The Byzantine Empire in the 7th century was wrecked by military strife. The empire was halved, with its richest territories in Egypt, North Africa, and the Levant lost to the expanding Islamic Caliphate. However, the empire not only survived its losses but had a resurgence in the 9th to 11th centuries, with a revival of classical Hellenic art and literature that coincided with the reconquest of nearly half of its lost territories. This had an irreversible impact on Byzantine culture and society, as the definition of “Roman” would go through an evolution during the Macedonian Renaissance.   The State of the Byzantine Empire During the Dark Ages  Emperor Justinian and members of his court, 6th century. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art   The Byzantine Empire during the late 6th to late 7th centuries was in decline. Following the reconquest of the Western provinces of Italy and North Africa under Justinian the Great, the empire was left financially exhausted and also militarily overextended. Coupled with the constant war in the east with the Sassanid Dynasty of Iran, the empire was in a weak position by the end of Justinian’s reign. In addition to the Plague of Justinian from 541-549 CE which killed 20%-40% of Constantinople’s population, the empire was left in material ruins by the dawn of the 7th century.   The production of buildings and literature reached a low in the empire during this period, as the emperors had neither the resources nor time to patronize the arts like in previous centuries. As a result of the weakness of the Byzantines, the rising Islamic Caliphate had conquered rich Roman provinces from the Levant to North Africa by 647 CE. The situation in Italy was equally grim, as the Lombards took over half the Peninsula, permanently weakening the Byzantine presence there.   Byzantine Medallion, depicting Christ, 1100 CE. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art   The empire was also struggling with religious tensions. The Iconoclasm Dispute which divided the empire on a theological level began due to different interpretations of the Ten Commandments, with the iconoclasts believing that all religious images and icons went against the correct doctrine. Starting in 726 CE under Emperor Leo III, state-sanctioned iconoclasm—meaning the “breaking of icons”—occurred until 787 CE. A second period of iconoclasm happened between 814 and 842 CE.   Aside from the vast loss of art and icons, the theological dispute split the empire in half, as the papacy in Rome opposed the doctrine throughout both Iconoclast periods. This further weakened the Byzantine position in Italy, as by 752 CE the popes no longer sought imperial recognition from Constantinople. This would be the first of many breakdowns in relations between the Eastern and Western Churches.   Revival of Learning and the Arts Iconoclasts whitewashing an image of Christ, from the Khludoff Psalter, 9th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Iconoclasm dispute and the Macedonian Renaissance are two seemingly polar opposite events that are more intertwined than what meets the eye. The Iconoclasm dispute was a struggle against the reliance on monastic art to venerate religious figures, and despite its ultimate failure, it did succeed in opening up Byzantine art and culture to different influences and traditions.   “Iconoclasm had also challenged the monastic domination of culture, which had been a feature of the seventh century. The level of education rose; secular learning was cultivated for its own sake and there was a recovery of many aspects of classical culture” (Angold 96).   As a result, the 9th and 10th centuries saw a revival of art and literature. This was reflected in a new Greek writing style called the minuscule hand, which featured smaller and more connected letters that made reading more accessible and books cheaper.   Most of the scholars of the early Macedonian Renaissance were civil servants and part of the imperial hierarchy. During this era, the emperors recruited many scholars as civil servants through patronage. A prominent example is Leo the Mathematician, one of the greatest scientists in Byzantine history. He is credited with creating a beacon system in Anatolia, which was a series of nine towers that stretched over 720 km (447 miles). If a raid occurred, a bonfire was lit to alert the emperor of any incoming Arab raids within the hour. In addition, a series of synchronized clocks were implemented in each tower, as different messages could be conveyed by the timing of when the fire was lit.   David Composing the Psalms, from the Paris Psalter, c. 900 C.E. Source: BnF   Aside from creative inventions like the beaconing system, the Byzantines also looked toward the past. A feature of the Macedonian Renaissance was the departure from Late Roman art forms and the revival of Hellenistic styles. Byzantine artists during this era blended Hellenistic art with religion, as they depicted Christian scenes and Biblical references through Classical Art. The Paris Psalter manuscript is one prominent example.   The Economic and Military Revival  Monomachos Crown, 11th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   With the revival of art and learning well underway by the late 9th century, the empire entered a military and economic golden age during the Macedonian Dynasty. The first ruler of this dynasty was Basil I, a poor peasant from Macedonia who rose up the imperial hierarchy and eventually became emperor of the Romans in 867 CE. Under subsequent emperors, the empire managed to make advances against the weakening Abbasid Caliphate.   In 961 CE and 967 CE, respectively, the Byzantines reconquered Crete and Cyprus which reaffirmed Byzantine naval superiority in the Aegean Sea, and in 965 CE, Cilicia in Anatolia was also retaken from the Arabs. The most impressive series of reconquests came during the reign of Basil II (976 CE-1025 CE), as he destroyed the Bulgarian Empire in 1018 CE and absorbed the entire state into the empire.   During this era, the empire saw its last resurgence in Italy after Otto II of the Holy Roman Empire failed to conquer the south in 982 CE. As a result, a temporary peace ensued in the region. This was followed by an alliance with Venice that traded lower tariffs for naval support in Italy.   Coin of Basil II, 960-1125. Source: The British Museum   The expansion of the empire’s territorial possessions also increased its tax base and the amount of resources it had. For example, Basil II left the treasury with a surplus of 14,400,000 nomismata and an annual income of 5,900,000 nomismata by 1025 CE, in comparison to an annual revenue of 2,900,000 nomismata right before the reign of Basil I.   The Byzantine Emperors depended on the urban bureaucracy for vital functions such as tax collection and balancing accounts, and the rise of literacy during the Macedonian Renaissance no doubt enlarged the pool of talent that the empire could draw from. As a result, it is no coincidence that the greatest economic and military successes of the Macedonian Dynasty came during the late 10th century when the intellectual revival of the empire had already been ongoing for more than 50 years.   Change in National Identity  Goblet with Personifications of Cyprus, Rome, Constantinople, and Alexandria, 8th century. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art   The Byzantine Empire was in a very different position by the end of the Macedonian Renaissance than it was in the 7th and 8th centuries. Although the empire was in military and economic decline during the two centuries of the Islamic Conquests, it still had an undisputed claim as the sole Roman Empire. The empire was still a largely multiethnic state, holding pockets of land in Italy, Spain, Greece, and North Africa.   By the 10th century, the empire was a largely homogenous state of Greeks under the name of “Roman.” As a result, the Roman identity shifted to a more narrow term that only encompassed somebody who was raised speaking Greek and was an Orthodox Christian living in the Byzantine Empire. The empire still had minority populations, but as long as they assimilated into the cultural norm of the empire, they could be recognized as Romans.   “Overall, Romania (Byzantium) looked more like a Roman Kingdom that had minorities than a true multiethnic empire, though in the later tenth and eleventh centuries, the balance would shift toward imperial rule over recently conquered or annexed foreign territories. Still, the boundaries between Roman and barbarian were never as stark as our sources suggest” (Kaldellis, 2).   Basil I, and his son Leo, 13th century. Source: National Library of Spain   This is reflected in the perception of the Byzantine Empire by other states and peoples during the Macedonian Renaissance. For example, the coronation of Charlemagne in 800 CE as emperor of the Western Roman Empire caused the Latin West to view the Byzantines as Greeks, whose rulers in Constantinople were not emperors of the Romans but the emperors/kings of the Greeks. The Macedonian Renaissance also had a hand in this perception. Although citizens during this era considered themselves Roman, the revival of literature and art was directly inspired by ancient Greece.   Laws and codes were still written in the Hellenistic Koine Greek despite the spoken form of Greek being far evolved by the 10th century. Consequently, the Macedonian Renaissance was also the first period in Byzantine history that the empire consciously drew on its Hellenic heritage for literary and artistic inspiration.   The Impact of the Macedonian Renaissance The Byzantine Empire in 1025, under the Macedonian Dynasty. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Macedonian Renaissance was a fascinating period in Byzantine History that has multiple meanings. A rebirth in Hellenic art and literature? A revival in the military and economic fortunes of the empire? All of these things are interconnected, and the result was a period of rapid change in Byzantine identity from the 10th to 11th centuries.   Rather than the wide-reaching Roman Empire of the ancient era, the medieval Byzantines were limited to a predominately Hellenic sphere of territories. This had an irreversible impact on the definition of “Roman,” which became far more specific to Hellenized citizens of the reduced Roman Empire.   Despite the changes in identity and culture, the empire reached its largest extent since the 6th century. Although its economic and military golden age would not last long after Basil II, the revival of learning and literature during the Macedonian Renaissance would continue for centuries longer.   Bibliography   Angold, M.J. (2001). Byzantium: the Bridge from Antiquity to the Middle Ages.  Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Kaldellis, A. (2017). Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood: The Rise and Fall of Byzantium, 955  A.D. to the First Crusade. Oxford University Press. Treadgold, W. T. (1979). The Revival of Byzantine Learning and the Revival of the Byzantine State. The American Historical Review, 84(5), 1245–1266. https://doi.org/10.2307/1861467

  The term “government in exile” describes political parties that claim themselves as the legitimate government of an independent, sovereign state but cannot carry out their duties due to instability, conflict, or foreign occupation. The local government is compelled to move to a secure location.   During World War II, the majority of the European governments of the nations under occupation went into exile in London, England. For this reason, London acquired the characterization of “Miniature Europe.” Read on for an overview of all those WWII governments in exile.   1. Free France General De Gaulle inspecting sailors on the Free French ship Leopard photographed by Reginald George Guy Coote. Source: Imperial War Museums   Nazi Germany invaded France on May 10, 1940. On June 16, 1940, Marshal Henri Philippe Pétain was appointed prime minister of France. On June 17, he informed Nazi Germany about the French surrender. Paris, as well, fell. Soon thereafter, Marshal Pétain established a German puppet state known as Vichy France. The same day, Charles de Gaulle, who had a minor position in the French government, decided to fight for French independence. He left Paris for London, intending to form the French government in exile.   During this time, de Gaulle had been undersecretary in the French government for only 12 days and was not as prominent on the international stage as Marshal Pétain. De Gaulle named the French government in exile Free France, claiming it to be the one and only legitimate government.   Already on June 18, despite the opposition from Britain’s cabinet, Prime Minister Winston Churchill allowed de Gaulle to deliver a five-minute speech on BBC radio.   “Whatever happens, the flame of the French resistance must not be extinguished and will not be extinguished,” de Gaulle declared, calling for Frenchmen to join the newly established Free French Forces.   Crowds of French patriots line the Champs Elysees to view Allied tanks and halftracks pass through the Arc du Triomphe after Paris was liberated on August 25, 1944. Source: Library of Congress   The primary goal of the Free French Forces, led by General de Gaulle, was to seize control of the North African territory by fighting both the forces of Vichy France and the Axis powers. In an effort to assert control over the French possessions in central Africa, Asia, and Oceania, Charles de Gaulle founded the French National Committee on October 27, 1940. At first, it was known as the Empire Defense Council.   The French Liberation Army (AFL) was founded on August 1, 1943, when the Army of Africa and the Free French Forces merged. De Gaulle’s government in exile was able to assemble almost 500,000 conscripts in the AFL in only three years. AFL successfully participated in the liberation of Paris in August 1944 and all subsequent Allied war efforts.   Just months before the end of World War II, in June 1944, on the territory of liberated France, de Gaulle proclaimed the establishment of the Provisional Government of the French Republic. This marked the transition of de Gaulle’s government in exile to Free France’s formal authority on French territory. Charles de Gaulle was greeted as a national hero in France for his wartime efforts. On November 13, 1945, the assembly unanimously elected Charles de Gaulle as head of the French government.   2. Polish Government in Exile Adolf Hitler receives a parade of German troops at Aleje Ujazdowskie in Warsaw, October 5, 1939. Source: National World War II Museum, New Orleans   The idea of forming the Polish government in exile was born when Nazi Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. Soon, on September 17, the Soviet Union’s invasion of Eastern Poland followed. Polish officials initially established a government in exile in Paris, France, in an effort to protect Poland’s integrity and sovereignty.   Władysław Raczkiewicz served as president, while Władysław Sikorski assumed the roles of commander-in-chief and prime minister. The Polish government was compelled to move to London in the wake of the Nazi invasion of France in June 1940, with the primary goal of gaining support and recognition from key players in international affairs.   The Polish armed forces—land, air, and naval—participated extensively in the military activities of Allied forces. Throughout the war years, Polish intelligence operations proved extremely beneficial. Assisting the Allied forces to break the Enigma code, widely utilized by Nazi Germany, proved crucial in learning about Germany’s covert military schemes.   The Polish government in exile also coordinated the Polish resistance movement (Polish Home Army) within the occupied homeland.   The Polish government in exile played a significant role in bringing attention to the horrors of the Holocaust, including the systematic elimination of Jews and the mass murder of several Polish ethnic groups by Nazi Germany in German-occupied Poland. Utilizing the press, mass media, and diplomatic connections, the government released a number of periodicals, including the Polish Fortnightly Review, which provided early and detailed accounts of Auschwitz, a Nazi-established concentration camp in occupied Poland.   The British media, primarily the BBC, assisted the Polish government in exile in distributing these in-depth accounts to the general public. By 1944, the international society was well aware of the mass killing of ethnic minorities in occupied Poland.   The Polish Government in Exile, November 6, 1989. Source: Janusz Buda, Waseda University   The Polish government’s actions in exile were undermined during high-level conferences held in Tehran (December 1943), Yalta (February 1945), and Potsdam (June–July 1945), where the Big Three—US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Soviet Leader Joseph Stalin, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill—discussed the post-war arrangement of the international order.   By the time of the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the Soviet Union had already occupied large parts of Poland. Stalin demanded to install the Soviet-friendly government in Poland, which would discredit the Polish government in exile. Roosevelt and Churchill, aiming to preserve the balance of power against Nazi Germany and Japan, sought to maintain the Soviet engagement in war efforts in Europe and Asia. Thus, they were willing to compromise and make concessions at the expense of smaller nations, such as Poland. Thus, the dreams of Poland becoming an independent and sovereign nation were crushed at the Yalta Conference, where the Soviet Union acquired control over Poland without the Polish government in exile being able to participate in the negotiation processes.   This marked the start of the decline of the activities of the Polish government in exile. Even though it remained in London until the dissolution of the Soviet Union, its function was limited due to a lack of international recognition. After the war, the Polish government in exile tried to keep the idea of an independent, sovereign Poland alive by cooperating with Polish émigré communities in Great Britain, preserving the Polish language and culture within these communities, as well as raising awareness of the Polish history of occupation.   The Polish government in exile was ultimately dissolved in 1990 when the first free elections were held in Poland.   3. Norway’s Government in Exile From one of the Norwegian squadrons in Great Britain. The map is studied before a cruise over France. Source: National Archives of Norway   Norway had proclaimed its neutrality during World War I and hoped to maintain it during World War II as well. It succeeded until Nazi Germany invaded Norwegian territories on April 9, 1940. Sailing into the Oslofjord port, German cruisers were ordered to capture King Haakon VII, royal family members, and the representatives of the government, hoping for an easy and rapid capitulation.   Despite initial refusal to leave Oslo, on June 7, King Haakon VII and his family, along with Johan Nygaardsvold’s government, fled to London, where they established the Norwegian government in exile at Kingston House North, Princes Gate. In the king’s view, preserving constitutional authority was essential to restoring Norwegian independence and sovereignty.   Like Charles de Gaulle, the leader of Free France, the Norwegian king inspired his country by broadcasting on British BBC radio. On July 8, 1940, King Haakon gave a public address defying Reich Commissioner Josef Terboven’s demands for his abdication to establish a legitimate Nazi administration in occupied Norway. By the end of September, Nazi Germany had given up on the idea of forming a legitimate administration. Rather, they imposed censorship on any expression of support or allegiance to the royal family and outlawed all political organizations except for the Norwegian National Socialist Party.   The king returns to Norway, June 7, 1945. Source: The Royal House of Norway   Throughout the five years of Nazi occupation, the royal family and Johan Nygaardsvold’s government advocated for Norway’s independence by supporting the Home Front, a local resistance movement. On June 20, 1944, Crown Prince Olav was appointed commander of defense, leading the Norwegian armed forces to support the Allies.   On May 8, 1945, Nazi forces withdrew from Norway following Germany’s surrender. On May 30, 1945, Prime Minister Johan Nygaardsvold and his administration returned to Oslo. The royal family arrived on June 7, exactly five years after the beginning of Norway’s occupation.   4. Belgium’s Government in Exile: The Pierlot IV Government The first German troops enter Belgium. August 1914. Source: Hodder Education Magazines   The Nazi invasion of Belgium on May 10, 1940, led to the formation of the Belgian government in exile, initially based in Bordeaux, France. In occupied Belgium, Nazi Germany installed a military administration.   After France fell to Nazi forces in June 1940, the Belgian government, led by Prime Minister Hubert Pierlot, was compelled to flee to London. In October 1940, the prime minister declared his government, widely referred to as the Pierlot IV Government, the only legitimate representative of occupied Belgium.   Not able to function on Belgian territory, it was the government in exile in London that governed the mineral-rich Belgian Congo and from there exported uranium, gold, rubber, and other raw materials. The Allies heavily relied on these resources to support their war efforts. Additionally, the Belgian government in exile was the only exiled government with its national gold reserves also located in London. The resources provided financial independence and flexibility in its actions that the other governments in exile could not afford.   Thus, Pierlot was actively engaged in international cooperation. The Benelux Customs Union was founded on September 5, 1944, by the exiled governments of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. By signing the UN Declaration in January 1942, Belgium gained the right to be admitted into the newly established United Nations.   The Belgian government in exile formed the Belgian Military Camp for Regrouping, which accommodated Belgian migrants and troops rescued from Dunkirk during Operation Dynamo. On September 6, 1944, the Allied forces liberated Brussels. Just two days later, the Belgian government in exile returned to its country.   5. Dutch Government in Exile: The London Cabinet Queen Wilhelmina, with a helmet in her left hand, on her arrival in London, May 14, 1940. Source: Anne Frank House, Amsterdam   On May 10, 1940, Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands. The Dutch government, along with Queen Wilhelmina and her family, fled to London. They arrived on May 13 at Stratton House and formed the Dutch government in exile, widely referred to as the London Cabinet. The Dutch armed forces surrendered to Nazi Germany on May 15, 1940.   Fearing that Nazi Germany would invade Great Britain, Dutch Princess Juliana, the heir to the throne, relocated to Canada.   Inspired by the collaborative government of Vichy France, Prime Minister Dirk Jan de Geer suggested the queen collaborate with Adolf Hitler and return to the Netherlands. The queen resisted. Her strategic calculation was based on the fact that, in the case of collaboration, the Netherlands would be compelled to cede its oil-rich colonies of the Dutch East Indies to the Axis powers (namely Japan), as Vichy France had done in French Indochina. On September 23, 1941, Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy replaced Jan de Geer as the prime minister of the exiled government.   Netherlands after the Allied bombardment, February, 1944. Source: Never Was Mag / Centraal Regionaal Archief Nijmegen   On November 23, 1941, the Dutch government in exile made an agreement with the United States. The United States would control Dutch Guiana (Surinam), with the primary aim of protecting the bauxite mines from Japan. Winston Churchill, mesmerized by the Queen’s dedication and loyalty to the country, described her as “the only man in the Dutch government.”   In September 1944, the Dutch government in exile signed an agreement for a Benelux Customs Union with the Belgian and Luxembourgish governments in exile.   The Dutch government in exile formed a Dutch-led provisional military administration in 1943, also known as Militair Gezag, or Military Authority. When the Allied forces entered the Netherlands in June 1944, Maastricht became the first Dutch city under the Military Authority. The Militair Gezag was dissolved on March 4, 1946, following the end of World War II, and the government returned to the Netherlands.   6. Czechoslovakia’s Government in Exile Members of the Czech government in exile visiting Northern Ireland. Jan Masaryk, Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister of Czechoslovakia on the right. Source: CEU Review of Books   The Czechoslovak government-in-exile, also referred to as the Provisional Czechoslovak Government, was established following the Nazi occupation of Sudetenland on March 15, 1938, and the subsequent surrender of the whole country.   On November 15, 1938, the Czechoslovak president, Edvard Beneš, and the government headed by Prime Minister Rudolf Beran arrived first in Paris, then in Angers. Angers, located southwest of Paris, was considered a relatively safer location compared to Paris. Following the Nazi invasion of France, the government in exile moved to London.   Parts of the military forces left in Czechoslovakia were ordered to evacuate to Poland, and later, they relocated to France as part of the agreement reached on October 2, 1939, which approved the reconstitution of the Czechoslovak army on French territory. The First Division of the Czechoslovak Army played a decisive role in the Battle of France.   The government in exile actively supported the local resistance movement, the Central Leadership of Home Resistance, and its military unit, the Nation’s Defense.   In 1939, the Czechoslovakian government in exile became known as the Czech National Liberation Committee. The key objective of the committee was international recognition as the legitimate representative of the country and the annulment of the Munich Agreement. This agreement, signed on September 30, 1938, by Nazi Germany, France, and Italy, formalized the German annexation of the Sudetenland, a region with a predominantly German population.   The government in exile achieved this aim following the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich, a high-ranking Nazi official, in occupied Prague in June 1942. Heydrich’s assassination was orchestrated by Czechoslovak resistance fighters. Nazi Germany responded by severe repressions in occupied Czechoslovakia. The government in exile shed light on Nazi atrocities in their country, contributing to the rise of the international awareness of Czechoslovakia’s plight.   London in World War II. Source: Moss and Fog   The same year, Edvard Beneš repudiated the Munich Agreement together with Charles de Gaulle and Winston Churchill, earning much-needed legitimacy over the pre-1938 Czechoslovak Republic. The government in exile suggested the deportation of the ethnic Germans from the Sudetenland to Germany and Austria. The final agreement on this issue was reached at the Potsdam Conference held on August 2, 1945.   Planning the future of Czechoslovakia, in December 1943, Beneš sought close cooperation with the Soviet Union. His intentions were based on two key assumptions: first, by forming friendly relations with the Soviet Union, he hoped to avoid future communist coups in Czechoslovakia; secondly, according to his vision, Czechoslovakia had the mission of being “a bridge” between the Soviet Union and Western powers after the war. In December 1943, Beneš visited Moscow and concluded the alliance treaty, in which the Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin, recognized the pre-1938 borders of Czechoslovakia in exchange for the communist dominance in Czechoslovakia.   By April 1945, just before the end of World War II, Beneš arrived in Košice in eastern Slovakia. The Soviet Red Army had already liberated it from the Nazi forces. Beneš declared Košice the temporary capital of Czechoslovakia. Beneš announced the formation of a coalition government, with Klement Gottwald, the leader of the Communist Party, serving as prime minister. Edvard Beneš returned to Prague on May 16, 1945, following the end of World War II, and on June 19, 1946, he was reelected as president of Pro-Soviet Czechoslovakia.   7. Luxembourg’s Government in Exile Reconnaissance squads head the German advance into Luxembourg, May 10, 1940. Source: The Associated Press   Nazi Germany invaded the Duchy of Luxembourg on May 10, 1940. The government of Luxembourg, led by Pierre Dupong and the royal family, with Grand Duchess Charlotte, first fled to France, then to Lisbon, and finally settled in London in 1940. The royal family settled in Montréal, Canada.   The government in exile’s key aim was to acquire Luxembourg’s recognition as an equal member of Western society despite its weak military capabilities. In this regard, the government broadcast in occupied Luxembourg in the Luxembourgish language through BBC radio.   Meanwhile, in Luxembourg, Nazi Germany was actively pursuing Germanization policies. The Luxembourg Grey Book was published for English-speaking readers and press representatives. Grand Duchess Charlotte was vocal in Canada and the United States, advocating for an independent Luxembourg. Over time, the royal family became close to President Franklin D. Roosevelt and received multiple invitations to the White House.   By 1944, the government in exile had abandoned its earlier declared neutrality and formed the Luxembourg Battery. It was incorporated into the Piron Brigade of Belgium. Prince Jean, son of the Grand Duchess and future Grand Duke, participated in Irish Guards military operations (for example, the Battle of Caen, the liberation of Brussels, the liberation of Luxembourg, and Operation Market Garden in the Netherlands).   A meeting in London with Grand Duchess Charlotte and the four members of her government. Source: Europe Remembers / Cour grand-ducale   The Nazi occupation provided the Belgian and Luxembourgish governments in exile with new opportunities for cooperation. In an effort to deepen their economic ties, the two nations signed the Benelux Monetary Agreement on October 21, 1943, and the Convention of the Benelux Treaty with the Netherlands on September 5, 1944.   The Allied forces liberated Luxembourg on September 10, 1944. The government-in-exile returned a week later. The royal family and the Grand Duchess arrived in Luxembourg on April 14, 1945.   8. Greece in Exile: The Cairo Government A stereograph depicting the Nazi invasion of Athens, Greece, c. 1941-1942. Source: The Wiener Holocaust Library   Nazi Germany embarked on the invasion of Greece in April 1941. Greece’s King George II and his government, headed by newly appointed Prime Minister Emmanouil Tsouderos, were forced to leave mainland Greece for Crete on April 25, 1941. On May 24, they were forced to evacuate to Cairo, Egypt. For this reason, the Greek government in exile is often referred to as the Cairo Government. The Cairo Government remained primarily in Egypt until the end of World War II.   The Greek government in exile experienced numerous diplomatic challenges and internal divisions. Fortunately, Greece’s strong merchant marine fleet provided the government in exile with advantages and political leverage when negotiating with British officials since the Greek fleet proved significant in supplying food and other goods to the British Marines. Tsouderos had several reservations about the territorial expansion of post-war Greece. He clearly outlined to Britain that the Greek government in exile sought “enosis,” meaning reunion with the Greek-speaking population of Cyprus, the Dodecanese islands, southern Albania—or Northern Epirus as the Greek government called it—and Macedonia. According to Greek historian Procopis Papastratis, the territorial expansion plans of the Cairo government were “completely unrealistic.”   Communist partisans being arrested in Athens, December 1944. Source: BBC   By 1943, strong resistance groups had emerged in occupied Greece. Over time, the communist-leaning factions, the National Liberation Front (EAM), and its military wing, the National People’s Liberation Army (ELAS), acquired control over Greece’s vast mountainous territories. Sympathies towards the resistance movements grew among Greek forces in Cairo as well. Tsouderos was eventually forced to resign in 1944.   The Beirut Conference was held on May 17–20, 1944, between the government in exile and the representatives of the key Greek politicians, as well as the resistance groups, including EAM. According to the conference, a referendum would be held in post-war Greece regarding the king’s return. Guerrillas would accept the authority of the government-in-exile, and the resistance groups would be given a political voice in the Greek cabinet.   On October 17, 1944, Nazi Germany withdrew from Greece. The government in exile returned home, accompanied by British forces.   9. Yugoslavia’s Government in Exile Partisans liberate Sarajevo. Source: Balkan History   Nazi Germany, along with other Axis forces (Italian, Bulgarian, and Hungarian), invaded Yugoslavia on April 6, 1941. The capital city of Belgrade fell on April 12, 1941. In just two days, Yugoslavia’s King Peter II and the government, headed by Dušan Simović, went into exile. The government-in-exile’s road before settling in London in June 1941 was long, encompassing Greece, Palestine, Cairo, and Egypt. King Peter II, an 18-year-old monarch, was greeted with honor in Britain, symbolizing the struggle and freedom of rapidly destabilized Yugoslavia.  In occupied Yugoslavia, an armed resistance movement emerged almost simultaneously with the Nazi occupation. The most well-known and influential group was the Chetniks, headed by Draža Mihailović, composed of the remnants of the official Yugoslav army. The Chetniks supported the integration of Yugoslavia with the Western Allies against communism. The Communist partisans, led by Josip Broz Tito, envisioned the reunification of war-torn Yugoslavia in the form of a socialist state.   In the struggle for power, Tito prevailed and became the dominant force in resistance movements. In 1942, he declared the establishment of the provisional government of Yugoslavia, the National Liberation Movement (NLM).   Planning for Yugoslavia’s post-World War II future, the government in exile, led by recently appointed President Ivan Šubašić, reached a deal with the temporary government on June 16, 1944, acknowledging Tito’s accomplishments and efforts in liberating Yugoslavia. The British government mediated the agreement.   Portrait of Josip Broz Tito. By Yousuf Karsh. 1954. Source: Yousuf Karsh Gallery   These two sides signed the Belgrade Agreement on November 1, 1944. The agreement stated that members of the government in exile and Tito’s National Liberation Committee of Yugoslavia would form a temporary government. The new government would be tasked with arranging elections for the Constitutional Assembly, which would have the authority to choose Yugoslavia’s future governance.   In a national election held on November 11, 1945, the United National Front (UNF), led by Tito, won. The government in exile of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia dissolved on March 7, 1945, when Tito was elected president of the newly established Democratic Federal Yugoslavia.

Gruelling exertion, exhilaration, determination and a human tragedy all played a part in her 1979 Tour Of Life – and she never hit the road again

‘This Land of Promise’ and ‘Multicultural Britain’ review JamesHoare Tue, 03/11/2025 - 09:08

Planning a wedding is a group effort. That said, few weddings involve the kind of effort that Maddie’s family put into this one! According to Maddie, she and her family wanted to do something special for her sister, the bride. Luckily, they were able to find the perfect inspiration in her favorite movie. Their plan? To learn the dance moves to some of the best songs in The Greatest Showman. That way, they could put on a surprise performance! If you’ve ever seen The Greatest Showman, you understand that this was a lofty goal for the family to set. Still, they were determined to take the time needed to practice these moves. So, for eight months, this loving family put in the work… catch glimpses of their process in the heartwarming video below! @madeliefvis Full wedding video this weekend!!! #weddingact #thegreatestshowman #thegreatestshowmandance #familydance #familyfun #familydancechallenge #fromnowon #fromnowondance ♬ origineel geluid – Maddie “Do I know this family? No. Have I watched The Greatest Showman? No,” someone shares in reply to Maddie’s video. “Did I watch the entire video start to finish? Yes.” This is a sentiment that countless others shared. It’s no wonder, then, why Maddie received tons of requests for her to share footage of them actually pulling off this surprise. Lucky for us all, she did just that! You can find part one below. @madeliefvis Ladies & gents this is the moment you’ve waited for PART 1 So this is how the act started, we came up out of nowhere in our outfits to make room in the middle of the crowd. My dad had been practicing this singing part for a month to start the wedding act off with a bang I think he nailed it. We ended up adding a small dance in this song as well! After this part we had a video running with photos of the bride & groom from when they were young until now. This was the start of the song ‘From now on’. The part where the song becomes more upbeat, that’s where the real dance begins!! THE DANCE PART WILL BE IN TOMORROW’s VIDEO #thegreatestshow #thegreatestshowman #thegreatestshowmandance #thegreatestshowdance #fromnowon #fromnowondance #wedding #weddingact #weddingdance ♬ origineel geluid – Maddie “My dad had been practicing this singing part for a month to start the wedding act off with a bang. I think he nailed it. We ended up adding a small dance in this song as well!” Maddie shares in the caption of her post. “After this part we had a video running with photos of the bride & groom from when they were young until now.” Dedicated Family Pulls Off the Best Surprise Wedding Dance to The Greatest Showman The next video shows off the part folks have been dying to see — the dance shown in Maddie’s behind-the-scenes video. So, without further ado, here’s even more proof that all of their hard work paid off! @madeliefvis REPOSTED WITH BETTER LIGHT Since everyone was saying they couldn’t see anything (which I got ), here’s the full version with much better light!!!! Thanks iPhone settings for this simple upgrade Also I feel like now with the pictures posted in my second to last post, this whole wedding act makes more sense! So enjoy #greatestshowman #greatestshowmandance #weddingact #greatestshowmandancebetterlight #betterlight #fromnowon #fromnowondance #weddingtok ♬ origineel geluid – Maddie “So this is the part we had been practicing 8 months for!” Maddie writes. “Honestly I remember all this as kind of a blur so having all these videos to look back on is amazing. After this we included the groom and had a flash mob with the full crowd which was insaaaaane.” As you’d imagine, the bride absolutely loved her family’s sweet surprise! And the same is true of just about everyone who has seen these heartwarming videos. “Why am I BAWLING my eyes out… the amount of love your family have for each other,” one person shares, with another adding, “Oh to be loved like this..” You can find the source of this story’s featured image here! The post Family Spends 8 Months Practicing To Surprise Bride With “Greatest Showman” Wedding Dance appeared first on InspireMore.

Everyone has mornings when they feel a little off. Alaina Booth felt “ugly” before a work call. After discussing the matter with her solutions-oriented manager, the video meeting became breakfast. Using filters, the callers changed their appearances to become eggs and toast. @alainabooth she’s not a regular manager, she’s a cool manager ♬ original sound – Alaina Booth This hilarious solution turned an uncomfortable situation into a work call where both participants could relax. Alaina is a creative video director who posts on TikTok as “your chaotic friend.” Raised in Atlanta, Alaina decided to move to Los Angeles when she was 18. Five years later, that became her reality. She recounted the ups and downs of the road trip, apartment hunting, and the hurdles of her move. She has been a video director and photographer for over seven years. Alaina handles everything from the original recording to the final edited product. She began with weddings and developed the ability to “craft stories in the moment” by prioritizing emotion. Image from Instagram. Since moving to LA, she has contributed to work for Meta, BMW, Garmin, Vox Media, and Ameris Bank. She lives with a positive energy mindset and believes in honesty and integrity. She considers telling other people’s stories an honor and a privilege. Alaina is a new breed of marketer. She utilizes the internet and social media to promote brands. With creative and fun outtakes, she has built her life and work in LA around having a great time while earning a living. Not many people can say that. She has surrounded herself with like-minded people, considering her manager’s creative solution for their work call. To learn more about Alaina and her work, follow her on Instagram, TikTok, and YouTube. Her dedicated website features her professional portfolio. Please share if you laughed at breakfast. You can find the source of this story’s featured image here. The post Employee Feels “Ugly” Before Work Call, So Manager Comes Up With Hilarious Solution appeared first on InspireMore.

Charles Hardin Holley, professionally known as Buddy Holly, hailed from Lubbock, Texas, where he was born on September 7, 1936. Growing up as the youngest of four children in a musical family, Holly was immersed in various genres from an early age. His initial foray into music saw him performing country and western tunes with his friend Bob Montgomery, forming the duo “Buddy and Bob” during their high school years. The pivotal moment in Holly’s career trajectory occurred in 1955 when he opened for Elvis Presley. This exposure to rock and roll ignited his passion for the genre, prompting him The post Complete List Of Buddy Holly Songs From A to Z appeared first on ClassicRockHistory.com.