In 2013, Deborah Tavares, a prominent researcher and whistleblower, brought attention to a NASA document titled ‘Future Strategic Issues/Future Warfare [Circa 2025]’. The document, presented by Dennis Bushnell, Chief Scientist at NASA’s […]

On this day forty-three years ago… Jim Morrison landed on the cover of Rolling Stone. “He’s hot, he’s sexy, he’s dead,” screamed the headline. The accompanying article chronicled the renewed interest in the singer, who died a decade earlier, and his band. “The Doors Greatest Hits” was awarded a platinum album (1,000,000 units shipped) the next day. From The Doors’ self-titled debut to far past the end, Morrison was mythologized to the extreme. The Lizard King, a modern-day Adonis, an erotic politician or drunken poet. Erratic and irresponsible, both onstage and in real life, Morrison capture the essence of the times. While almost all the attention focused on Morrison it should be remembered that one reason The Doors remained popular was they made great music. Ray Manzarek (keyboards), Robby Krieger (guitar) and John Densmore (drums) were extraordinarily talented and creative musicians with a flair for blending styles and moods. Morrison recorded six studio albums with The Doors… all went gold or better. Following the “L.A. Woman” sessions Morrison left for Paris, with his girlfriend/wife Pam Courson, to write poetry. That adventure ended with Morrison’s death on July 3rd,1971 under mysterious circumstances – which only enhanced his myth. Was he really dead? And if he did die how? Heart attack, which was listed as the official cause, or a drug overdose? Or did he fake his death to escape the ‘pressures’ of Rock stardom? No one on The Doors team ever saw Jim’s corpse. In fact. he was placed in a sealed casket and buried in Paris before any public announcement of his passing was made. No one really knows exactly what happened except Pam… and she remained silent on the subject before suffering a drug related death in ’74. ### The post A Day In Rock: September 16th, 1981 – Jim Morrison Is Hot appeared first on RockinTown.

from Your News: Former President Donald Trump, after surviving his second assassination attempt in two months, blames “Communist Left Rhetoric” for escalating violence in the U.S. By yourNEWS Media Newsroom Former President Donald Trump claimed on Monday that the escalating political climate in the U.S. is fueling violence, including assassination attempts against him. His comments […]

  From Franklin D. Roosevelt’s dominance during the Great Depression to the more recent Ronald Reagan’s 1980 election, landslide elections underscore the American public desire for progressive change. While some pundits are quick to call an election a landslide, there have been, at most, only a few of what we could consider blowouts. It is more like a handful, especially when not counting George Washington, who was unanimously elected, and James Monroe, who ran unopposed.   1804: Thomas Jefferson Official Portrait of Thomas Jefferson by Rembrandt Peale, 1800. Source: The White House Historical Association   Although dating back to the 1800s when the United States was just getting used to operating under the Constitution and when popular elections were not yet commonplace, the landslide presidential victories of Thomas Jefferson and later James Monroe are significant for different reasons.   While not as historically important as his 1800 election, which saw the first peaceful transition of one political party to another in the White House in American history, Jefferson’s 1804 victory did much to validate the Democratic-Republican Party and, hence, the nation’s first-ever two-party system. The fledgling Federalist Party put forth Charles C. Pinckney, a former diplomat and military officer who was critical of Jefferson’s curtailed military spending and handling of foreign affairs, including the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the size of the United States.   A staunch believer of small government and the idea of Federalism that saw the states co-govern with and not under the all-powerful federal government, Jefferson’s overwhelming victory in 1804 proved that the US’s “democratic experiment” worked. While precise popular vote totals from this period are not available due to varied methods of selecting electors in different states, Jefferson’s 162 electoral votes to Pickney’s 14 marked the beginning of the decline of the party of George Washington, the Federalists.   1820: James Monroe James Monroe White House Portrait by Samuel Finley Breese Morse, 1819. Source: The White House Historical Association   The effect of Jefferson’s second victory could not be more evident less than two decades later in the election of 1820. The party was too weak to run an opposition candidate to the Democratic-Republican and Jefferson’s heir-apparent, James Monroe, during his own re-election bid. As the public applauded Monroe’s presidency for evoking political unity and fostering nationalism that followed the War of 1812, the Federalist Party, which opposed the conflict in the first place, was crumbling into oblivion. When the incumbent president’s supporters announced his candidacy for a second term—the Federalists did not follow suit—leading to an unopposed election, the first since George Washington, and since, last.   With the election a foregone conclusion and with the president not having an opponent to run against, Monroe won 231 out of 232 electoral votes, with only one elector, William Plumer of New Hampshire, voting against him to ensure that George Washington remained the only president to be elected unanimously. Plumer voted for John Quincy Adams. The relative party unity that aligned itself behind Monroe, while rare in American history, would not last as the Democratic-Republican Party would itself soon split into competing factions.   1920: Warren G. Harding Warren G. Harding pictured in 1920. Source: Library of Congress   One of the more forgotten landslide victories of the 20th century occurred in the 1920 election directly following the end of World War I. The nation was weary and disillusioned by the great conflict and craved a return to pre-war life. In one of the best public relations coups, Republican Warren G. Harding’s campaign managers adopted the slogan “Return to Normalcy.” After years of making do with rationing and the government’s economic and social censorship, American voters were attracted to the Ohio senator’s personality, charisma, and geniality. He resonated with the new national sentiment, ready to get past the gloom of the war years.   Yet, what likely led to Harding’s overwhelming victory in November had nothing to do with him and everything with the Democratic Party at the time. The party mirrored the anxiety of many Americans who disliked the outgoing President Woodrow Wilson’s proposal to join the new League of Nations, which they saw as entangling the US in foreign conflicts. The Democratic Party, split between those in support and those opposing Wilson, chose a neutral, and by all standards, unknown safety nominee, James M. Cox of Ohio, to represent them in November.   With post-war strikes and labor unrest fueling further anxieties about the social order, Harding presented himself not only as an opponent to further international entanglements through the League of Nations but also as a moderate who could restore the much-needed stability. The Ohio senator beat his statemate with 404 electoral votes to 127, collecting 60.4% of the popular vote. Cox was so insignificant in the election that Harding’s campaign largely ignored him and campaigned against the outgoing President Woodrow Wilson’s record.   1932 and 1936: Franklin D. Roosevelt Franklin D. Roosevelt, photo by Vincenzo Laviosa, c. 1930. Source: Wikimedia Commons   By the 1932 election, the Great Depression had already ravaged the US economy, leading to massive unemployment, bank failures, and widespread poverty. President Hoover’s belief in “rugged individualism,” emphasizing self-reliance and minimal government intervention in the economy, led many Americans to believe that their government had abandoned them. Hoover did more than any prior president to expand the federal government’s role in steering the national economy through his Emergency Relief and Construction Act of 1931. Yet, it was deemed too little and too late.   New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt ran on a platform promising a “New Deal” for the American people. The Americans blamed Hoover for the economic hardships and perceived inability to address the crisis effectively, making this a runaway election for the rising Democrat. Where Hoover’s campaign was defensive, FDR’s was dynamic and optimistic, offering hope and new policies to tackle the worst of the Depression. While not as comprehensive as his re-election four years later, FDR’s landslide victory in 1932 saw him clinch 472 electoral votes to Hoover’s 59, carrying 42 out of the 48 states with 57.4% of the popular vote.   When 1936 came around, Roosevelt’s New Deal programs had been providing relief to many Americans for years and slowly seeing the nation on the path to recovery. FDR’s administration created an enormous bureaucracy that some saw as threatening individual liberty and free markets, yet he continued championing and promising further efforts to support the struggling Americans. Since FDR’s opponent, Republican Governor of Kansas Alf Landon, did not present a compelling alternative, he received only 36.5% of the popular vote in November to Roosevelt’s 60.8%. FDR won his re-election with 524 electoral votes to Landon’s eight, carrying 46 states. The New Deal had won, and the Democratic Party was now the party of working-class Americans.   1964: Lyndon B. Johnson Lyndon B. Johnson speaking at a press conference on November 17, 1967, photo by Yoichi Okamoto. Source: LBJ Museum and Library   Having assumed the presidency after the assassination of John F. Kennedy in November 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ) sought a victory in 1964. The Democrat’s record highlighted decades in public service, with twenty-six years of congressional experience and a reputation as a man who got things done.   Bent on leaving a lasting legacy as president, Johnson declared an “unconditional War on Poverty in America.” LBJ spent 1963 and 1964 pushing through Congress initiatives that would, in his first full term, fall under a more comprehensive Great Society program, like the Economic Opportunity Act and Job Corps, to empower underprivileged people through education, job training, and community action initiatives.   By 1964, Fortune magazine summarized the national feeling about the president: “Lyndon Johnson has achieved a breadth of public approval few observers would have believed possible when he took office.” Johnson ran his election campaign on a platform of continuing his predecessor’s legacy, promoting civil rights, and advancing his broad visions of a “Great Society” that aimed to eliminate poverty and racial justice.   His Republican opponent, Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater, had a staunch conservative agenda that was significantly different. Goldwater advocated for a more aggressive stance against the Soviet Union, less government intervention in the economy, and opposition to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, signed into law by Johnson on July 2, 1964, arguing that the latter infringed on states’ rights.   Ultimately, the Arizona senator’s positions on social issues and foreign policy proved too extreme for American voters. On Election Day, President Johnson won 486 electoral votes, carrying 44 states to Goldwater’s 52 electoral votes. LBJ secured 61.1% of the popular vote to his opponent’s 38.5%, with the latter carrying only his home state of Arizona and five states in the Deep South.   1972: Richard Nixon Richard Nixon speaking to people upon arriving at Andrews Air Force Base in Maryland on July 18, 1971, photo by Oliver F. Atkins. Source: Richard Nixon Presidential Library   Although often overshadowed by the Watergate scandal and Richard Nixon’s subsequent resignation, the election of 1972, which acted as an impetus for the bugging of the Democratic headquarters in the infamous Washington DC hotel, is one of the most significant landslide victories in presidential elections.   Nixon’s bid for a second term came on the heels of significant successes such as the withdrawal of US troops from Vietnam, the nation’s most contentious conflict in history, the successful Apollo moon landings, and détente with the Soviet Union and China. On the other hand, the president’s challenger, George McGovern, a Democratic senator from South Dakota, was known for his strong opposition to the Vietnam War and his advocacy of liberal policies, one of the more controversial being his proposal to provide every American with a guaranteed minimum income.   With the Watergate scandal looming on the horizon—although the break-in at the Democratic Headquarters was not yet tied to the incumbent president—Richard Nixon easily won his re-election bid. The thirty-seventh Commander-in-Chief received 520 electoral votes, carried 49 states, and secured 60.7% of the popular vote compared to his opponent’s 37.5%, granting him one of the largest margins of victory in United States history.   1980 and 1984: Ronald Reagan  Ronald Reagan’s official portrait from 1981. Source: Library of Congress.   While some elections in American history have been too close to call, even extending past their November dates to calculate, the same cannot be said about the landslide victories of the Republican Party’s arguably most famous president, Ronald Reagan. When he first ran for the executive office in 1980 against the incumbent President Jimmy Carter, the California governor appealed to those frustrated with the economy and America’s weakening global position. Reagan promised to lower taxes and increase military spending while also winning the conservative vote by seeking a constitutional amendment banning abortion.   “Are you better off than you were four years ago?” Reagan asked the American people during one of his debates against Carter. With high inflation, a national fuel shortage, and the perceived inability of the president to free American hostages in Iran, public opinion polls had the incumbent president’s popularity lower than Richard Nixon’s during the Watergate scandal. The public responded to Reagan’s question with a resounding “No,” giving him 51% of the popular vote and 489 electoral votes to Carter’s 49. It was the first time since 1954 that a Republican called the White House home.   President Reagan repeated the landslide feat four years later. Although he was at the time the nation’s oldest candidate for president at 73 years old, Reagan’s record of a strong economy and revival of national confidence and power worldwide saw the president claim an overwhelming victory in November 1984. Reagan won 58.8% of the popular vote and carried 525 electoral votes to his opponent Walter Mondale’s 13. The Republican candidate also won 49 out of the 50 states, losing only Mondale’s home state of Minnesota. When the dust settled, it was the second-largest share of the electoral college for a candidate since 1820—a record for the Republican Party.

  As in other countries with democratic election processes, the Americans go to the polls in their millions to cast their vote to choose who will represent them. While the fundamental idea remains the same, each country has different methods and exists in a different context. As such, the electoral process differs from country to country.   The election process in the United States is a complex affair. So how often does it happen?   Term Length A presidential election campaign. Source: needpix.com   The presidential term has different lengths in different countries. Around the world, the presidential term usually ranges from four to seven years with many different laws on how many terms a single person can serve.    In India, the term is five years, but the number of terms is unlimited. In France, the president used to serve a seven-year term, but is now limited to two consecutive five-year terms. In Ireland, the president can serve two seven-year terms, and in Russia, the president is limited to two six-year terms.   In the United States, the term length is four years, and the president is limited to two terms. If a person becomes president as a result of succession (i.e. the death or resignation of a president), and that person ends up serving more than two years as president, they can only be elected for one more term.   The Elections The White House. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As the presidential term length is four years, it naturally follows that the presidential elections happen every four years! This is indeed the case, and voting takes place on the first Tuesday following the first Monday of November in an election year.    Before this happens, however, many things have to take place. More than a year before the elections take place, the candidates have to register with the Federal Election Commission, and then announce their intention to run. Primary and caucus debates then take place, after which the primaries are held to determine which candidate will run for each party.    After the candidates are selected, they then take part in presidential debates. Voting commences in early November, and millions of Americans take to the polls to make their mark on history.    The voting process determines how the electors in each state are required to vote in selecting the new president. This vote happens in December, and in January, Congress counts the Electoral College votes and officially finalizes the choice for president.    On January 20, the new president is inaugurated.   Conclusion Vote! Source: Pexels / Mikhail Nilov   Voting in the United States is part of a democratic process that has deep roots in tradition. For many people, the United States represents the home of modern democracy, despite the criticisms the process draws, as well as the actions of the actual politicians who are subject to extreme scrutiny from the public and the media.    Whatever the case may be, elections in the United States are seen as an almost sacred event, and the future of this tradition seems as sturdy as the foundations upon which it was built.

  Hermits and ascetics were a familiar part of life in the Middle Ages. They were generally individuals who sought out seclusion from the world to become closer to God. However, there was a group of female religious hermits in the 12th and 13th centuries who were truly the pop stars or influencers of their day: The Beguines.   Europe in the High Middle Ages A map of the Holy Roman Empire in the 12th century including the Low Countries that straddle the border between France and Germany, from Allgemeiner Historischer Handatlas, by R. Andrée, 1886. Source: mapsontheweb.com   The High Middle Ages generally spans the time between the 11th to the end of the 13th centuries. This was a time when a lot of things commonly associated with the medieval era took place. Europe was generally governed by a feudal system, the Black Death was a recurring issue, and crusades and jihads were a common occurrence as the forces of Christianity and Islam battled over the Middle East. These conflicts spawned a new kind of pious expression of religion: the religious military order. The most famous among these were the Knights Templar—protectors of Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land—and the Knights Hospitaller, an organization founded to care for the injured, sickly, and poor visitors to Jerusalem.   This was a period of religious creativity, with newly evolving ways to express religious devotion and new ways of living a devout life. While the Crusades had opened a military route of devotion, they also helped to bring new emphasis on the importance of care and service to the less fortunate in society. In the increasingly urbanizing towns and cities of Western Europe, individuals lived extraordinary lives through care and self-sacrifice outside of the rigid institution of the monastery.   One example of this trend are the Beguines in the Low Countries: women who sought out a more pious life through a desire to get closer to God. They did this completely independently of the traditional route of the nunnery, and though not formally part of any organization, they formed networks with one another. This remarkable phenomenon caught the attention of those around them and they attracted disciples, mentors and students from far afield: both men and women, laity and clergy, and rich and poor. Here are some of their stories.   1. Marie D’Oignies An engraving of Marie d’Oignies from Namurcensi Belgii Dioecesi, 17th century. Source: The Treasure of Oignies   Marie was born in Nivelles (modern-day Belgium), in the Holy Roman Empire, in 1177 and died in 1213. She grew up in wealth and was betrothed at 14 to a man of equal status named Jean. Marie felt a strong urge to live a religious life and successfully convinced her husband to join her. But there was something about Marie which was different to other nuns and ascetics. Monks and nuns living in monasteries had to follow a “rule”; Marie preferred not to be tied by irrevocable vows or obey only her local superior.   Together with Jean, Marie spent over twelve years working to care for the lepers in Willambroux. It was during this time that Marie gained a following. She became almost a “living saint,” and people traveled far to meet with her. Her prayers were seen as valuable as she was a reputable judge of people’s sin. Men and women alike trusted her wisdom and guidance.   In 1208, Jacques de Vitry—a canon from Paris—visited Marie and became her disciple. In a world where social and religious life was dominated by men, Marie was able to preach to and command respect from her political superiors.   Later, Marie received several heavenly visions, declaring she could recognize the difference between consecrated and unconsecrated bread, stating that the unconsecrated bread made her ill. She died at the age of 35, supposedly of emaciation.   2. Yvette de Huy A manuscript depiction of two women washing the sores of a leper, from The Picture Book of Madame Marie, c.1285. Source: Feminae   Yvette was born in 1158 into a wealthy family in Huy, modern-day Belgium. She was forced into an arranged marriage at thirteen but her husband died when she was just 18. In this time, she gave birth to three children, but one died young. Once widowed, Yvette wanted to live a religious life and rejected her possessions, giving them to the poor. This angered her parents who, fearing their financial stability, seized her remaining children.   Throughout her life, Yvette’s father attempted to get her to remarry and tried to get the Bishop of Liège to help him. However, the bishop was impressed by Yvette’s devotion and gave her formal permission to remain widowed. Like Marie d’Oignies, Yvette then worked caring for lepers at the hospital in Huy and had a following of companions who admired her and followed her lifestyle. She devoted herself to caring for the sick, the poor, and other social exiles at great risk to her own health.   In 1190, she took this religious lifestyle one step further and chose to be confined by the Abbot of Orval in a cell near the leper hospital to live as a hermit. In this way, she chose to become an anchorite, exiled from wider society to allow her to get closer to God.   Yvette was considered to be a prophetess by local pilgrims who sought her out for advice and wisdom. She even demanded the local priests and dean visit her, confronting them about their poor religious behavior.   3. Christina Mirabilis An engraving of Christina the Astonishing experiencing her vision of purgatory. Source: Österreichische Nationalbibliothek.   Christina Mirabilis, also known as Christina the Astonishing in her biographies, was born in 1150 in Brustem, also in modern-day Belgium. Christina did not have an easy start in life and was orphaned at just 15. When she was in her twenties, she suffered a crippling seizure while working in the fields. Bystanders believed her to be dead and her funeral was planned.   This is where her extraordinary life began. According to legend she began levitating and exclaimed that she could not bear to smell the sinful people around her! Christina said she had been to hell, purgatory, and heaven, and had been sent back to Earth to pray for the souls of the dead. From that point onward, she slept on rocks, begged, and ate whatever she could get. She stood in freezing water for hours, rolled in fire without harm, and was even dragged under the water wheel of a mill. All the time she remained uninjured.   Throughout her life, she avoided people where she could, climbing up trees or atop church spires, and lived her whole life in poverty. Those around her were unsure what to think of this. Was she a holy woman of God, blessed with knowledge of the experiences of tortured souls in purgatory? Or was she suffering from demons or insanity? She was jailed twice in her life under suspicion of demonic possession and mellowed her lifestyle a little in response.   She saw out her last few years in St. Catherine’s convent, Saint-Trond, and died of natural causes at 74. Additionally, showing the sisterhood present among these Belgian women, Marie d’Oignies supported Christina and her work, despite never forming an official order together.   The Response of the Church  Portrait of Innocent III relief, by Joseph Kiselewski, 1950. Source: Architect of the Capitol, Washington D.C.   The curious actions of these women, along with many others in the Low Countries at this time, did not go unnoticed by the wider authorities of the Catholic Church. These women often had followers among the clergy, and they had supporters across the Christian world. However, the refusal of these Beguines to conform to the institutions of the monastery and the hierarchies of the Church meant that they generated suspicion.   At the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, Pope Innocent III decreed that no new religious orders should be founded and instead those wishing to live a holy life should do so by following the rule of an existing and approved monastic rule. This effectively brought an end to the level of freedom offered by the Beguines’ communities. It also helped to rein in a short period of female religious agency.   The Council of Vienne in 1311 finally spelled the end for Beguines. This council is best known for dissolving the Knights Templar, declaring them heretics and seizing their land. In the Holy Roman Empire, Beguines were also accused of heresy and the Papacy sought to gain formal control over the most influential order at the time, the Franciscans. This marked over one hundred years of disagreement and contention between the hierarchical structure of the Catholic Church and the desire of the laity to express their piety outside of the cloister.   Their Legacy Bronze medal depicting Jacques de Vitry, made in 1518. Source: National Gallery of Art.   Several of the Beguines attracted the attention of significant members of the Catholic Church. Jacques de Vitry knew Marie d’Oignies personally and was so entranced by her spirituality that he wrote a biography of her life. Contrary to a lot of his peers, Jacques believed in the legitimacy of this new form of female spirituality, was fascinated with their power and perceived equality with priests and members of the clergy by their communities. He appealed to Pope Honorius III to recognize the Beguine movement as a legitimate order. The new pope—in contrast to his predecessor Innocent III—allowed pious women to live together in sororities for the benefit of their community. However, he stopped short of recognizing them formally as an order.   Portrait of a Beguine woman, from a manuscript on Saint Aubertus, 1840. Source: University of Ghent   Thomas of Cantimpré was a member of the Dominican religious order and was a prolific commentator on the Beguine movement. His first work was a supplement to Jacques’ existing biography of Marie, but he was so impressed with the woman and her life that he expanded on the original text with more details of her life and spirituality. He worked to convert Marie’s personal way of life into a spiritual guide and a model way of living for others to emulate.   Thomas also wrote saints’ lives (vitae) of other Beguines that fascinated him, including Christina Mirabilis. Though the historical value of these vitae as accurate texts is limited, they are immensely valuable in understanding the reputation that these women were garnering.   Though ultimately the Beguine movement was betrayed by a Church set on preserving the strength of its hierarchies and institutions, the work of Jacques and Thomas, among others, helped to cement their legacy as independent women pursuing their lives on their terms. They were able to resist the patriarchal pressures of marriage and childcare and devote themselves to the spiritual care of themselves and their communities.

  The Viking Age has grown increasingly popular and has had a huge impact on modern movie, television, and video game adaptations. However, when we strip away the makeup and the props, what did a Viking actually look at? What—if anything—does Hollywood get right?   Who Were the Vikings? A manuscript depiction of Danes landing from ships, from MS M.736 fol. 9v, 12th century. Source: The Morgan Library, New York.   Generally, the Viking Age is understood to have lasted between the 8th and the 11th centuries. “Viking” was the name given to the raiders from Scandinavia who plagued the nations around the North Sea and beyond. Technically, the term “Viking” refers to an occupation, rather than a culture: those going “Viking” were simply going raiding. However, the term has expanded to encapsulate not just the cultures around Scandinavia but also their colonies and raiding grounds in Britain, Ireland, the North Sea, and continental Europe.   The most notable raid on English soil was in 793 CE when a warband assaulted the monastery on Lindisfarne (“Holy Island”). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports the atrocities they committed as they stole the valuables from the church complex and took the monks as slaves. This proved to be a recurring theme: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recounts numerous raids on the English coast, culminating in the full-scale invasion of the Great Heathen Army in 865.   The Vikings also conquered land in Normandy, Ireland, and Scotland, and they traded and raided into Russia, the Byzantine Empire, and further into Asia. The central pillar of the Vikings’ success was their longboats. These clever crafts featured a sharp bow, with a wide, shallow midsection, allowing the sailors to traverse rivers and the bitter storms of the North Sea alike.   What we think of as the “Vikings” incorporated a diverse group of peasant farmers, fishermen, traders, warriors, and kings — much the same as other cultures in the Early Medieval Period. Thankfully, we have moved beyond the Victorian notion of barbaric, horn-wearing berserkers, but there was still much more to Viking life beyond the swashbuckling warriors of popular culture.   Viking Clothing An example of clothing worn by Viking men and women. Source: Norse-mythology.org   Cloth was expensive and time-intensive to produce in the Early Middle Ages, and, as such, most people would not have more than one or two sets of clothes. The choice of material of most individuals in Scandinavia and across Europe was wool and linen; generally, linen would be worn as an undergarment and wool on top for added warmth.   Archaeology and depictions from this period show that all classes of people loved to wear brightly colored clothing adorned with embroidered patterns and braids — bright blues, shades of green and yellow, and deep reds were all achievable with natural dyes like woad, nettle, and madder.   A Viking attire exhibit, displayed in the National Museum of Denmark. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The staple of Viking male clothing was the tunic. This was a loose-fitting garment that reached down to the knees and was secured at the waist with a belt and at the neck with a brooch. Artwork seems to show all classes and roles in society tended to wear this basic garment and wool was the perfect fabric of choice for the chilly, North Sea climate.   It seems likely that there was very little variation in this style across Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages — it may have been difficult to spot a Viking by his tunic alone! One of the few examples we have of a male Viking tunic is the shirt from Viborg, dated to the 11th century.   In contrast, Viking women’s costumes seem to have been more distinctive. In contrast to the ankle-length tunics of Anglo-Saxon women, Scandinavian women tended to wear “apron dresses.” These consisted of fabric wrapped around the torso with shoulder straps, secured with two brooches on the chest.   The Oseberg ship burial is one of the finest Viking burials ever found and was for a high-ranking woman — probably a queen or a priestess. Despite many grave goods being looted in antiquity, the body of the woman was wrapped in a fine red wool dress, adorned with silk decorative strips.   Viking Jewelry The Galloway Hoard, one of the finest assemblies of Viking jewelry. Source: National Museums Scotland.   One thing Hollywood gets right about the Vikings is their love of jewelry! In this period, jewelry served multiple purposes, illustrating status, religion, and wealth. Viking burials from Scandinavia and England have been found containing elaborate jewelry, which survives far more often than delicate leather and fabrics. Jewelry choices for men and women were different, but both sexes appeared to enjoy adorning their clothing and costumes with precious metals.   The infamous Thor’s hammer (Mjolnir) pendant appears across the Viking world and would have fulfilled a similar purpose as the Christian crucifix: for divine protection and cultural affiliation. These were spread across the Viking world and some were very impressive indeed, such as a notable silver and gold inlaid find from Norfolk.   For men, jewelry could also be a method of portable wealth. As they raided across different kingdoms with different coinage systems and monetary standards, it was often far more practical to melt down silver and gold goods into ingots. These could be smithed into finger or arm rings for convenience, offering easy payment when needed. We have finds of jewelry cut in half or hacked apart — probably a result of some price haggling at the market!   Viking Box Brooch, 700-900 CE. Source: The MET, New York   Jewelry was also a big part of women’s daily costume. Brooches were used to fasten the female apron dress, and many brooches have been found with suspension loops to hang things between them. This could take the form of beads or pendants but it was also practical; archaeology suggests this was also the place to hang keys and personal hygiene items like tweezers and ear spoons.   One example of a “set” of Viking female jewelry is a find from Frafjord, southwest Norway. This example includes oval, or tortoise, silver-plated brooches, two bracelets of bronze, an “equal-armed” brooch used to fasten the tunic, and a large, beaded necklace. This was clearly a rich burial, but the basic assemblage seems to be common across different social statuses.   Viking Hair and Makeup Viking comb, tweezers and earpick, showing the importance of personal hygiene to Vikings. Source: National Museum of Denmark.   The Vikings cared a lot about their hair. Combs are regularly found across Viking settlements, and they are often finely made of bone and antler and feature ornate decoration. In this way, grooming may have fulfilled a ritualistic purpose in Viking culture, rather than being just for hygiene. This occurs in some cultures to this day, with Sikhs maintaining long, uncut hair and beards (kesh), and carrying a kangha (comb) as part of the religious equipment as commanded by Guru Gobind Singh.   Stone carvings and metalwork offer rare glimpses into Viking hairstyles beyond grooming equipment. For women, this often involves braided hair or tied up into a bun, however, it is incredibly hard to discern with any real detail the hairstyles of men beyond short-to-mid-length hair and the existence of mustaches and goatees.   Christian sources generally portray long hair as a “pagan” characteristic; Alcuin, an Anglo-Saxon monk, chastised King Æthelred of Northumbria for wearing his hair and beard in a way that “resembled the pagans.” The association was probably less religion-based and more to do with the growing popularity of Viking fashion in England.   Interestingly, various hair-coverings of fine materials like silk have been found in Viking settlements including York, Lincoln, and Dublin. This may suggest Viking women covered their hair, though this may also be a sign of their adoption of Christianity once they began living among the Christian Irish and Anglo-Saxons.   Figure of Viking women, with hair tied at the neck. Source: National Museum of Denmark   Popular media loves to depict Vikings as eyeshadow-wearing goths covered in tattoos, but how true is this? Ibrahim ibn Yaqub, a Jewish traveler to Hedeby (modern-day northern Germany and southern Denmark) from Islamic Spain notes how both men and women wore kohl—a cosmetic made of ground stibnite—to color their eyes.   This cosmetic was widely worn in the Islamic world by men and women, and it may well have been traded in Scandinavia. Unfortunately, the original source is lost, and only later copies remain, so we cannot say for sure how reliable this comment is. Similarly, we have no sources at all for either warpaint or tattoos; the technology was there but it is probably safer to say it was an individualistic fashion choice rather than a cultural norm.   Viking Weapons and Armor  Sword, axe head, arrows, lances, fighting knife, and shield bosses from chamber grave Bj.581: Birka, Sweden. Interestingly, these items accompanied a female skeleton, possibly a warrior. Source: Researchgate   Today, the Vikings are notorious for their raiding and warring. In turn, the long-shafted broad axe has become associated with their weapon of choice. Though finds from across the Viking world have shown they made use of and valued these intimidating weapons, there were far more options in their arsenal.   The first Viking raiders were opportunists, everyday people, who turned to theft and looting — possibly due to climate change in Scandinavia making farming less effective. These individuals would have used wood axes, knives, and hunting spears: anything they may have to hand. When attacking unarmed monks, simple tools were enough!   However, in the years that followed when the warbands began to form larger armies in an attempt to conquer lands, they began to use more professional equipment. For the rich Viking warrior, the sword would have been the preferred weapon, and there are some remarkable finds from across Britain and Scandinavia of beautifully crafted blades with inlaid gold and silver. These were weapons of the elite, and only accessible to the richest of Viking warriors.   The heavily armored, professional Viking soldier would likely have worn a chainmail coat and a nasal helm. This was the de facto military uniform of most soldiers in Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages, and we see a similar outfit still in use by the Normans and Anglo-Saxons in the Bayeux Tapestry, created at the end of the Viking Age.   To onlookers, both opposing armies would have been dressed and equipped very similarly, and it was only their opposing formations and the raising of banners that allowed soldiers to tell friend from foe. Rather than imagining “Viking” weapons and armor, it is better to consider the general equipment of the period.   Could You Spot a Viking? Illustration of a typical early medieval warrior, by Gerry Embleton, this basic set of equipment was popular across Western and Northern Europe and not limited to Vikings. Source: Osprey Publishing.   Whilst Hollywood has largely moved beyond portraying the Vikings as horned-helmeted barbarians, the popular concept of fur and leather-wearing, angry men in eyeshadow remains to this day. Instead, the costume of Scandinavian Vikings should be considered in the wider context of European fashion.   This is not to say Vikings were not identifiable. Their hairstyles and jewelry and some items of clothing, like the apron dresses, did set them apart from the surrounding Franks and Anglo-Saxons. Interestingly, it may have been far easier to identify a Scandinavian woman than a man, which may hint at women’s roles as carriers of cultural identity and heritage rather than men — quite a way away from the masculine and patriarchal imaginings of Vikings in pop culture!   The early Middle Ages were not a time of muddy, dirty peasants dressed in raggedy clothes, instead clothes were colorful and decorated, with individuals going great lengths to express themselves. In this sense, Vikings and the people of Scandinavia were like anyone in medieval Europe: they wore practical clothing, enjoyed jewelry and colorful clothes, but as with all cultural groups, had distinctive styles and cultural costume.   There was as much difference between a Dane and a Swede as there was between a Scandinavian and an Anglo-Saxon — perhaps it is time to move away from tropes about what a Viking looked like, and remember fashion was just as applicable then as it is now.