Channel being performed in 1785 by Jean-Pierre Blanchard and John Jeffries. A previous attempt that year had gone up in flames‚ killing two men in the process‚ in what would be a forebear of the sudden end to the evolution of balloons – Zeppelins.   The Hindenburg goes up in flames. Source: Public Domain via needpix.com   In the early 20th century‚ before airplanes became commercially available and technologically advanced enough for passenger flight‚ Zeppelins formed the first commercial airlines. They were slow but luxurious. They were thought to be relatively safe‚ and few accidents had occurred by 1937 when a single disaster put an end to the entire industry.   On May 6‚ 1937‚ the Hindenburg had flown across the Atlantic from Germany and attempted to moor in New Jersey when it suddenly and inexplicably burst into flames. Thirty-five of the 97 people on board were killed.   The Wright Brothers &; Propeller-Driven Flight Orville Wright piloting The Wright Flyer during the first flight. Source: Library of Congress   One of the most important landmarks in the history of flight was the invention of the airplane. The early days of the 19th century are when this development debuted on the world stage and changed our relationship with the sky forever.   After failing their first attempt on December 14‚ 1903‚ they tried again three days later and successfully flew the first propeller-driven airplane. The Wright Flyer (Sometimes referred to as the Kitty Hawk Flyer) could hardly have been said to take to the skies‚ but it lifted off the ground and flew 120 feet. More attempts were made during the day‚ and on the last attempt‚ the Wright Brothers’ machine flew 852 feet in 59 seconds.   This monumental occasion changed flight forever and signaled that propeller-driven aircraft would dominate the skies for decades to come.   A C-130 of the Canadian Air Force. Source: Wikimedia Commons   It didn’t take long for aircraft to advance to the point where they were being used in combat. Rickety biplanes took to the skies in the First World War‚ and the age of dogfighting began‚ accompanied by the first use of bombers.   By the Second World War‚ these aircraft had undergone even more revolutionary progress. Produced en masse‚ air power became a vital component of the armed forces‚ and it has been such to this day.   Since then‚ the technology surrounding propellers has increased‚ and they have become more efficient and powerful. No longer just a propeller‚ the turbo-prop system uses‚ intakes‚ compressors‚ reduction gearboxes‚ turbines‚ combustors‚ and propelling nozzles to drive aircraft to much faster speeds than their simple propeller-driven ancestors.   Helicopters A Royal Navy Sea King Mk4 in rescue action. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Although Leonardo da Vinci came up with the theoretical underpinnings of helicopter flight‚ it would be another four and a half centuries before helicopters would take to the skies. Models using human power‚ rubber bands‚ steam‚ and electricity were created through the centuries‚ but only in the 20th century were the first crewed vehicles created.   In July 1901‚ a helicopter designed by German inventor Hermann Ganswindt took flight and was the first motor-driven‚ heavier-than-air vehicle ever to carry a human. The demonstration was recorded‚ but sadly‚ the film has been lost.   There was no single inventor of the helicopter‚ however. All the experiments that followed were improvements on earlier designs until Igor Sikorsky built and flew the first practical helicopter in 1939. Since then‚ helicopters have proven to be extremely versatile aircraft‚ as they can hover and fly at very low speeds‚ which are feats that fixed-wing aircraft are unable to achieve. As such‚ helicopters have a considerable number of uses in society today. They are used by news media to cover events from the air‚ as firefighting vehicles‚ for transport‚ for search and rescue‚ and a variety of military functions‚ including combat.   Jet Aircraft Me 262. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The advent of rocketry and jet propulsion was one of the most important milestones in aviation history. Considered by some to have invented the first jet-powered aircraft‚ Romanian Henri Coandă built his aircraft powered by a ducted fan called the “turbo-propulseur.” There is no record of the aircraft taking flight‚ despite Coandă’s claims.   Jet engines as we know them today were experimented with in the 1930s by the British‚ but it would be the Germans who would send the first jet aircraft into the sky. The first jet-powered plane to take flight was the Heinkel He 178‚ designed by Ernst Heinkel. The Germans would lead the world in aircraft technology during the Second World War‚ creating the rocket-propelled Me 163 and the first fighter jet‚ the Me 262. Despite the enormous advantage of jet aircraft‚ the Germans could not produce them in quantities large enough to make any significant impact on the outcome of the war.   Front view of a Dassault Rafale. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The decades that followed would see huge leaps in jet-powered flight‚ including the breaking of the sound barrier by Chuck Yeager in the Bell X-1 on October 14‚ 1947.   Jet engines have been powering many different types of aircraft‚ from learjets to bombers to the modern fighter jets of today‚ which boast some of the most advanced technologies available. As a result‚ jet aircraft are some of the most expensive military assets. A single F-22 Raptor‚ built by Lockheed-Martin‚ costs in the region of $125 million.   In 1969‚ the Concorde took its first flight and was introduced for public transport in 1976. These passenger aircraft used turbojet engines‚ and the fleet was retired in 2003.   The most commonly used engine in commercial airliners today is the turbofan‚ which uses design features from jets and propellers.   Rockets A space shuttle launch. Source: pexels.com   Using rockets to propel human flight is a dangerous enterprise. The fuel is highly combustible‚ and when something goes wrong‚ the outcome is almost always fatal. The Germans learned this during the Second World War with their Me 163‚ which claimed the lives of many of its own pilots‚ especially since the aircraft didn’t have landing gear&;#33;   Rockets‚ however‚ have been an invaluable resource for space flight. Without them‚ human beings would not have been able to reach outer orbit and beyond. It is through rocketry that we have taken the first steps in space exploration. While other technologies are being researched‚ the initial phase of escaping Earth’s gravity is wholly reliant on rockets.   The first rockets were used as weapons. The Chinese fired them at the invading Mongols in 1232. For centuries after‚ rockets were used as fireworks and as weapons. In the 19th century‚ the brave choice to use rockets to propel human flight was taken‚ and the advent of the Space Race made them a vital foundation for humankind’s first steps into the final frontier.   A Russian Su-57. Source: Anna Zvereva / Wikimedia Commons   For millennia‚ humankind has dreamed of taking to the skies in flight‚ and for the vast majority of our history‚ it seemed like nothing more than a pipe dream. The skies above urban areas are now frequent hosts to our flying machines‚ from balloons to propeller-driven planes to helicopters and jets and even rockets.   Technological advances in the following decades will undoubtedly add new vehicles to fly above our heads.

  Edith Pretty‚ one of England’s first female magistrates‚ owned a huge estate in south-east Suffolk known as Sutton Hoo. Pretty had been aware for some time that there was something intriguing about her Suffolk estate. Round mounds of earth loomed across it and in 1937‚ she decided the time had come to learn something about them. She contacted the Ipswich Museum‚ hoping to find a professional to excavate the mounds. The museum sent amateur archaeologist Basil Brown to Mrs. Pretty’s estate. Shortly thereafter‚ Brown began excavating‚ eventually uncovering the Anglo-Saxon world of Sutton Hoo.   1. The Sutton Hoo Mounds Aerial overview of the Anglo-Saxon burial ground at Sutton Hoo. Source: British Museum   It took nearly two years from the time of Mrs. Pretty’s initial invitation to Brown to find the riches of Sutton Hoo. The Anglo-Saxons had created an eye-catching burial ground along the River Deben. It would have caught the attention of medieval travelers and it continued to intrigue twentieth-century passersby.   Seventeen or eighteen burial mounds stood within the burial ground of Sutton Hoo. Mounds and other earthen monuments have a long tradition in cultures around the globe; thus‚ Brown had no way of knowing who built them as he began his exploration. Erosion had reduced some of the mounds over time and as he began excavating the mounds‚ Brown found that looters had robbed and damaged many of the monuments as well. Thus‚ his initial investigations revealed little about the Anglo-Saxons of Sutton Hoo‚ and the first season of excavations ended without any sparkling discoveries.   In 1939‚ at Mrs. Pretty’s direction‚ Brown began excavating the largest of the monuments‚ known as Mound 1. On day three of the excavations of Mound 1‚ one of Brown’s assistants discovered an iron rivet. All work stopped as Brown explored the area cautiously. They began digging more carefully and made the biggest discovery of the excavation yet. The rivet came from a ship.   Brown and his assistants found the outline of a ship by tediously tracing iron rivets under the mound. The ship measured approximately 27 meters (88 feet) long. It was a magnificent discovery‚ proof of the mound’s significance‚ and only a taste of what was to come.   2. The Ship Excavation of the Sutton Hoo Ship. Source: Suffolk News   The Sutton Hoo ship was a rowing ship. Since the burial of the ship‚ acidic soils had eroded away all the wood‚ but Brown’s careful excavations preserved the outline of the ship. Examination of the ship revealed that it had been built in the clinker tradition. The clinker construction technique was used by ship builders across Europe for centuries before the Sutton Hoo mounds were erected. With this technique‚ builders worked from the outside in. They fused the stem and stern posts first. Then the ship sides were installed plank by plank. Nails were driven into the planks to hold them in place. The final step was to install the ship’s internal framing. As yet‚ the Sutton Hoo ship from Mound 1 is the largest clinker ship ever found.   3. Shoulder Clasps Shoulder clasps excavated from Mound 1 of Sutton Hoo‚ 7th century. Source: British Museum   The first confirmation of the potential burial of a person within the ship came in the form of two pieces of jewelry. Beneath the mound‚ archaeologists discovered what they thought were “armlets.” Today‚ archaeologists consider these artifacts to be shoulder clasps. The clasps were crafted from gold‚ millefiori glass‚ and garnet in the cloisonn&;eacute; style. The intricately decorated pieces of jewelry depicted two boars. After removing them from the earth‚ Brown entrusted the shoulder clasps to Mrs. Perry for safe keeping. She stored them under her bed for want of a museum.   4. Gold Purse lid excavated from Mound 1 of Sutton Hoo‚ 7th century. Source: British Museum   More gilded finds soon followed. Within the ship‚ archaeologists quickly found a wealth of exciting artifacts. One object was a purse lid. It would have been fitted to a leather pouch and hung from the waist. This purse lid was richly designed in white‚ gold‚ and garnets. Animals were depicted on the lid of the purse.   On its own the purse lid was impressive‚ but archaeologists were even more surprised by what lay inside the purse. Inside the purse‚ archaeologists made a discovery that would help them begin to piece together the chronology of Sutton Hoo. Thirty-seven gold coins‚ three blank coins‚ and two ingots emerged from the purse. The coins came from Francia.   By analyzing the style and mint dates of the coins‚ archaeologists soon determined that the Sutton Hoo burial had to date to the early seventh century‚ approximately 610-635 CE. Now scholars could begin to consider who might have been buried in Mound 1. One early candidate was Raedwald‚ king of East Anglia from approximately 599-625 CE. The name of his queen has not survived.   A member of the Wuffingas family‚ Raedwald faced a conundrum familiar to many medieval rulers: whether to convert to Christianity or maintain his pagan faith. If Raedwald or his queen were buried at Sutton Hoo‚ it would seem they chose not to enter the afterlife in the Christian faith.   5. Whetstone  The whetstone and scepter recovered from the Sutton Hoo burial‚ Mound 1‚ 7th century. Source: British Museum   Whetstones were common during the Medieval Period. They were used for sharpening tools such as swords or axes. It is unclear if the Sutton Hoo whetstone was a functional tool or a decorative item. The middle portion of the whetstone was a smooth bar that could have been useful for sharpening‚ but both ends of the whetstone were decorated with human faces. Archaeologists also found a ring with a stag attached. At first‚ they thought it was most logical that the stag was attached to a helmet‚ but there was really no physical evidence to support this theory. Next‚ archaeologists theorized that the stag belonged on top of the standard‚ but the placement of the stag there proved awkward.   It took some time‚ but eventually‚ archaeologists assessed the possibility of the whetstone and the stag. Chemical and physical analysis showed that the two artifacts were a perfect pair. Archaeologists now believe that together the whetstone and stag formed a scepter fit for a mighty Anglo-Saxon ruler to hold high above the people of Sutton Hoo.   6. Drinking Horns from Sutton Hoo Reconstructed drinking horns from Mound 1 of Sutton Hoo. Source: British Museum   Among the overwhelming glitter and gold‚ archaeologists found more common artifacts such as drinking vessels. During the Anglo-Saxon period‚ drinking vessels were commonly made of wood.   Wooden drinking vessels were recovered from the Sutton Hoo burials‚ but there were also silver drinking vessels and drinking horns. Archaeologists determined that the drinking horns had been crafted from the horns of aurochs. This species of wild cattle is now extinct. Thus‚ the drinking horns offer a glimpse of an Anglo-Saxon world very different from the twenty-first century.   7. The Sword Pieces of the sword harness excavated from Sutton Hoo‚ 7th century. Source: British Museum   As excavations continued‚ archaeologists also discovered weaponry. Along with other finds‚ the weapons in the Sutton Hoo burial would lend credence to the idea that this was the burial of a great warrior. One of the most iconic weapons discovered in the Sutton Hoo burial was a sword with a gold and garnet cloisonne pommel.   Archaeologists have discovered other swords throughout the medieval world‚ but the intricacy of the sword’s d&;eacute;cor was unique. Equally eye-catching was the sword harness which was decorated with garnets as well. Had the Sutton Hoo warrior never set foot on the battlefield‚ the individual’s armor alone would have marked them as a high-status‚ wealthy‚ and important member of Anglo-Saxon society.   The sword was discovered on what would have been the right-hand side of the buried person. Additional analysis by archaeologists has revealed wear patterns suggesting the owner of the sword wore the weapon on the right side but used the sword with his left hand. Archaeologists speculate that being a left-handed medieval warrior may have carried advantages‚ as opponents would have been more used to deflecting attacks from the right hand. Does this begin to explain the riches of the Sutton Hoo burial&;#63; Could the warrior’s left hand have given a battlefield advantage that created a reputation for military prowess and the consolidation of immense power and status&;#63; This explanation is possible‚ but the person buried at Sutton Hoo likely had more than a left hand to thank for the extraordinary burial in medieval Suffolk.   8. A Shield Shield reconstructed from the remains of Mound 1 of Sutton Hoo. Source: British Museum   The Sutton Hoo warrior was buried with a defensive weapon as well. Archaeologists found remnants of a shield in the burial that was just as intricately crafted as the sword. The British Museum retains the shield replicated from the finds. The board of the shield consists of modern lime wood and is decorated with gold‚ garnet‚ copper alloy‚ and iron fittings. Animal heads trace the rim of the shield‚ while birds and a dragon also decorate the shield. It is unclear if the shield was used in battle‚ but it was certainly designed to project powerful imagery.   9. A Lyre Sutton Hoo Lyre‚ 7th century. Source: British Museum   Much of the assemblage excavated from Mound 1 of Sutton Hoo was fragmented. Archaeologists worked through trial and error to interpret the artifacts. Twisted maple wood fragments‚ found in Mound 1‚ had holes bored into them. Archaeologists suspected that the wooden fragments formed a musical instrument. At first‚ scholars settled on a harp‚ but reconstruction of the harp from the maple wood left much to be desired. Taking a closer look‚ archaeologists determined that the wood fragments were in fact remnants of a lyre. As technological innovations allowed archaeologists to interrogate the past in more creative ways‚ scholars gained new insight into the lyre. Hairs attached to the lyre were linked to beavers’ fur‚ suggesting a beaver case had once kept the lyre safe.   10. The Sutton Hoo Helmet  Sutton Hoo helmet‚ photo by Geni. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Inside the ship’s burial chamber‚ archaeologists found an object wrapped in cloth. When they unwrapped the object‚ they found hundreds of fragments of corroded iron that made up the Sutton Hoo helmet. The helmet could have been worn‚ but like the sword‚ it was also an exquisite piece of metalworking. A dragon is central to the design with the eyebrows of the facemask serving as wings and the mustache working as the beast’s tail.   While archaeologists uncovered a rich array of grave goods in the Sutton Hoo ship burial‚ they did not recover everything the Anglo-Saxons buried in the mound. The body of the person buried in the grave had rotted away due to the highly acidic nature of the soil. A great deal of mystery surrounds who was buried at Sutton Hoo‚ though the grave goods attest to a person of great wealth and status. In the absence of a body‚ the Sutton Hoo helmet has gained a persona of its own‚ becoming the iconic face of the richest burial in early medieval Europe.