Several different economic models were in practice in the Americas prior to colonization‚ but none of the pre-Columbian civilizations used a standardized currency. While silver and gold‚ the metals most highly valued in Europe at the time‚ abounded‚ commodities themselves were used as de facto currency to pay for goods‚ reward service‚ and garner favor with foreign leaders.   Definition: What is Currency&;#63; A variety of modern coin currencies from around the world. Source: Kevin Allen | Dreamstime.com   Currency is understood as a standardization of money that is used as a medium of exchange; it does not have to be bills or coins‚ though that is what is used today. At one point‚ the bills we use as money were representative money: they represented something of value‚ i.e.‚ gold‚ but had little or no value of their own. More recently‚ modern currency has become fiat currency: it has value because the issuing government says it does.   On the other hand‚ commodity money derives value from the commodity from which it is made. Commodity money IS the thing of value‚ meaning both parties exchanging it agree it has some standard value as money because of its use outside of being money—like the infamous cigarette in prison.   Columbus Landing on Hispaniola by Theodore de Bry. Source: Wikimedia Commons   How is commodity money different from simply bartering&;#63; The line between the two is not always clear‚ but one difference is that a good fulfilling the role of commodity money is more widely accepted for both other goods and services.   For example: the year is 1649‚ and a farmer goes to the market for eggs with a jug of fresh milk to trade. But the guy selling eggs doesn’t need milk‚ nor can he easily trade the milk for something he does need. So‚ the farmer is out of luck. But if instead of milk‚ the farmer had something everyone agreed was universally in demand—something measurable‚ non-perishable‚ and easy to store‚ for example‚ tobacco—the egg vendor would accept that product in exchange for his eggs because he can either use it himself or easily store and exchange it later for something he does need (and it won’t go bad in the meantime).   There are almost no examples of representative or fiat currency in the Americas before European contact‚ but a number of items of value functioned as commodity money throughout what is today Mexico and Central and South America.   Gold: What It Was and What It Wasn’t Inca gold llama‚ c. 1400-1532 CE. Source: The British Museum‚ London   None of the pre-Columbian societies used the precious metals that colonizers considered valuable as currency. Gold certainly existed in the Americas‚ though. From the moment Columbus landed on Hispaniola and discovered the natives wearing gold bars in their noses‚ the New World was ransacked for gold‚ and later silver‚ for decades. So‚ if gold and other precious metals were not being used for cash‚ what were they used for&;#63;   In short‚ gold was used for art in the form of ritual objects‚ ornamentation‚ and regalia.   What gave gold its value in the Americas was not so much its rarity but its luster‚ durability‚ and malleability‚ all of which made it ideal for creating ritual pieces to honor the gods‚ ornamentation for temples‚ sacred objects to bury with the dead and jewelry and accessories for the nobility and elites.   The Inca civilization‚ for example‚ believed gold to be the sweat of the sun god‚ Inti. Gold was used to make masks‚ figurines‚ and other objects used in religious ceremonies. Qorikancha‚ the Temple of the Sun in Cusco‚ was actually covered in sheets of gold and boasted a golden garden filled with gold llamas‚ jaguars‚ guinea pigs‚ and corn.   Similarly‚ the Aztecs believed gold to be the excrement of the sun god‚ HuÄ«tzilōpōchtli. They used it to create objects for religious purposes as well as personal adornments for the empire’s nobility. Gold was used to create masks and costumes representing deities‚ which would then be worn by leaders in ceremonies to allow them to channel the gods and awe the public.   Serpent labret with articulated tongue‚ c. 1300-1521 CE‚ Mexico. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   Unfortunately‚ the vast majority of pre-Columbian gold artifacts were stolen and destroyed by the colonizers‚ who were consumed with what they believed to be the gold’s intrinsic value and untroubled with its sacred and religious significance—not to mention any objective artistic value—to the indigenous peoples of the Americas. In just the first 50 years of conquest‚ it’s estimated that the Spanish extracted 100 tons of gold from the Americas (more than doubling the amount of gold in Europe at the time and leading to hyperinflation there)‚ nearly all of which was melted down from its original form in order to be transported more easily.   Gold was very much a commodity in the Americas—it was mined‚ traded‚ and offered as tribute—but it was not THE commodity. Other resources were equally or more valuable‚ including feathers‚ cloth‚ and shells‚ but were of little interest to the gold-obsessed Spanish. It was these goods that moved through the Aztec‚ Maya‚ and Inca empires and made their economies run.   Cozy Currency: The Inca Economy All-T’oqapu Tunic‚ Inka‚ 1450-1540. Source: Dumbarton Oaks Museum‚ Washington DC   The Inca economy was something akin to today’s socialism: the people paid taxes to the government—in the form of labor‚ as well as a portion of their crops—and the government‚ in turn‚ provided housing‚ food‚ and clothing. In addition‚ people lived in family groups and communities‚ ayllus‚ where members worked together to produce resources for the entire community‚ in accordance with their practice of ayni‚ reciprocity based on the belief that the goods or labor one offered now would be repaid in kind later.   This meant there was no need for wages or markets‚ so there was no use for currency. A trade network expanded across the empire to bring products specific to the various regions to those without them‚ including wool‚ textiles‚ and ceramics—but it was managed by the government rather than a class of traders. Some of those commodities were accepted for the payment of tributes or distributed as rewards for service or loyalty‚ functioning as a de facto currency (despite not having a set value‚ which was unnecessary without a market to “spend” them in). One of those commodities stood out above all others: textiles.   Woman weaving‚ El primer nueva cor&;oacute;nica y buen gobierno by Felipe Guam&;aacute;n Poma de Ayala‚ 1615. Source: Wikimedia Commons   When the conquistadors arrived in what is now called the Inca empire‚ they were not given precious metals or gems in welcome; they were given intricately woven textiles that the Inca valued above all other material goods. Inca textiles were works of art that required astounding skill and used the soft‚ warm fibers unique to the Andes‚ like alpaca and vicu&;ntilde;a. The labor‚ or mit’a‚ that was required of the Inca peoples to pay their taxes included the usual empire-building skills—construction‚ farming‚ soldiering—but also weaving.   Where in today’s society‚ leaders reward loyalty with cash‚ Inca emperors did so with fabric made of the softest fibers by the most skilled weavers. To ensure a supply of the finest cloth for the nobility‚ women in the acllawasi‚ sacred institutions that the Spanish compared to convents‚ wove just for them. The empire’s warehouses stored food and weapons‚ but also textiles. Soldiers were compensated for their service with cloth. Disagreements with neighboring or conquered cultures were smoothed over with gifts of textiles. Offerings made to gods might include textiles‚ which were burnt.   Yet‚ despite the relative durability of these textiles‚ particularly in the dry climate of the Andes‚ the number of examples remaining is limited. In this case‚ though‚ it was not because they were destroyed by the conquistadors. It was the opposite. Textiles were so valued that they were often burned by the Inca themselves to prevent them from falling into enemy hands‚ including the Spanish.   Crunchy Currency: Mayan Economy Jade pendant‚ Mesoamerica‚ c. 7th-9th century CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   Unlike the planned economy entirely centrally managed by the Inca‚ the Maya are believed to have had a version of a market economy‚ particularly during the post-classic period. Labor conscription and tributes in the form of goods and crops given to the state were still central features‚ but archeological evidence also indicates the existence of not only vast trade networks but busy marketplaces.   Obsidian and jadeite‚ high-value goods in the Maya civilization‚ would be expected to be reserved for the nobility‚ but evidence indicates they were in use among the general populace. This suggests that ordinary people were able to obtain them through trade or purchase‚ indicative of a marketplace culture rather than state-controlled trade networks that restricted access to certain commodities.   What was missing from these Mayan marketplaces was money. The Maya had no standard currency‚ and trade was largely a process of bartering both everyday commodities and luxury items. There is evidence that some commodities were used as a form of currency‚ including cloth and cacao seeds. Recent research suggests that another commodity may have also come into use as currency: salt.   A mural depicting salt trade at Calakmul‚ Mexico‚ Rogelio Valencia‚ Proyecto Arqueol&;oacute;gico Calakmul. Source: Sci. News   Salt was traded in marketplaces‚ as evidenced by the above mural from Calakmul‚ dated more than 2500 years ago. It was a precious commodity not only for flavoring food but also for preservation. Salted meat and fish‚ as well as animal hides‚ would last longer‚ making transportation and trade easier. But salt production was not just for domestic consumption; it was an actual industry‚ one that expanded as the civilization grew.   Archaeologists have found evidence of home-based salt workshops in present-day Belize that produced salt on a much larger scale than could be reasonably used by the home‚ as well as larger salt production facilities that were state-owned—both clear indicators that salt was actively being produced for trade‚ not just for personal use.   There is also evidence that salt was produced in standardized units‚ loaves or cakes‚ which lends credence to the idea that salt was being used as a form of currency. In a market-based economy‚ assigning value to commodity money is only possible if it comes in a standard unit‚ and using it as money is only possible when it can be easily measured and divided in the marketplace.   Cocoa Currency: The Aztec Economy Merchants selling feather articles‚ jewelry‚ textiles‚ and fur in Florentine Codex Book IX‚ fo. 1‚ c. 1540-1585 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   A great deal more is known about the Aztec economy than the Maya’s since the Aztec civilization was still thriving when the Conquistadors landed in the New World. Like both the Inca and Maya economies‚ the Aztec economy relied on tributes in the form of goods‚ and sometimes humans‚ made by the empire’s outlying regions to Tenochtitlan‚ the capital. Luxury items were then redistributed to the elites or used to curry favor with neighboring communities—or invaders.   For the Aztec commoners‚ though‚ a variety of marketplaces were accessible for the purchase of necessities or higher-value items‚ could they afford them. According to usurper Hernan Cortes‚ markets of varying sizes were held‚ from local village markets to a grand market in Tlatelolco that drew an estimated 60‚000 people daily.   In fact‚ the Aztecs had a recognized merchant class‚ which held a special place in society. Pochteca were professional traders (and sometimes spies&;#33;) who traveled far and wide to bring unique goods back to Mexico‚ particularly those of interest to the elites‚ like feathers‚ obsidian‚ and jade‚ as well as more widely used commodities. Yet with such a thriving market economy‚ variety of goods‚ and active trading network‚ for the majority of the empire’s existence‚ it had no currency.   Man carrying a cacao pod‚ Amatlan Mexico‚ c. 1440-1521 CE. Source: Brooklyn Museum   What it did have was cacao.   Cacao was considered a gift from Quetzalcoatl and highly valued by the Aztecs. It was used to make the famous xocolatl‚ of course‚ but also in religious ceremonies and other rituals‚ and was given as a reward for service or loyalty. Most of the territory controlled by the Aztecs was not suitable for growing cacao‚ so it had to be imported‚ making it even more valuable. Its consumption was largely restricted to the nobility‚ warriors‚ and pochteca.   Dried cacao beans were relatively durable‚ portable‚ and easy to store‚ making them ideal for use as currency. According to a 1545 list of commodity prices in the region‚ one cacao bean could buy a tomato‚ three an avocado‚ and thirty a rabbit. Cacao beans were also used to balance transactions when bartering goods that did not have equal value.   This cocoa currency was not immune to a pesky problem that’s often been encountered with modern currency—counterfeiting. People would use other substances‚ including amaranth seed dough and avocado pits‚ to make fake beans or hollow out beans and refill them with sand in their attempts to bolster their wealth.   Even after Spanish colonization‚ the Mexica people continued to use cocoa beans as currency. A Spanish official of the time‚ Garcia de Palacio‚ even documented the exchange rate: 200 cacao beans were worth 1 Spanish real‚ which then contained approximately 26 grams of silver—about USD $20 at the current price of silver&;#33;   The Americas’ First Currency&;#63; Axe Money Axe money from Mexico. Source: Prehistory Museum of Valencia   While no coins were used as currency in the Americas before colonization‚ archaeologists have discovered an interesting metal artifact in both Mesoamerica and the northern Andes that may have been used as currency as early as the early second millennia CE.   Axe monies or hoe monies‚ as the name suggests‚ are flat‚ axe-shaped bronze disks that have been discovered in present-day Peru‚ Ecuador‚ and Mexico and are believed to have been used as money in some regions‚ evolving from the functional axe heads that were traded. Found buried with the dead‚ they also seem to have served some funerary purposes.   However‚ there is no definitive evidence of these axe-shaped disks‚ called tajaderos by the colonizers‚ being used as currency until the early 16th century‚ when they were found in use in present-day Mexico. At that time‚ their value was fixed at 8‚000 cacao beans.

  Paracelsus is one of the most consequential figures in the history of science due to his innovation in iatrochemistry‚ which consisted of combining alchemy and medicine. This resulted in a new theory of medicine‚ based on drug treatments of diseases. Paracelsus’ alchemical medicine reached many places‚ even the Ottoman Empire. Read on to learn more about the elements of Paracelsus’ approach to treatment that caught the attention of Ottoman medics.   Medicine in the Ottoman Empire and Paracelsus The Canon of Medicine by Avicenna‚ illuminated manuscript‚ ca. 17th century. Source: Daily Sabah   Medicine in the Ottoman Empire was cosmopolitan. In the early modern period‚ the medical culture was rather uniform all around Europe and the Middle East. Be it in Paris or Istanbul‚ all physicians operated under the umbrella doctrine of Galenism.   More so‚ medicine was an accessible discipline in the Ottoman Empire‚ as non-Muslim diasporas had access to Ottoman education and guilds. The large numbers of Sephardic Jewish and Greek physicians and the Italian‚ English‚ or French ones that accompanied traders were likely the reason why Paracelsus’ medicine reached the Ottomans in the first place. The adoption of Paracelsian medicine in Istanbul was by no means sudden or radical. The influence of Avicenna—or Ibn Sina—the Galen of the Islamic world‚ was diminished in favor of a more empirical practice of medicine. When Paracelsus’ new medicine started to find adepts in the capital of the Ottoman Empire‚ its assimilation was‚ however‚ partial.   What Came Before Alchemical Medicine&;#63; Woodcut illustration by Leonhard Thurneysser‚ 1574. Source: Wikimedia   Ottoman physicians started to get interested in the new medicine (or tibb-i cedid in Ottoman Turkish) in the 1650s. Considering that the capital was in Istanbul‚ the diffusion of knowledge started there. The medical establishment was split into two camps: the hospital physicians and the professors of medicine in the medrese (an Islamic institution of learning) and the marketplace healers who specialized in drug prescriptions.   If Paracelsus was proposing a new medicine‚ what did the old medicine look like&;#63; Its main theorists were Galen (129-216 AD) and Avicenna (980-1037). Galen was a Greek-Roman physician and philosopher‚ and Avicenna was a Persian polymath in all things science. Their influence lasted up to the 1800s.   In spite of the centuries between them‚ both professed the same theory of medicine featuring the four humors doctrine. Going back to Hippocrates‚ the humoral theory advanced that the human body functioned on the basis of black bile‚ yellow bile‚ blood‚ and phlegm. The ideal state of complete health required all four humors to be in balance. All conditions and diseases stemmed from an imbalance that happened in one of the four essential fluids. To each‚ Galen also attached a temperament. For blood‚ there was the sanguine temperament‚ black bile went with melancholic‚ yellow bile with choleric‚ and naturally‚ with phlegm came phlegmatic.   Putting the humors in balance meant that medicine was based on regimens and diets‚ being more preventive than interventionist. A famous practice was that of blood-letting‚ which was thought to cure numerous afflictions‚ down to the daily headaches. This practice was probably the most enduring Galenic form of treatment‚ which also lasted up to the late nineteenth century.   Who Was Paracelsus and What Made Him Famous&;#63; Portrait of Paracelsus by Rubens (after Quentin Matsys)‚ ca. 1625. Source: Wikimedia   Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493-1541)‚ better known by the cognomen of Paracelsus‚ was most certainly one of the most consequential and controversial figures in the history of science‚ medicine‚ and alchemy. Paracelsus believed that observation‚ witchcraft‚ and travels educated a physician much more effectively than Hippocrates‚ Galen‚ or Avicenna. His revolt towards the canonical authors came from the fact that they were outdated since hundreds of years of new diseases and their potential ailments held no place within their pages. Since Galen didn’t know about syphilis‚ physicians had to move towards a new theory concerning the human body.   In fact‚ Paracelsus’ refutation of Galenic medicine was fundamental‚ denying the viability of the humoral theory itself. His theory of medicine and the origin of disease owed a lot to his alchemical formation‚ which opened the way to tackling minerals and their potential pharmacological application. The term spagyric‚ which was first formulated in his Basel lectures‚ accounts for the methods instrumented by alchemists in the process of transmuting organic and inorganic matter altogether‚ through different operations like heating or distillation. His spagyric art was the main catalyst of his fame. Paracelsus transformed medicine thanks to his implementation of alchemical procedures within the treatment practices‚ harboring a new way of understanding the pharmaceutical properties of already familiar substances. The combination of alchemy and medicine that Paracelsus came up with was iatrochemistry.   Therefore‚ instead of decoctions or other herbal mixtures (also known as Galenicals)‚ Paracelsus suggested that for each disease possessing an underlying arcanum‚ there should be a corresponding arcanum cure. Arcanum can be roughly translated as secret. Next to Paracelsus‚ others were also cementing the medical breakthrough that he started. In 1543‚ the Italian Andrea Vesalius (1514-1564) published his lavish treatise on anatomy On the Fabric of the Human Body‚ and William Harvey (1578-1657) described blood circulation.   The New Medicine and the Ottomans The Advances of Medicine in the Islamic World‚ Ottoman Manuscript‚ ca. 18th-19th century. Source: Plakas auctions   The combination of alchemy and medicine that Paracelsus came up with was iatrochemistry. This new approach‚ which sought to translate medicine and physiology in terms of chemistry‚ slowly became acceptable. By the time its fame reached Istanbul‚ Paracelsus’ medical chemistry was already incorporated into academic medicine.   In fact‚ Paracelsus’ followers achieved an important feat by re-conciliating Galenic medicine with innovative iatrochemistry. It is through the works of Paracelsists that Ottomans come to grips with the new medicine. Oswaldus Crollius (c. 1560-1608) and Daniel Sennert (1572-1637) were the actual vehicles of the propagation of iatrochemistry in Istanbul.   This was also no accident since Ottoman medicine had always been syncretic. While following the Greco-Persian tradition‚ Ottomans lent an ear to other cultures as well. The practice of chemical recipes was not unheard of‚ since Jewish physicians in Ottoman cities involved in practical kabbala promoted the use of wine and spirits in medicine.   The Culmination of Perfection in the Treatment of the Human Body by Ibn Sallum‚ 1749. Source: US National Library of Medicine‚ Maryland   The first advocate of the new medicine‚ Sali ibn Nasr ibn SalluÌ„m‚ a physician born and trained in Aleppo‚ Syria‚ wrote a treatise that described new diseases and cures that Crollius and Sennert described in their own writings. His Culmination of Perfection in the Treatment of the Human Body preaches drug therapy and treatments based on mineral acids‚ inorganic salts‚ and alchemical procedures as answers to the healthcare crisis Ottomans were dealing with.   Ibn SalluÌ„m became the chief physician of Sultan Mehmed IV following the success of his book on epidemics‚ in which he explained the plague through both heavenly and earthly causes. At that point in time‚ in light of the growing population and territories of the Empire and the ceaseless trade and travels of both foreigners and Ottomans‚ public health degraded with no solution in sight.   Ottomans were therefore inclined toward practical medicine that promised fast results. They were not interested in the causes of a headache‚ but rather in treating it as fast as possible. Iatrochemistry’s drug-based approach to treatment seemed to be a solid answer. Chemical medicine spread fast and wide‚ and it was not thanks to Ibn Sallum’s treatise. It was actually quickly adopted by marketplace doctors‚ which in light of the precarious condition of hospitals and the official physician’s decrepit social and economic position‚ became an alternative platform that offered quick treatment for both rich and poor.   Tibb-i Cedid and Treatment on the Field The New Chemical Medicine Invented by Paracelsus‚ a compendium by Ibn Sallum‚ ca. 1800s. Source: Library of Congress‚ Washington   The new medicine‚ or‚ as Ottomans called it‚ tibb-i cedid‚ relied heavily on salt‚ sulfur‚ and mercury and the numerous alchemical procedures which combined organic and inorganic ingredients into the final treatments. Its adepts had to learn not only about recipes and proportions but also about fermentation‚ calcination‚ distillation‚ maceration‚ and much more. In fact‚ due to endless requirements from whoever tried preparing Paracelsian cures‚ early tibb-i cedid met with little success in the first decades. Given that this knowledge traveled continents and suffered multiple translations and corruptions‚ it was a recipe set for disaster.   The concept of dosage and of lethal overdose proved to be a hard test for Ottoman physicians and apothecaries. The variety of scales was in itself a quintessential factor. More so‚ given the vastness of the Ottoman Empire‚ weight units differed in each region. Therefore‚ no matter the intentions of whoever prescribed a drug‚ attaining a calibrated cure was close to impossible.   Its promises and accessibility started to attract questionable individuals who sold themselves as apothecaries. Such attempts to earn a quick dime were bolstered by the appeal of the new and the innovation. As these swindlers grew in number‚ tibb-i cedid started to acquire a bad reputation. As the phenomenon of market medicine grew‚ the sultans became aware of the dangers.   Paracelsus and Alchemical Medicine in the Ottoman Empire Portrait of Paracelsus by Pieter Van Sompel‚ n.d. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   Starting in 1703‚ several edicts were issued in Edirne in an effort to regulate the practice of medicine and medical treatment. Hence‚ physicians who were proven to have hurt their patients were banished. Moreover‚ the European doctors who practiced the new medicine were expelled from the Ottoman Empire.   However‚ the arrival of new practices and approaches to illness and epidemics changed the way the Ottomans viewed the profession. At the point when Paracelsian ideas reached the Ottoman Empire‚ the scholastic‚ learned medical establishment of the medrese still possessed authority. During the seventeenth century‚ this hierarchical scheme that gave scholastics a higher ground over the medical marketplace started to diminish. By 1729‚ an edict declared that physicians had to follow the canons of medicine and use the knowledge they had gained through experience to prescribe remedies to patients.   We can therefore say that the adoption of chemical medicine created a parallel medical system of treatment outside of hospitals and universities. Despite its early inefficiency and countless victims‚ Paracelsian iatrochemistry championed a different avenue of treatment. The treatment of symptoms rather than causes that the Ottomans were interested in finding is to this day the main medical philosophy.

  Cartography has been an incredibly useful area of knowledge that has continuously transformed our complete appreciation of our surroundings and the world at large. Likewise‚ maps have been fundamental in giving form to our perception of our physical reality‚ ranging from basic sketches to more technical and detailed true works of science and artistry. Allowing us to navigate the world‚ maps aid us in understanding and giving meaning to our world. The representation of our immense curiosity‚ thus‚ is greatly displayed through cartography. Maps are as transformative as the people and periods behind them. Here are five maps that demonstrate their fascinating histories and consequences.   1. Ptolemy’s Geographia (Ptolemy’s World Map) Ptolemy’s World Map by Unknown (Byzantine Greek)‚ ca. 1300‚ via the Vatican Library   Not to be confused with Ptolemy I‚ Alexander the Great’s successor and founder of the Ptolemaic Empire‚ Claudius Ptolemy was an ancient mathematician‚ astronomer‚ and geographer. Born in Alexandria‚ Egypt‚ under the rule of the Romans‚ Ptolemy is believed to have been ethnically Greek or a Hellenized Egyptian. He used both Greek and Babylonian knowledge in his work‚ which was extensively used or commented upon in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages‚ remaining relevant even later.   Ptolemy’s world map is a title largely given to any map based on Ptolemy’s description of the known world of the Greco-Romans in the 2nd century. Thus‚ there are many depictions and a variety of styles. Still‚ they are all mostly faithful to Ptolemy’s accounts. The work said maps were based on is Ptolemy’s cartographical magnum opus‚ his Geographia. In it‚ Ptolemy makes a geographical dictionary‚ an atlas‚ and a treatise on cartography.   Originally based on the atlas created by Marinus of Tyre‚ Ptolemy depicts Europe‚ Asia‚ and Africa‚ then known as Libya. Although Ptolemy’s work consisted of proper texts and maps‚ no Greek manuscript survives from his time. However‚ his work would still be reproduced for centuries to come‚ influencing European and Islamic cartography well into the beginning of the modern era.   For its time‚ Ptolemy’s world map was greatly detailed and surprisingly accurate. Such was its value that the Roman Empire presumably benefited from it by aiding in its expansion to the East. The Romans traded throughout the Indian Ocean and even reached China‚ establishing contact and flows of trade.   2. Mapamundi de los Cresques (The Catalan Atlas) Catalan Atlas by Unknown (Abraham Cresques and Jehuda Cresques)‚ ca. 1375‚ via Instituto Geografico Nacional‚ Spain   Created almost at the end of the European Middle Ages in 1375‚ the Catalan Atlas is often considered the most important map of the medieval period. Much like other major cartographic works‚ the Catalan Atlas was the immediate product of its context. The atlas was created on the island of Majorca‚ which had a long history of seafaring and trade. Thus‚ there was a keen interest in perfecting the cartographic craft to aid commerce and navigation. The Majorcan cartographic school was a successful endeavor that rivaled its contemporary counterpart‚ the Italian cartographic school.   The Catalan Atlas depicts the known world with great detail and incredible artistry. It begins with Catalan texts and illustrations on cosmography‚ astronomy‚ and astrology. Particularly‚ they provide information on the tides and sailing. The rest of the document is the actual map. It depicts Europe‚ the Far East‚ North and West Africa‚ and Jerusalem and its surroundings‚ which appear at the center of the Atlas. The map is both an innovative piece and conscious of past cartographic traditions and discoveries.   The map includes a particular reference that some may be familiar with‚ even if the map isn’t known. Appearing on the western part of Africa‚ right at the bottom of the map‚ is the legendary ruler of the Mali Empire: Mansa Musa. He is depicted crowned‚ sitting on his throne while holding a golden nugget in one hand and a scepter in the other. Mansa Musa is famous for his incredible riches and is believed to be the richest man in history.   3. The Waldsem&;uuml;ller Map (Waldsem&;uuml;ller’s Universalis Cosmographia) Universalis cosmographia by Martin Waldseem&;uuml;ller‚ 1507‚ via Library of Congress   Martin Waldsem&;uuml;ller’s Universalis cosmographia is a great contestant for the top maps to have changed our perspective of the world. Often just called Waldsem&;uuml;ller’s map‚ Universalis cosmographia is a testament to major changes in understanding the world during the Age of Exploration. Based on the explorations and accounts of Florentine merchant Amerigo Vespucci‚ the map includes a raw depiction of the Americas and‚ for the first time‚ gives such land the name of “America.”   Waldsem&;uuml;ller’s map is a mappa mundi that follows the traditions of preceding cartography but adds key new elements that make it a worthy standalone piece. Originally titled “The Universal Cosmography‚” according to the tradition of Ptolemy and the discoveries of Amerigo Vespucci‚ the map follows the ancient tradition of Ptolemy’s cartography‚ specifically his second projection. The title also refers to Vespucci and other explorers. Waldsem&;uuml;ller named the New World in honor of Vespucci‚ believing him to be the first to account and define said land as a new‚ previously unknown continent. However‚ Vespucci never truly expressed that what he had explored was part of a truly distinct continent. Instead‚ Christopher Columbus was believed to be the true discoverer‚ yet he himself also never thought he had reached a new continent.   Waldsem&;uuml;ller later corrected himself and‚ on a new version of his map‚ gave the new continent the title of Terra Incognita. He also recognized Columbus as responsible for the discovery‚ not Vespucci. Still‚ Vespucci’s legacy as the bearer of the New World’s name was greater than Columbus’. The replication of the map‚ alongside the familiarity with the new name‚ considering its likeness to other already existing terms (Asia‚ Europa‚ Africa)‚ created the perfect conditions for adopting the name.   4. The First Atlas (Ortelius’ Theatrum Orbis Terrarum) Theatrum Orbis Terrarum by Abraham Ortelius‚ 1570‚ via Biblioteca Nacional de Espa&;ntilde;a   Although maybe not as famous as some of the other maps on this list‚ Abraham Ortelius’ Theatrum Orbis Terrarum is considered the first modern atlas. The atlas was first published in 1570‚ but Ortelius would make changes to it throughout his life‚ up until his death in 1598. Growing into more than 31 editions‚ seven languages‚ and more than one hundred maps‚ Ortelius’ atlas was greatly consequential. Decades after Ortelius’ death‚ Dutch cartographer Willem Blaeu continued Ortelius’ work and built his own atlas‚ which would reach a final version under the name of Atlas Maior‚ possibly the largest and most expensive book published in the 17th century.   Both Ortelius’ Atlas and the Atlas Maior are considered masterpieces of Dutch cartography. The Theatrum Orbis Terrarum consisted of a series of uniform map sheets and a supporting text bound‚ forming a proper book. By the last edition edited by Ortelius himself‚ the atlas had detailed maps of their known world‚ including most of Africa‚ the Arabian Peninsula‚ the Middle East‚ Russia‚ China‚ Southeast Asia‚ the Americas‚ and Europe. The atlas was very quickly a successful endeavor‚ becoming a popular item among the wealthy elites of the time.   In addition to being considered the first true modern atlas‚ the Theatrum Orbis Terrarum is also considered the official beginning of the Dutch Golden Age of Cartography‚ a period of great cartographic production and innovation. The first atlas‚ the use of triangulation‚ and the first atlas of nautical charts were all examples of successful innovation during the Dutch Golden Age. Many famous cartographers‚ such as Ortelius‚ Gerardus Mercator‚ and Johannes Janssonius‚ enjoyed great success during this period.   5. The Mercator Projection (Mercator’s 1569 World Map) Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Descriptio ad Usum Navigantium Emendate Accommodata by Gerardus Mercator‚ 1569‚ via Wikimedia Commons   Perhaps the most recognizable map in this list‚ Gerardus Mercator’s 1569 World Map set in motion one of the most consequential cartographic traditions in history: the Mercator Projection. Much has been said about this map‚ but little is known about its creator and its first incarnation. For starters‚ the Mercator projection isn’t a map per se but rather a projection.   Instead of just being a standalone map‚ a projection is a cartographic element that precedes any two-dimensional map. Given that the world is spherical‚ the translation from a three-dimensional representation into a two-dimensional one requires certain transformations. These transformations are nothing more than decisions taken to portray the world in a particular manner. Mercator’s 1569 World Map‚ with its incredibly long complete title‚ “New and more complete representation of the terrestrial globe properly adapted for use in navigation‚” is the first map created from this type of projection. The projection is known for inflating the size of objects away from the equator‚ making certain landmasses like Greenland appear much larger than they truly are.   The Mercator projection is somewhat infamous for its arguably exaggerated distortion. All three-dimensional objects will have some sort of distortion when represented on a plane. Yet the Mercator projection has been accused of being unsuitable for general world maps‚ biased towards the northern hemisphere‚ and responsible for influencing people’s worldviews. Mercator originally devised the projection to provide a uniquely favorable perspective for navigation‚ which it did successfully. Still‚ the criticisms towards the projection remain valid; its overall dominance in the 19th and 20th centuries made it difficult to escape the particular perspective provided by the projection. Ever since the end of the 20th century‚ the projection has lost relevancy‚ and most people are ultimately aware of its weaknesses.

  April 1st is celebrated by many as April Fools’ Day‚ a cheeky date on the calendar when playful pranks abound‚ within people’s homes‚ at schools and workplaces‚ and even in newspaper articles or television programs. The day is known around the world as a light-hearted moment in the diary to try and catch out unsuspecting friends‚ family‚ employees‚ and teachers with silly games to make one another laugh. But where did the tradition come from‚ and why did it occur on this particular Spring date&;#63; The exact origins of April Fools’ Day are unknown‚ but there are several possible sources that point to its evolution through the ages.    Ancient Rome Cybele enthroned‚ with lion‚ cornucopia‚ and mural crown‚ Roman marble‚ 50 CE. Source: Getty Museum   Ancient Romans held a celebration called Hilaria on 25 March‚ a joyful spring festival to celebrate Cybele‚ Phrygian goddess of nature and fertility‚ which has been linked with the frivolities of April Fools’ Day. They also held a festival on exactly April 1st‚ called the Veneralias‚ dedicated to Venus Veticordia‚ an epithet of the goddess of love.   In 1983 another story emerged from the Associated Press which linked April Fools’ Day with none other than Emperor Constantine. As the story explained‚ a group of jesters convinced him to make one of them king for a day. Allegedly a jester called Kugel was given the royal order on April 1‚ and declared the day to be one of silly fun and jest‚ thus tying it with April Fools’ Day. However‚ the story turned out to be a hoax – it was in fact an April Fools’ Day prank written by Boston University professor Joseph Boskin to trick the Associated Press reporter Fred Bayles.   The Middle Ages Vintage postcard celebrating the French tradition of poisson d’avril. Source: Multi Collection   It seems likely the tradition of April Fools Day has at least some roots in the European Middle Ages. An early French pastime for playing pranks called “poisson d’avril” or “April Fish” has been found in written records‚ and was most likely comparing fools who fall for tricks with the bountiful‚ and therefore gullible nature of fish in France during the spring months. The simple‚ charming prank involved sticking paper fish to the backs of their friends and family unseen. Once the fish is found‚ the prankster shouts “poisson d’avril&;#33;” It is a game that has persisted through the ages‚ and one that many still play‚ particularly with young children.   A Fool’s Errands Illustration to accompany the comic writing of Eduard de Dene‚ 16th century. Source: Houghton Library   However‚ the first true reference to April Fools’ Day was in a poem called Proverb of a Day of Errands on April 1st by Flemish comic writer Eduard De Dene‚ published in 1561. In the poem a servant is sent on a series of pointless errands‚ which he eventually realizes are “fool’s errands” since it is April 1st. Sending unwitting people on errands for non-existent items continued to be a popular prank through the ages‚ and one that some still practice on unsuspecting friends and family members today.   A Holy Day and Wild Goose Chases John Aubrey‚ 1666. Source: Avebury Matters   Around a century later‚ the antiquarian John Aubrey called April 1st “Fooles Holy Day”‚ noting its prevalence throughout Europe in his book Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme. Meanwhile‚ in 1760 a poem featured in Poor Robin’s Almanac that suggested April Fools’ Day was an entrenched tradition in England‚ with as yet unknown origins: “The first of April some do say / Is set apart for all Fool’s Day / But why the people call it so / Nor I nor they themselves do know.” Around the same time‚ American author Anna Green Winslow wrote a diary entry explaining the notion of a “wild goose chase”‚ carried out by her father or her unsuspecting mother‚ revealing the pastime’s growing popularity in the U.S.   Modern and Contemporary Pranks The fake “Swiss Spaghetti Harvest”‚ a three-minute broadcast from the BBC in 1957. Source: Rare Historical Photos   Over the following centuries April Fools’ Day pranks became increasingly elaborate‚ such as a smoking coin heated up with fire or a cigar‚ and left lying on the street‚ which passers by would get burned with if they tried to pick it up. Children have also enjoyed playing pranks on teachers‚ such as locking them out of the classroom‚ or putting tacks on tape for the teacher to sit on.   Meanwhile April Fools’ Day pranks have even made it into the international press‚ with stories ranging from the fake ‘Swiss spaghetti harvest’‚ broadcast by the BBC in 1957 in which people supposedly gathered spaghetti from local trees and shrubs‚ to the fake eruption of Mount Edgecumbe volcano in Alaska in 1974‚ and Burger King’s supposed “left-handed whopper”‚ in which they claimed the contents had been rearranged to suit left-handed consumers.

  The Age of Exploration saw the achievement of incredible feats with the voyages of European expeditions. Perhaps the most famous of them all is the arrival of Christopher Columbus to the Americas‚ but many other expeditions are equally groundbreaking. Besides making contact with a “new continent‚” the circumnavigation of the Earth was seen as an enormous feat. With Columbus’ travels and following expeditions by other explorers‚ the circumnavigation of the world was believed possible‚ but who would be first&;#63; Europe’s major powers put their efforts into completing the task‚ but one expedition‚ led by Ferdinand Magellan‚ a Portuguese explorer serving the Spanish crown‚ would ultimately be successful: the Magellan expedition.   Magellan’s Early Life &; First Travels Theatro del’orbe de la terra by Abraham Ortelius‚ 1612. Source: Encyclopedia Britannica   Magellan was born in the north of Portugal in 1480. His family was of noble origin and enjoyed a minor presence yet sufficient status among the higher classes of the Kingdom of Portugal. His father‚ Rui Magellan‚ was the mayor of a small town. Ferdinand served as a page to Queen Eleanor‚ consort of John II of the Portuguese crown. After the death of John‚ Magellan served under Manuel I. When Magellan was 25‚ he joined a Portuguese expedition to India‚ where they would establish Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of Portuguese India. Magellan stayed in India for almost a decade; then‚ he traveled to Malacca‚ where‚ in 1511‚ the Portuguese conquered the city under the governor Alfonso de Albuquerque.   Magellan received great riches and promotions from his participation in the conquest of Malacca. He received a slave‚ baptized under the name Enrique of Malacca‚ who would join Magellan through many of his travels and endeavors. Magellan’s behavior became increasingly rebellious and not in tune with the Portuguese authorities’ expectations. He took leave without permission‚ was accused of illegally trading in Morocco‚ and even quarreled with the Portuguese King Manuel I.   Magellan dedicated himself to studying the most recent nautical charts available to him. He investigated‚ alongside cosmographer Rui Faleiro‚ the possibility of reaching the Moluccas through a gateway from the Atlantic to the South Pacific in the Americas. While in Malacca‚ Magellan befriended the navigator Francisco Serrao‚ who reached and stayed in the Spice Islands (the Moluccas). His letters to Magellan would prove very useful for his consequent travels to the Islands.   Magellan the Spanish Explorer: Pledging Loyalty to the Opposing Crown Cantino Planisphere by Unknown‚ 1502. Source: Biblioteca Estense Universitaria   When Magellan fell out of favor with the Portuguese King‚ he turned to the Spanish crown. Magellan had been refused time and time again an expedition made possible by the Portuguese crown. King Manuel I disapproved of Magellan’s planned expedition. Thus‚ Magellan renounced his Portuguese nationality and proposed his travel expedition to King Charles I of Spain (Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor).   At the time of Magellan’s proposed expedition‚ Spain was at the start of its expansion into other continents‚ mainly the Americas‚ which would be decisive for the Spanish to consolidate their empire.   Portugal had a similar situation. The Portuguese Empire had explored most of the coasts of Africa‚ reached the Indies through said passage‚ and established colonies all throughout Africa and Asia.   However‚ both Iberian empires had become rivals whose differences were often solved only through external intervention. The Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 established a division of lands outside of Europe between Spain and Portugal. The treaty was largely left unsettled‚ but in 1529‚ the Treaty of Zaragoza clarified and formalized the divisions. Before its formalization‚ however‚ Magellan and his fleet would achieve the first circumnavigation of the Earth‚ arguably abusing the agreement set in the Tordesillas treaty.   Magellan convinced the Spanish king that his expedition would not be opposed to the agreement between Spain and Portugal; thus‚ he was allowed to sail. King Manuel I was greatly insulted by Magellan’s expedition and work under the Spanish crown. The preparations of the Spanish fleet were disrupted by the Portuguese‚ and a fleet was sent after Magellan‚ though it failed to capture him.   Expedition through the Atlantic &; Reaching the Americas Mapamundi by Diego Ribero‚ 1529. Source: Biblioth&;egrave;que nationale de France (BnF)   Magellan and his fleet left Spain from the port of Seville in 1519. The fleet traveled through the Guadalquivir River until they reached the Atlantic through the port of Sanlucar de Barrameda. The fleet remained in place for weeks‚ going back and forth from Seville to solve unforeseen difficulties. More than a month later‚ they departed. The fleet reached the Canary Islands‚ then passed next to Cape Verde and the coasts of Sierra Leone. Four months went by before the fleet reached the coasts of the Americas.   In December 1519‚ Magellan and his fleet touched land in what is now Rio de Janeiro. They traveled through the estuary of the Rio de la Plata River‚ then reached and named the region of Patagonia. In Patagonia‚ the Spaniards met local Indigenous people for the first time. After making contact and trading with them‚ the Spanish kidnapped some to bring them back for the king. Unfortunately‚ the kidnapped Indigenous people didn’t survive.   In March 1520‚ the fleet found itself in harsh conditions. They took refuge in the port of San Julian‚ but after considering the expedition had failed‚ some of the crew attempted to overthrow Magellan as their leader. The insurrection ultimately failed; the leaders of the unsatisfied crew were killed or banished‚ and Magellan forgave the rest as he needed them to continue. Later‚ the crew of one of the five ships‚ San Antonio‚ once again rose against Magellan and turned back for Spain.   The Strait of Magellan &; the Voyage in the Pacific Map of Strait of Magellan by Jodocus Hondius‚ 1606. Source: Wikimedia Commons   After facing difficulties finding a passage to the Pacific Ocean (known to them as Mar del Sur)‚ the fleet reached the Strait of Magellan. Magellan originally named it the Strait of All Saints (estrecho de Todos los Santos)‚ but the strait gained its name in honor of Magellan and his expedition‚ having been the first European explorer to find the strait.   Known to be a harsh place‚ the Strait of Magellan was challenging to pass through. The Spaniards saw bonfires lit by the natives and thus named the territory “Tierra del Fuego” (Land of Fire). Indigenous people lived or had reached as far down as Antarctica. The ocean known to them as Mar del Sur was then baptized the Pacific Ocean for its tranquil waters. For three months‚ after passing through the strait‚ the fleet was unable to reach land and disembark. The conditions aboard were challenging‚ to say the least.   The difficulties during the voyage in the Pacific decreased once the fleet reached the Mariana Islands. The state of the fleet was in tatters‚ having barely survived over three months without touching land. They then reached the Philippines‚ becoming the first Europeans to do so. Magellan and his fleet carried out the conversion of the local islanders to Catholicism. Magellan won over the locals by proving his strength and urging them to convert so that they could become like them. Thus‚ the fleet remained in the region before continuing to the Moluccas.   The Battle of Mactan‚ Magellan’s Death‚ &; the First Circumnavigation of the World Lapu-Lapu shrine by Unknown‚ c. 2008. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the Philippines‚ the locals were manipulated into converting to Catholicism‚ but when attempting to form an alliance with one chieftain‚ Magellan proposed to battle an opposing leader to win over his potential ally. Magellan and his fleet went to the Island of Mactan to fight‚ convert‚ and make the chieftain Lapulapu submit to the Spanish crown. The battle was a decisive defeat for the Spanish‚ who were unprepared and outnumbered. Magellan himself was killed during combat. After Magellan’s death‚ the expedition under his command had to choose a new leader.   The expedition chose Magellan’s brother-in-law and Juan Serrano as co-commanders‚ but their leadership would be short-lived. On the first of May‚ the Spanish disembarked to join the Cebuanos for a feast‚ yet once the meal was finished‚ they were surprised and murdered by the Cebuanos. The Spaniards had been betrayed by Magellan’s slave Enrique‚ who was supposed to be freed after his master’s death but was forced to continue working as an interpreter for them. Enrique made a deal with the island’s leader‚ Humabon‚ in order to regain his freedom.   Retrato de Fernando de Magellanes Descriptio by Unknown‚ 1562. Source: Museo Naval de Madrid   With both co-commanders murdered‚ Juan Lopez de Carvalho was named captain. The fleet chose to continue with just two ships: Trinidad and Victoria. Carvalho was deemed unable to command‚ and Gonzalo Gomez de Espinosa was chosen as the new captain‚ leading the ship Trinidad. Meanwhile‚ Juan Sebastian Elcano was to captain the ship Victoria. When the fleet reached the Moluccas‚ it was decided that they should leave for Spain at once‚ yet the Trinidad was in no shape for that sort of travel‚ so only the Victoria would continue‚ and the Trinidad would follow later. Elcano and his ship circumnavigated the African continent for their return‚ and in September 1522‚ they reached Spain‚ completing the first circumnavigation of the world.

  Few names have incited as much debate as Paracelsus. Such is the destiny of polymaths and revolutionaries. Paracelsus goes by many names: the father of chemistry‚ the Luther of Medicine‚ and the godfather of modern chemotherapy. His work‚ which was mostly published after his death‚ is an encyclopedic exploration of the universe‚ God‚ diseases‚ and immortality. Paracelsus defies interpretation by his shuffling of science‚ experiment‚ and esoteric ideas. He remains the most relevant Renaissance alchemist.   11. Paracelsus Was Not a Traditional Alchemist Der Grossen Wundartzeney‚ ca. 1563. Source: Museum of Medical History Books‚ Muri   The impact of Paracelsus stems from an essential quality that he had: he defied tradition without discrediting it and he upgraded through his holistic views. From the practice of past alchemists‚ he learned a great deal about the nature of substances and their artificial and natural transformations. Paracelsus went beyond the transmutation of metals into gold and sought to understand how minerals‚ gases‚ and their components could fit his system of pathology and medicine. That being said‚ he never denied the validity of spiritual factors and had a deep belief in the influence of the stars‚ God‚ and superstitions.   10. Paracelsus is an Alias Paracelsus by Josef Zenzmaier‚ Source: Wikimedia   Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493/1494-1541) was born in Einsiedeln‚ a Swiss mountain village. It was not until 1537 that the name Doctor Paracelsus was put on a medical treatise. Most historians‚ however‚ consider that it was not Paracelsus himself who came up with his nickname‚ but rather his pupils and followers. Paracelsus‚ however‚ similarly possessed a less flattering nickname: his detractors called him Cacophrastus. His sobriquet‚ Paracelsus‚ is most probably a Latinized reference to his German name. Hohen means high and heim means home. Another origin story for his name says that it stems from his emulation of Celsus‚ who was a first-century AD Roman physician famous for his anti-church convictions. Paracelsus would then mean beyond or above Celsus.   9. His Upbringing Was Essential to His Intellectual Development Carinthia region in Austria. Source: Austria info   Paracelsus’s parents came from different social ranks: his father was the illegitimate son of a noble family (the Bombasts)‚ while his mother worked as a servant at a cloister. This meant the son inherited the lower status of his mother. However‚ that did not affect his upbringing much. His father‚ Wilhelm‚ practiced medicine as a licensed physician in Einsiedeln and in the Austrian province of Carinthia. From him‚ Paracelsus learned basic pharmacy and developed a passion for treating disease. His mother died when he was only ten‚ so the young Theophrastus grew up close to his father. Paracelsus then got his degree at the University of Ferrara in Northern Italy‚ as a doctor of both medicine and surgery.   8. His Travels Greatly Influenced His Work Part of Paracelsus’s books and writings‚ 1589-1590. Source: Lotsearch   Before he got his medical degree in Ferrara and started teaching and working in Basel‚ he was an itinerant scholar‚ going from German to French and Spanish universities. His precocious iconoclasm prevented him from settling in any of the university cities and only fuelled his discontent regarding the academic establishment.   Apart from the nearby areas like Alsace‚ Bohemia‚ and Austria‚ he is said to have visited England‚ Scandinavia‚ Russia‚ and‚ shockingly‚ even Turkey and the Middle East. In Scandinavia‚ he was allegedly working as a military surgeon in the service of Christian II of Denmark. As an army surgeon‚ he was involved in many of the wars waged in Europe between 1517 and 1524.   During the Renaissance‚ active interference with the sick body was regarded as a form of treatment that was beneath the dignity of a physician. A surgeon was therefore perceived as a craftsman with no grasp of theory and it was a job usually assigned to barbers. Paracelsus begged to differ‚ however. Medicine alone was just a philosophical insight into the workings of the body and surgery was the cure. Moreover‚ he claimed that there can be no surgeon who is not a physician. His army days gave Paracelsus a firm belief that medicine should be interventionist‚   7. He Burned Avicenna’s Book Publicly  Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim by Augustin Hirschvogel‚ 1538. Source: Wellcome Collection‚ London   When the municipal council of Basel appointed him as a university professor‚ Paracelsus put on a show. After refusing the official reception‚ he challenged the medicine faculty through a manifesto. In this manifesto‚ he swore to teach practical and theoretical medicine for two hours every day‚ but in a way that was not based on the academic curriculum. Therefore‚ he would not be teaching Hippocrates and Galen‚ but a new empirical kind of medicine developed through observation‚ experience‚ and the secrets of nature.   He also made it clear he would not be teaching Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine either. He finished the proclamation with a solemn bonfire on which he put the very large school book. Soon after the other faculty professors tried boycotting his lectures and contesting his qualifications. Paracelsus persisted and defied the norms in endless ways. He even taught in the German Vernacular instead of Latin. His Basel lectures went on for ten months.   6. Paracelsus’s New Medicine Defied Censorship and Scandal Paracelsus by Theodor de Bry‚ n.d. Source: Wellcome collection‚ London   Between 1529 and 1530‚ Paracelsus put together his main medical treatise called Paragranum (translated as beyond the grain). Paragranum describes the four-pillar system of medicine. The four pillars of medical practice should be natural philosophy‚ astronomy‚ alchemy‚ and virtue.   His theory of medicine was not controversial only due to its novelty. Paracelsus’s drug treatments generated popularity. The efficacy of his drugs earned him fame as far as the Ottoman Empire. Even those who regarded him as an imposter were fascinated by his new treatment methods. What Paracelsus prescribed to patients were potent chemical formulae. Going beyond Galenicals‚ the usual medical concoctions that physicians previously administered‚ Paracelsus used (al)chemical procedures to better extract the active substance from known healing herbs.   His iatrochemistry (the name he gave his chemical medicine) went even further. Beyond distilled herbs‚ he employed mercury‚ arsenic‚ and antimony. Paracelsus considered that in the right dosage‚ these potent substances were not poisonous. Instead of operating on the humoral medicine of the ancient physicians‚ Paracelsus proclaimed that the cause of the disease was external. Rather‚ it originated with poisons from the environment.   5. Paracelsus Had a Revolutionary Approach to Mental Health Too Compendium Maleficarum by Francesco Maria Guazzo‚ 1626. Source: ThoughtCo   Despite always lending an ear to folklore and popular mentalities‚ Paracelsus did not agree with the common notions of mental illness. Even as late as the Renaissance‚ mental ailment was thought to be caused by the Devil. It was thought that the sickness as such was inflicted to either tempt people or to punish them.   Some historians speculate that his different perspective on mental illness was determined by Paracelsus’s own struggle. Indeed‚ his rash behavior‚ self-harm‚ blind rage‚ and periods of manic activity may point to a manic-depressive disorder. Bypassing the theologizing interpretation that even men of science gave‚ Paracelsus thought of mental illness as a disease that steals the reason. He also dug deeper into mania‚ epilepsy‚ and addiction. He wanted to cure mental illness the same way he would treat other body conditions.   4. Astrology Had a Crucial Place in His Philosophy Bowl with zodiac motifs‚ late 12th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   Paracelsus thought that divine power revealed itself to man through the stars. The power and role of man was to decode such communication and share it with the rest. This relationship‚ however‚ he conceived to be reciprocal.   A human man was seen as a microcosm operating within the macrocosm‚ where both spheres interacted with and influenced each other. Paracelsus’s astrological convictions went hand in hand with his theological assumptions.   In an almost pantheistic way‚ Paracelsus considered that God created disease as a part of Nature and that the cures were revealed to Man over time. In his philosophy‚ all cures of disease would be revealed before the end of time.   3. Paracelsus Wrote a Treatise on Fairies Portrait of Paracelsus by Rubens (after Quentin Matsys)‚ ca. 1625. Source: Wikimedia   The treatise Of Nymphs‚ Sylphs‚ Pygmies and Salamanders and of Other Spirits is a delightful read‚ written in the style of fairytales. It is‚ much like Paracelsus’s other writings‚ a result of his extensive travel around Europe.   Interestingly‚ while trying to structure the odd creatures‚ Paracelsus invents the names for them. Scholars have determined that the neologism gnome is first mentioned in Paracelsus’s treatise. In this book‚ Paracelsus tried to explain how beasts such as the ancient giants emerged in the world. He considered them to be a hybrid species born out of men and animals. In an effort to establish a taxonomy‚ he wrote that nymphs lived in water‚ sylphs lived in the air‚ pygmies on earth‚ and salamanders in fire. He explained that all of these beings lived through these elements and got energy out of them.   2. He Came Up With a Cure For Mortality Paracelsus by Pieter Van Sompel‚ n.d. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   Paracelsus approached the question of immortality like a good physician and coded it in terms of extension. Paracelsus approximated that his cures could prolong life for up to 900 years. His nourishment that could prolong life came from the synchronization of pharmaceuticals‚ diet‚ environmental factors‚ and matters of mental health. Paracelsus in fact continued the musings of another Renaissance alchemist and philosopher called Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1535).   1. Paracelsus Did Medical Trials on Himself Bust of Paracelsus by Joseph Goldberg‚ c.1938 via National Gallery of Art‚ Washington   While his actual cause of death is hard to determine‚ chemical analysis of Paracelsus’s remains indicates high levels of toxicity. In fact‚ the levels are ten times bigger than the average. The results showed mercury poisoning. While highly controversial‚ mercury itself was the main substance employed in the treatment of syphilis before the vaccine was invented. Despite his premature and unfortunate demise‚ Paracelsus did provide the coming generations with dozens of effective chemical treatments.

  From the cosmologies of the ancient world to the pre-Socratic philosophy of Anaximander and Thales‚ the idea of a flat earth has captivated the human imagination for millennia. Despite being refuted by advancements in mathematics‚ astronomy‚ and modern science‚ the idea experienced a curious resurgence in the nineteenth century. This revival quietly persisted throughout the twentieth century‚ in the form of the Flat Earth Society. Presently‚ so-called “flat earthers” exist as a fringe online community‚ albeit one that has gained significant traction within the realm of modern conspiracy theories.   Ancient Flat Earth Cosmologies The World Tree of Norse mythology‚ at the center of a flat earth‚ surrounded by the ocean‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   Several cultures of the ancient world saw the earth as a flat expanse. Ancient Mesopotamians imagined the earth as a disc adrift in a vast ocean. Similarly‚ ancient Chinese astronomers perceived the earth as flat‚ with the heavens assuming a spherical form‚ akin to an egg. In Northern Europe‚ Norse Mythology painted a vivid picture of the earth (Midgard)‚ a flat realm centered around the World Tree‚ Yggdrasil. The earth was surrounded by the World Serpent (Jormungand)‚ a gigantic sea serpent that dwells in the World Sea encircling the earth.   Greek mythology‚ as recounted by Homer‚ portrayed the Earth upon Achilles’ Shield‚ a reflection of divine and mortal realms amidst “the mighty stream of ocean.” Echoing these beliefs‚ pre-Socratic philosophers like Anaximander and Thales held beliefs that aligned with a flat earth cosmology.    A Round Earth&;#63; The Spherical Earth: NASA image of Earth’s Eastern Hemisphere‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   By the 6th century BC‚ Pythagoras had mathematically postulated a spherical earth. Plato discussed it‚ and Aristotle sought to prove it – primarily through astrological observations. Consequently‚ the idea of a spherical earth spread widely throughout the Hellenic world.    Contrary to popular belief – largely manufactured in the 19th century –that the Middle Ages marked a period of superstition‚ ignorance‚ and flat earth dogma – there is very little evidence to say that people believed that the earth was flat. Early Christian scholars like Bishop Isidore of Seville (560-636) wrote about a spherical earth‚ while St Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)‚ the most important theologian of the Middle Ages‚ believed the earth to be spherical‚ and took it for granted that his readers believed the same.    The first circumnavigations of the world in the 15th century provided direct evidence of Earth’s sphericity. Issac Newton’s Principia (1687) subsequently introduced the (more accurate) concept of the earth as an ellipsoid.    Flat Earth Revival: Zetetic Astronomy Samuel Birley Rowbotham’s flat earth map‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   As scientific advancements solidified the understanding of the Earth’s (roughly) spherical shape‚ curiously‚ the age-old idea of a flat Earth was revived in pseudoscientific opposition. Leading this resurgence was Samuel Birley Rowbotham‚ a former organizer of an Owenite community in the English Fens. In 1865‚ Rowbotham published Zetetic Astronomy: The Earth is Not a Globe and embarked on a vigorous public lecture tour of Great Britain‚ under the stage name “Parallax.”   Rowbotham’s fine oration and debating skills captivated large audiences‚ enabling him to disseminate his ideas with some success. According to the laws of Zetetic Astronomy‚ the Earth was a flat disk centered on the North Pole and bordered along its southern edge by Antarctica. The Sun and Moon were 4‚000km above the Earth‚ with the “cosmos” residing at a distance of 5‚000km. After his death‚ Lady Elizabeth Blount‚ a staunch supporter‚ established the Universal Zetetic Society in 1893‚ which remained active until the outbreak of the First World War.    The Flat Earth Society Logo of the Flat Earth Society‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   From William Carpenter‚ Rowbotham’s co-pamphleteer‚ to Orlando Ferguson and his idea of the Flat and Stationary Earth‚ various advocates took up the mantle of Zetetic Astronomy and continued to propagate the idea of a flat earth with varying degrees of success.    However‚ none gained as much prominence during their time as Samuel Shenton’s International Flat Earth Research Society‚ also known as the Flat Earth Society. Founded in 1956 in Dover England as the successor to the Universal Zetetic Society‚ Shenton’s tact was to reach children before they were brainwashed by the “scientific” consensus of a spherical earth. After Shenton died in 1971‚ the presidency of the society passed over to one of his former correspondents‚ Charles K. Johnson‚ a Texan evangelical and former airplane mechanic. Johnson placed flat earth beliefs on a new trajectory: he advanced the notion that there was an ongoing conspiracy against flat earthers and dismissed the Apollo moon landing as a hoax.   Rise of the Flat Earthers Flat Earth Graffiti‚ 2018‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   Charles K. Johnson’s call to “think freely‚ observe‚ and oppose theoretical dogmatic assumptions” resonates within the modern flat earth movement. Though considered a fringe community‚ modern “flat earthers” have gained significant traction across video-sharing websites‚ social media‚ and internet forums.    Significantly‚ the beliefs of flat earthers often intertwine with a broader network of conspiracy theories. With the vast majority of modern flat earth advocacy occurring online‚ particularly on platforms like You Tue‚ it is evident that the site’s algorithm targets viewers of other conspiracy-related content. However‚ research into these online communities has shown that the majority of flat earthers appear sincere rather than mere “trolls.” Many describe their realization of the flatness of the earth in quasi-religious terms and akin to “waking up.”   Today’s flat earthers do not necessarily reject science outright‚ but subscribe to a conspiracy-theory mindset that prioritizes “trusting their eyes” over believing the “truth” propagated by government agencies such as NASA. 

  In 1894‚ Jewish officer Alfred Dreyfus was accused of espionage following the discovery of a secret document revealing French military secrets to German intelligence. The court sentenced Dreyfus to life in prison. New evidence in 1896 revealed Major Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy was responsible for the espionage. The case divided French society. Pro-republicans and anticlerical societies considered the case an example of anti-Semitism‚ while mostly Catholic groups maintained that Dreyfus was a traitor. The Dreyfus Affair demonstrated the impact of popular opinion‚ state-church relations‚ and deep-rooted anti-Semitism on criminal justice.   France Before the Dreyfus Affair The Traitor by V. Lenepveu‚ 1900. Source: Tablet   France was characterized by the intense struggle between clerical and anti-clerical groups during the second half of the 19th century. The primary source of controversy was the extent of the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in French society and politics. The French defeat against Prussia in 1870 and Prussia’s annexation of Alsace-Moselle in eastern France further widened the gap.   For clerical groups that supported the Church and the monarchy‚ the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War was caused by France’s drift from the Church as a result of the French Revolution. While the anti-clerical group‚ mainly Republicans‚ viewed the influence of the Church on state institutions as the main factor in military defeat. The unstable political climate of the Third Republic‚ power struggles for dominance‚ and frequent changes of governments radicalized the political climate and contributed to the rise of nationalism and anti-Semitism. Anti-Semitism was particularly perceived as a foreign threat to French politics.   Before the second half of the 19th century‚ France was regarded as the least anti-Semitic country on the European continent. As estimated‚ France was the leading country providing political asylum to the Jewish people during the 1880s‚ following Tsarist Russia’s brutal policies against the Jews. However‚ the seed of anti-Semitism in French society had been planted in 1886 in an article by Edouard Drumont. The article described the growing immigration of Jews in France as a Jewish invasion.   Their New Jerusalem‚ an anti-Semitic cartoon by Grant E. Hamilton‚ 1892. Source: Cornell University Library   The rise in anti-Semitism is directly related to the socio-economic reforms and policies implemented by the government in the latter part of the 1800s. After the 1893 elections‚ a centrist government was established as a result of the opposition between radical and socialist groups. The policies of the new government were focused on economic protectionism and aspirated to further French colonial interests. In this context‚ social issues were left behind‚ triggering public anxiety and uncertainty among the French population.   F&;eacute;lix Faure‚ the president of France‚ appointed Jules M&;eacute;line as a Prime Minister in 1896. He faced significant opposition. In an effort to retain political support‚ Jules M&;eacute;line’s more conservative policies sought to reduce religious and socio-economic tensions‚ though they favored industrial advancements over improving the quality of life. This marked the period when anti-Semite sentiments re-surged in France. The growing number of Jews in France was attributed to being a key factor in the worsening standard of living. The Dreyfus case was the impetus for bringing hidden anti-Semitism to the surface.   Alfred Dreyfus Before the Trial Histoire d’un Innocent — The Story of an Innocent‚ 1898. Source: The National Library of Israel   Alfred Dreyfus‚ born on October 9‚ 1859‚ was from Alsace-Lorraine. His father‚ Rapha&;euml;l Dreyfus‚ was a prosperous Jewish textile manufacturer. The family left Alsace-Lorraine after Prussia occupied the territory in 1870 following the Franco-Prussian War. The painful experience of the war inspired Dreyfus to pursue a military career. In October 1877‚ he entered the elite &;Eacute;cole Polytechnique military school in Paris.   Dreyfus was educated in science in addition to his military training. He soon was promoted to Captain of the General Staff in 1889.   Dreyfus enrolled in the War College‚ also known as the &;Eacute;cole Sup&;eacute;rieure de Guerre‚ in April 1891. After two years‚ he resumed his military career as a trainee at the General Staff headquarters of the French Army‚ as the only officer of Jewish descent. Dreyfus’s Jewish origins influenced General Bonnefond‚ a member of the grading panel‚ to give him lower marks during the War College examination‚ stating that “Jews were not desired” on the staff. Dreyfus protested but without any success.   The Dreyfus Trial The Bordereau‚ 1894. Source: Famous Trials   In 1894‚ as the only Jewish captain in the French army’s high command‚ Dreyfus became an easy target to be held responsible for leaking strategic information to the German Embassy in France.   A cleaning woman came across a secret document known as a bordereau (detailed memorandum) addressed to the German military attach&;eacute; at the German Embassy in Paris. It provided Germany with strategic information on French military equipment‚ such as the locations and deployments of artillery and troops. The counterintelligence agency was alerted right away‚ which suspected Alfred Dreyfus‚ a Jewish minority stationed at the artillery unit.   On October 15‚ 1894‚ Dreyfus was taken into custody and charged with treason. A secret court convened on January 5‚ 1895‚ found Dreyfus guilty and sentenced him to life in prison on Devil’s Island‚ French Guiana.   As dictated by the French military custom‚ Dreyfus’s military uniform was stripped of its buttons and braid‚ and his sword was publicly taken away in the courtyard of &;Eacute;cole Militaire‚ with the crowd shouting “death to Jews.”   The anti-Semitic press‚ particularly the Catholic publication La Croix‚ drove public attention to the incident after calling for “the expulsion of Jews from France.”   The Dreyfus Affair Portrait of Lieutenant Colonel Georges Picquart by Henri Manuel. Source: Biblioth&;egrave;ques Patrimoniales   In March 1896‚ the newly appointed head of the intelligence department‚ Lieutenant Colonel Georges Picquart‚ uncovered new evidence that revealed that Major Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy was the one responsible for the crime. While performing his ordinary duties‚ the small fragment of a pneumatic tube message from the German Embassy came into Picquart’s hands. He found out that the handwriting of Major Ferdinand Walsin-Esterhazy matched the handwriting of the bordereau and that Dreyfus’s claim of his innocence might actually be correct.   The French military under Major Huber-Joseph Henry‚ who was close friends with Esterhazy‚ however‚ denied the new evidence and relocated Lieutenant Picquart to Tunisia in November 1896. Additionally‚ Major Huber-Joseph Henry forged new documents‚ denying Dreyfus the possibility to prove his innocence.   The Game of the Dreyfus Affair and Truth by Imprimerie Charaire‚ 1898. Source: Jewish Museum‚ New York   These developments did not remain unnoticed by the wider public. Lieutenant Picquart’s lawyer shared the information with Senator Auguste Scheurer-Kestner‚ and the senator ensured that the case was heard publicly. The scandal sparked interest‚ especially from the press and opposition representatives. Issues of anti-Semitism‚ judicial unfairness‚ and the right to equal rights for all French residents came to light.   The case interested intellectuals‚ particularly &;Eacute;mile Zola‚ a prominent French journalist and novelist‚ as well as Georges Clemenceau‚ an experienced member of the French National Assembly and the future World War I prime minister‚ who worked as a publisher of the socialist newspaper L’Aurore at that time.   On January 1‚ 1893‚ &;Eacute;mile Zola’s 4‚000-word open letter‚ entitled “J’accuse&;#33;” (I accuse&;#33;)‚ was published on L’Aurore’s front page. The letter was directed to the president of France‚ F&;eacute;lix Faure. Zola condemned the French army’s cover-up of the Dreyfus case and denounced it for failing to execute justice for Jewish Captain Alfred Dreyfus‚ specifically naming the personnel involved in the case‚ including the Minister of War and the General Staff.   In his famous letter‚ Zola remarked‚ “By appealing to the odious anti-Semitism‚ [the accusation] will destroy [a] freedom-loving France.”   Major Count Esterhazy‚ Captain Dreyfus‚ Lieut. Colonel Henry by El Paso Daily Herald‚ 1898. Source: Library of Congress   &;Eacute;mile Zola’s remarkable political effort created a wave of public support for Dreyfus and increased pressure on the government to take action. But almost immediately‚ on February 23‚ 1898‚ the French government‚ on charges of “criminal libel‚” sentenced &;Eacute;mile Zola to one year in prison. Zola avoided the sentence by fleeing to England.   &;Eacute;mile Zola’s attempt did not go in vain‚ however. The bomb Zola dropped finally exploded‚ forcing French society to split into two opposing camps: the Dreyfusards and the anti–Dreyfusards. Demonstrations broke out in Paris and around the world.   The group supporting Dreyfus represented an alliance of mainly republicans‚ radicals‚ and socialists‚ who stipulated that the Dreyfus case served as a test of the French Republic and its values to see whether it could guarantee equal rights and justice for all. They condemned extreme nationalism‚ anti-Semitism‚ and the role of the Church in political decision-making.   Anti-Dreyfusards‚ supported by right-wing politicians‚ expressed anti-Semitism and concerns that the reversal of the government would further damage the French military’s morale and prestige.   The Reopening of the Case  Pro-Dreyfus Postcard. Source: The National Library of Israel   Major Henry‚ suspected of forging the documents‚ confessed to his crime in August 1898 and committed suicide. Esterhazy‚ the real traitor‚ left Paris for Belgium and then London. The Dreyfusards were eager to prove the innocence of the Jewish captain and managed to gather the signatories of some 3‚000 supporters. The petition called for the revision of Dreyfus’s trial.   In June 1899‚ Ren&;eacute; Waldeck-Rousseau became the new Prime Minister of France. Concerned with public discontent and rising pressure‚ he made up his mind to end the case and allowed the retrial in August 1899. Dreyfus‚ completely uninformed about the recent developments‚ was suddenly brought back from Devil’s Island to Rennes‚ and the court martial took place from August 7 to September 9‚ 1899.   The court-martial once again found Dreyfus guilty. However‚ under “extenuating circumstances‚” the court reduced his sentence to ten years’ imprisonment. Just before the end of the second trial‚ President Faure died‚ and the new French President‚ &;Eacute;mile Loubet‚ granted Dreyfus a pardon on September 19‚ 1899‚ hoping to save the French Army from public anger. The offer was justified as a humanitarian gesture caused by Dreyfus’s poor health. Dreyfus accepted the offer and kept the right to prove his innocence under the new circumstances.   With this move‚ Dreyfus offended his supporters. A French poet‚ Charles Peguy‚ noted: “We were prepared to die for Dreyfus‚ but Dreyfus was not.” Dreyfus believed that if he were brought back to Devil’s Island‚ it would be a question of life or death.   Photograph of Alfred Dreyfus’ Second Trial‚ 1899. Source: The National Library of Israel   In 2006‚ biographer Vincent Duclert provided additional insight into Dreyfus’s decision to accept the offer. He noted that Dreyfus could be viewed as “the model patriot‚ never doubting the capacity of his country to move toward justice and truth.”   Dreyfus was released on September 21‚ 1899‚ and remained under house arrest with one of his sisters at Carpentras‚ with the status of a convicted criminal. Upon returning to France‚ Dreyfus said‚ “The government of the Republic has given me back my freedom. It is nothing for me without my honor.”   In the following years‚ France saw the republicans gain strength and influence. Additionally‚ new evidence appeared‚ proving the French military cover-up‚ including the confession of Max von Schwartzkoppen‚ the German military attach&;eacute; in Paris‚ that he indeed served as a secret spy.   The case was concluded on July 12‚ 1906‚ when the French Supreme Court overturned the judgment and declared Dreyfus innocent. The army reinstated Dreyfus‚ but his age (47) and health did not allow Dreyfus to serve‚ and he resigned in 1907. Dreyfus was given the opportunity to rejoin the military in a non-combatant role during the later stage of World War I. Picquart also served as brigadier general and later became the Minister of War.   Results &; Legacy of the Dreyfus Affair Alfred Dreyfus’ Rehabilitation Ceremony‚ 1906. Source: The National Library of Israel   &;Eacute;mile Zola’s fascination with the Dreyfus Affair is best illustrated in his description of the event: “It is gripping… it is exciting&;#33; It is horrible&;#33; But how is it great at the same time&;#63;”   The unlawful imprisonment of an innocent person based on his heritage had greatly influenced the social and political establishment of the Third French Republic. It illustrated how latent anti-Semitism can be brought to life during power struggles and how public discontent and the press can disturb the socio-political environment‚ leading to fundamental socio-political changes in societies.   The key driving force of the Dreyfus Affair was anti-Semitism. An open act of stigmatizing the Jewish captain deeply touched young Theodore Herzl‚ an Austro-Hungarian Jewish journalist and political activist who would become the father of Zionism. Theodore Herzl worked as a journalist at Dreyfus’s trial‚ and the case instilled a commitment to fighting for the rights of the Jews‚ concluding that the Jewish society needed its own state to function as a nation. If the enlightened and emancipated France could not safeguard equal rights for all‚ particularly Jews‚ the rest of the world would not be able to guarantee the safe and smooth assimilation of Jewish people in their societies. Nearly 50 years later‚ in 1948‚ the State of Israel was established.   The Dreyfus Affair increased public support for the pro-Dreyfus coalition cabinet led by Ren&;eacute; Waldeck-Rousseau‚ and the new administration recognized the necessity of stricter army control and anti-clerical legislation. It clearly illustrated the malfunctions of these institutions and the hostility to fundamental rights—the rights the French Revolution established. The French government disbanded the majority of religious orders almost simultaneously with Dreyfus’s exoneration‚ leading to the separation of church and state in 1905.

  Colonial exploitation subjected Central American and Caribbean states to centuries of oppression. The banana republic period is defined by multinational corporations extracting a resource from these nations for their own profit. This occurs at the expense of the country’s citizens‚ who often labor under unfair conditions. Analysis of this era reveals the justifications behind American imperialism and the intersection between big business and the armed forces.   1. The Term “Banana Republic” is Actually Offensive Pictorial Map of the American Continent Following the Pan American Highway‚ ca. 1930. Source: JSTOR‚ New York   “Banana Republic” is an outdated term that originated from colonizing forces. It was first used by O. Henry‚ an American author of short stories‚ in 1901. This label referred to countries whose economy was reliant on the exportation of a single crop‚ the production and distribution of which was often controlled by outside corporations. Politically‚ they were ruled by a corrupt authoritarian government beholden to the interests of international companies and a small circle of wealthy elite. Extreme inequality marred their development. Foreign industries owned much of their land and infrastructure. Citizens had few opportunities to attain political autonomy or wealth of their own.   In the early 1900s‚ the term applied sinister undertones to the Caribbean and Central American countries it labeled. It underscored the agency and identity of people by characterizing them as a powerless‚ monolithic body useful only for their labor. This often manifested in racist imagery of Indigenous and African diaspora communities subservient to white business owners. The caricature downplayed the countries’ industriousness and their economies‚ which were diversified beyond products sought by international merchants.   The name gave credence to American interests to continue exploiting foreign people and lands through a vicious system of control to reap material wealth. Its existence allowed leaders in business‚ government‚ and the military to reduce independent countries to a single characteristic output to be harvested. This attitude spawned justifications for imperialist expansion and control‚ as well as military interventions. Mass media and educational material distributed tropes assigned to the banana republic label among the American public. Despite the origins of the phrase‚ it is important to note that the term is used here not as a reduction of the nations it describes but as an illustration of the unfortunate outcomes suffered under colonialism.   2. Other Countries Participated As Well French Commentary on the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885‚ by L’Illustration‚ 1885. Source: Historia/Shutterstock   World powers continued to hold and expand imperial possessions elsewhere. Britain exerted control over India‚ Australia‚ and Hong Kong. The Berlin Conference of 1884 saw fourteen Western countries draft claims over Africa with no native representation present. They drew borders arbitrarily with no respect for existing inhabitants‚ then conquered and exploited their holdings similar to other colonial territories.   In the Americas‚ the United States does not bear all the blame for the banana republic system. Honduras was a British colony‚ and its authorities played a role in the dominance of the fruit companies at the expense of their constituents. British timber companies practiced a system of debt trapping‚ where workers were kept laboring to pay off debt that was passed down through generations.   British officials in the 1900s looked to develop Honduras and saw cooperation with the United Fruit Company as the most efficient method. They allowed the company to operate in the colony and advocated for its continued expansion. Integration came at the expense of harming the local small growers and agricultural industry while leaving many residents vulnerable to exploitation by United Fruit.   3. Samuel Zemurray Made United Fruit Powerful Samuel Zemurray‚ Los Angeles‚ 1934‚ by Los Angeles Times‚ 1934. Source: University of California Los Angeles   Samuel Zemurray was a Russian immigrant who started a business in 1899‚ buying cheap ripe bananas and quickly selling them to vendors before they spoiled. United Fruit awarded him a contract the following year in Mobile‚ Alabama to continue with inventory brought from their ships. Zemurray collaborated with Ashbell Hubbard‚ who had the largest contract in Mobile‚ to purchase two steamships of their own. In 1910‚ they created a plantation in Honduras and founded the Cuyamel Fruit Company.   Zemurray wished to avoid existing agreements between the US and Honduras on customs taxes. He paid mercenaries to overthrow the Honduran government and return former president Manuel Bonilla to power. After the success of this operation‚ Bonilla’s administration granted Zemurray a large plot of land and freedom from Honduran taxes for twenty-five years. Cuyamel Fruit Company expanded enough to be a significant competitor to United Fruit by 1929. The following year‚ United Fruit acquired Cuyamel in a deal that made Zemurray the largest stockholder.   United Fruit stock declined in the 1930s until Zemurray staged a “coup” within the company itself. He was elected president in 1938‚ and under his leadership‚ the company returned to its position as the chief provider of bananas. Ownership of sixty-one ships made United Fruit’s Great White Fleet the largest private fleet in the world. The corporation continued to make deals with Central American countries and preserved their system of plantation labor.   4. Cuba Was the Most Alluring Prize Sugar Mills: Views from the Most Important Sugar Refineries in Cuba‚ by D. Jose Miguel and D. Pedro L. Fernandez‚ 1857. Source: British Library   Thomas Jefferson wrote to James Monroe in 1823‚ claiming‚ “I candidly confess‚ I have ever looked on Cuba as the most interesting addition which could ever be made to our system of states.”   Jefferson cited the island’s strategic location‚ which offered control of the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. He correctly predicted in the letter that America could not have control over Cuba without war.   After the Spanish-American War‚ Cuba exercised relative autonomy until 1902’s Platt Amendment to its Constitution. This act‚ passed by the US Congress‚ authorized the United States to construct a base at Guantanamo Bay and preserve Cuba’s independence with military force. It also restricted Cuba’s ability to enter treaties with other nations and validated all existing laws issued during American occupation.   Nearly every Caribbean island produced sugar‚ but Cuba was the largest and had exclusive trade agreements with the US. American speculators purchased land in Cuba to secure their piece in the lucrative business. The Treaty of Relations dissolved the Platt Amendment in 1934‚ and Cuba became one of America’s strongest allies. Cuba continued intensive domestic production of sugar‚ and the US instituted tariffs and quotas to protect its own cultivation in the 1950s. A 1956 quota on sugar imported from Cuba may have been a contributing factor to the Cuban Revolution in 1959.   After Fidel Castro became the Cuban head of state‚ US-Cuban relations were hostile for decades. Castro nationalized the island’s industries and redistributed the land. Much of both were American-owned. President Eisenhower and the CIA started a plot to invade Cuba‚ overthrow Castro‚ and install a president friendly to the US. The United Fruit Company contributed two ships in the resulting 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion‚ which failed and became an American embarrassment.   5. The Panama Canal Was an Exercise in Imperialism Held Up The Wrong Man‚ by W.A. Rodgers‚ 1903. Source: Library of Congress   France first saw an opportunity to construct a channel linking the Atlantic and Pacific through a narrow isthmus in what was then Colombia. Ferdinand de Lesseps‚ engineer of the Suez Canal‚ supervised the ill-fated effort. Tropical diseases claimed 20‚000 lives‚ and the project ran out of funds in 1889. In 1902‚ US Congress authorized the canal’s completion and negotiated a treaty with a Colombian diplomat. However‚ Colombia’s legislature blocked this agreement.   President Theodore Roosevelt responded by sending naval vessels to support separatists‚ and Panama declared its independence in 1903. A new agreement granted the US a ten-mile-wide stretch of territory to complete the canal. In return‚ Panama received ten million dollars and an annual payment of 250‚000 dollars. The US completed the canal in 1914‚ allowing ships to navigate between the two oceans and cutting six to ten months off the voyage.   Panamanians felt that the US was not conducting the deal equitably. They argued America was purposefully misinterpreting the treaty to exclude Panama from exercising its rights over the Canal Zone. US military presence and discrimination against Panamanian laborers heightened tensions between the two countries. Riots erupted in 1964‚ leading to the deaths of twenty people.   The issue became a major talking point in Panama’s elections and contributed to a period of internal strife. Gradually‚ the US granted concessions to Panama‚ which restored an uneasy peace. It was not until 1999 that control of the canal was fully ceded to Panama. The canal is now operated under permanent neutrality‚ yet America still provides aid to Panama because of its strategic importance.   6. Racial Discrimination Mirrored American Practices Bringing Fruit Out To Loading Platform‚ Puerto Castilla‚ Honduras‚ Circa 1920. Source: Harvard University‚ Cambridge   The exploitation of material wealth and labor coincided with race-based hierarchies enforced and encouraged by corporations. Relations between the often white company representatives and often Indigenous or Afro-Caribbean workforce were similar to those in the US.   United Fruit transplanted racial policies from the US across their territory. They relegated employees of African descent to manual labor regardless of qualifications. These workers were paid far less and sometimes were paid in currency only valid at company stores.   Tensions existed before the presence of multinational corporations. Guatemala passed laws in the 1870s designed to keep its indigenous population toiling on farmland in a debt trap system similar to sharecropping in the Southern US. They expanded upon this practice in the 1880s when an American firm constructing a railroad brought in African-American laborers. Despite promises of better treatment‚ workers were misled about pay and labor conditions and were targets of violence from white overseers. Black immigrants were also targets of an unfair law enforcement system already used to oppress native people in favor of Latinos.   The United Fruit Company fostered divisions among its workforce as a means of control. Black and Latino employees were intentionally segregated in their living quarters‚ tasks‚ and pay. This practice of encouraging ethnic tensions meant organized resistance against the company was difficult as the employees found difficulty uniting.   7. Covert Interventions in Banana Republics Continued Gloriosa Victoria by Diego Rivera‚ 1954. Source: Penn State University   Overthrowing governments was not always practiced through overt war. The Central Intelligence Agency‚ or CIA‚ was founded in 1947 to conduct intelligence related to national security. The CIA sometimes acted to protect American commerce abroad. Guatemala elected Jacobo Arbenz as president in 1951. Arbenz vowed to seize United Fruit Company land to give to poor residents. United Fruit spent three years and an equivalent of five million dollars to lobby the American government to intervene. Believing that Arbenz’s actions were communist‚ the CIA conducted a coup‚ which led to decades of tyrannical martial law for the people of Guatemala.   A Thing Well Begun Is Half Done by Victor Gillam‚ 1899. Source: Cornell University‚ Ithaca   Regime changes spread beyond Central America and the Caribbean under the guise of preventing the spread of communism. In 1973‚ the US supported the ousting of democratically elected Chilean president Salvador Allende. A military junta governed the country until they were succeeded by the dictator Augusto Pinochet‚ who ruled through terror until 1990. Between 1947 and 1989‚ America attempted seventy-two foreign regime changes‚ with sixty-six covert efforts and only six overt ones. Whether to guard against communism or to protect commercial interests‚ interventions under the auspices of maintaining stability may destabilize targeted nations instead.

  The fur trade that occupied a great area of the future United States and Canada during the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries allowed European-based explorers and businessmen to amass great wealth and spread their influence. However‚ the Indigenous people who enabled much of this prosperity were led to conflict to maintain its success. Specifically‚ the Algonquin people and Iroquois‚ or Haudenosaunee‚ Confederacy would be pulled into an all-out war to preserve their regional economic power and alliances with the European forces.   A Booming Trade in the New World The Fur Traders by Elisabeth Lochrie. Source: US Postal Service via the Smithsonian National Postal Museum   The first fur trade in North America occurred in Canada between Native Americans and European fishermen visiting the area in pursuit of cod. The Indigenous people‚ who had been trapping‚ hunting‚ and utilizing furs for centuries‚ traded small pelts for items that the fishermen had‚ often metal-based‚ such as pots or knives. In the late 16th century‚ this trade would go from random to commercial when beaver-felt top hats became all the rage in continental Europe. Beaver top hats were the height of men’s fashion from this time well until the 19th century. A beaver hat was a sign of class and wealth‚ and the toppers were often valued as family heirlooms passed from father to son.   A beaver felt top hat. Source: Malla Reddy Medical College for Women   Not only was beaver considered fashionable‚ but beaver felt was practical as well. Beaver fur was especially suitable for the practice of creating felt‚ as the fur has little barbs at the ends that interlock when pressed. This creates a solid felt fabric that is water-repellent‚ excellent for the rainy climate of places like London. There were also many superstitions about beavers and their fur circulating in Europe at this time‚ which probably aided in the popularity of these hats. Some believed that wearing a beaver hat made one more intelligent or that a deaf person could become hearing by wearing one.   The flag of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Source: Royal Museums Greenwich   The French would become the first to capitalize on the fur trade‚ spreading throughout Canada and down into the future United States. In 1670‚ the English granted a charter to the Hudson’s Bay Company‚ which also became operational in Canada and later the United States. While Europeans were building forts and setting up shipping stations‚ Native Americans were and would continue to be the actual primary fur suppliers for both the French and the British. Two key groups were the Algonquin tribe‚ originally located in what would become Western Quebec and Ontario‚ and the Iroquois Confederacy‚ or the Haudenosaunee‚ originally located in parts of New York and the future middle colonies.   A Key Distinction: Algonquin vs. Algonquian Professional Indigenous dancer Jerry Hunter in the dress of an Algonquin warrior at a performance. Source: Masq’alors&;#33;   It is important to note that the Algonquin are not the same as the similarly spelled Algonquian people‚ though the Haudenosaunee would have conflicts with both over the centuries. While Algonquian refers to a group of different tribes that share linguistic and cultural traditions (including the Cree and Mi’kmaq)‚ the Algonquin people belong to a cultural group known as the Anishinaabeg‚ shared with the Ojibwe and other tribes.   The Algonquin traditionally lived in birch bark structures called wigwams and occupied a patrilineal‚ or father-oriented‚ society. Their distinct language gave way to many historical and modern place names‚ particularly in Canada‚ including Quebec (kebec meaning “place where the river narrows” in Algonquin).   The Algonquin began interacting with the French in about 1603 and allied with them as the fur trade picked up. Also included in the alliance were the Innu (also known by the French term Montagnais or the Naskapi for the northern clans) and the Huron (also known as the Wendat or Wyandot).   The Haudenosaunee The flag of the Haudenosaunee. Source: Syracuse University   The term “Iroquois‚” like Algonquian‚ also refers to a language family that a group of tribes has in common. This historical group of five‚ which became six in 1772‚ includes the Mohawk‚ Cayuga‚ Oneida‚ Onondaga‚ Seneca‚ and Tuscarora tribes. The Haudenosaunee Confederacy‚ meaning “People of the Longhouse‚” is considered one of the oldest and longest-lasting democracies in the world‚ inspiring Benjamin Franklin and other Founding Fathers as they formed the young United States.   Unlike their Algonquin contemporaries‚ the Haudenosaunee operated in a matrilineal‚ or mother-oriented‚ society. In the seventeenth century‚ the Confederacy began trading with the British and Dutch merchants that were infiltrating the New York area‚ and soon‚ their local economy became interdependent with the fur trade as demand for beaver rose. The Confederacy was exceptionally powerful among local tribes‚ and the influx of wealth from the fur trade and the addition of firearms to their military power as a result of the trade was a boon to their strength.   Conflict &; Consequences A North American Beaver‚ Castor canadensis. Source: Bella Vista Property Owners Association   When European colonists and fur traders began arriving‚ it is estimated that 60 to 200 million beavers populated North America. However‚ as the demand for their fur rose‚ their numbers were soon depleted‚ particularly in the north and east. Colonists routinely raided one another’s forts and outposts to steal furs‚ and conflicts erupted regarding settlement and use of territory.   These tensions were even higher among the Native American tribes‚ whose economy had become warped by the influx of the fur trade and now depended on it. As beaver became depleted in the Haudenosaunee territory‚ the tribes realized they needed to look elsewhere for furs or else face severe economic catastrophe. This realization was fueled by the British‚ who encouraged this movement‚ providing weapons in pursuit of the lucrative furs.   The Beaver Wars were also known as the Iroquois-Franco Wars. Source: Native Veterans   The first battle of the series of conflicts brought on by the fur trade took place at Lake Champlain on July 22‚ 1609‚ initiated by Samuel de Champlain himself. Local tribes had asked for his support in fighting encroaching Haudenosaunee warriors who were in the area hunting furs. Champlain and a small group of French soldiers joined Algonquin‚ Huron‚ and Montagnais warriors against the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. This was the first time many of the Indigenous people of the area had seen European firearms in use. The short battle ended when de Champlain fired his musket and killed three Haudenosaunees. The remaining Haudenosaunee fled‚ unsure of how to fight back against this new technology.   Portrait of Samuel de Champlain. Source: History Hustle   In the 1620s‚ the Mohawk‚ part of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy‚ began working to influence trade with the Dutch‚ who occupied an area known as New Netherland‚ today New York. They began raiding the Mohican people‚ who‚ before this point‚ controlled the Dutch fur trade. By the mid-1620s‚ the Mohicans had been pushed eastward‚ and the Mohawk exercised a full monopoly over the Dutch fur trade. This would prove useful as the series of battles went on‚ as the Dutch would be one of their main providers of firearms and other supplies.   A map of New Netherland by Niclaes Visscher II‚ 1684. Source: World History Encyclopedia   Beginning in the 1640s‚ the Haudenosaunee began moving north and west through the Great Lakes area in pursuit of beaver furs that were no longer available in their traditional homelands. These areas were occupied by other groups already‚ resulting in conflict.   The Confederacy destroyed some groups completely‚ such as the Erie. Other groups‚ particularly the alliance of the Algonquin and the Huron‚ were able to level more resistance.   White settlements were also involved in this fighting‚ as fur outposts were often in critical locations or contained valuable cargo. This off-and-on fighting resulted in the Algonquin and their allies being pushed from their ancestral lands and forced to move west. Of course‚ these western lands were already occupied‚ and in some cases‚ fleeing refugees found more warfare waiting for them.   The French became involved in the fighting as their suppliers were ravaged by the Haudenosaunee. The fighting disrupted the French fur trade‚ and the movement of furs to Quebec slowed‚ giving the British a financial edge. (Although the Dutch were also a presence in North America‚ the main competition in the trade lay between the two larger powers).   Canadian Fur Traders‚ 1777 illustration. Source: Wikiwand   As has been the case at many points in history‚ the French and British were bitter enemies during this period. Contributions from both parties to their Indigenous allies stoked the battles between the Algonquin and the Haudenosaunee‚ whether these contributions were in the form of alliances‚ firearms‚ or other supplies. The majority of the Algonquin were pushed further north permanently by the conclusion of the conflicts‚ often referred to as “the Beaver Wars.”   The Beaver Wars would officially conclude in 1701 with a treaty known as the Grande Paix de Montr&;eacute;al‚ or the Great Peace of Montreal. Negotiations for this agreement took place between 39 nations that sent 1‚300 delegates to Montreal to discuss terms. Included in the terms was the right for the French to continue expanding‚ for the Haudenosaunee to remain neutral in the case of future war between the English and French‚ and it allowed the Haudenosaunee the ability to trade freely with whom they wished. Though what had already been done to the ravaged Algonquin peoples could not be undone‚ this treaty actually would bring relative peace to the war-torn region until the outbreak of the French and Indian War.   Similar Endings A tanned beaver pelt. Source: American Leatherworks   Regardless of how the Great Beaver Wars ended‚ with the Haudenosaunee keeping the lands they had conquered‚ both the Algonquin and Haudenosaunee people suffered similar fates. By the end of the nineteenth century‚ the Algonquin found that their territory was being encroached on again‚ this time by settlers who were primarily involved in the lumber trade. Many members of the tribe were removed to reservations at this time. The fur trade fizzled out in the late eighteenth century and became obsolete as the world moved into the nineteenth century and fashions changed.   As this happened in conjunction with the Revolutionary War‚ which caused internal conflict and white expansion‚ the once-mighty Haudenosaunee began to see their power fade. After the American Revolution‚ the tribes of the Haudenosaunee‚ too‚ would find themselves relegated to reservations like their former enemies.   Both the Algonquin and many members of the Haudenosaunee fought for the British in the Revolutionary War. Today‚ members of the Algonquin tribe and the six tribes of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy number in the thousands and still live on reservations and elsewhere in the United States and Canada.   Additional Ramifications Smallpox was just one disease introduced to the Indigenous people by colonists. Source: Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian   War was not the only consequence that the fur trade brought to the Indigenous nations of the United States in Canada. The fur trade essentially reshaped life in these lands. The items that Native Americans traded furs for changed how they lived their lives. In some cases‚ these items made their lives more efficient and convenient‚ such as access to cooking materials and metal fishing hooks. However‚ other items had both positive and negative consequences. Access to firearms made hunting easier‚ but it also changed local warfare. Fighting styles changed‚ and killing was simply easier. Alcohol‚ an unfamiliar substance‚ began infiltrating Indigenous societies and‚ if overused‚ could have destructive outcomes on individuals‚ families‚ and communities. Once-isolated American Indians came into contact with some European pathogens for the first time‚ and many lives were lost to diseases like smallpox and influenza.   Although their work had made the fur trade a success and led to the wealth of many Europeans and North American settlers‚ the Indigenous people ultimately lost out‚ confined to reservations within a few decades of the fur boom. As is often the case‚ colonization and war had lasting effects on the future of these people and their lands.