NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) are preparing for the close approach of near-Earth object‚ asteroid 99942 Apophis. In 2029‚ Apophis – believed to be one of the most hazardous asteroids to Earth when it was first discovered in 2004 – will come within 32‚000 kilometers (20‚000 miles) of the Earth's surface‚ giving scientists the opportunity to study the object up close. Closer than some of our artificial satellites‚ the asteroid should be visible from the Eastern Hemisphere without the aid of a telescope or binoculars.During the approach‚ Apophis will be influenced by Earth's gravity.Image credit: ESAFive years ahead of the close approach‚ scientists have been proposing potential missions to study the asteroid at the Apophis T-5 Years: Knowledge Opportunity for the Science of Planetary Defense workshop organized by ESA.NASA already has one visit to the asteroid planned‚ dubbed OSIRIS APEX. The mission will repurpose the asteroid sampler formerly known as OSIRIS-REx‚ sending it to greet the asteroid shortly after its flyby.&;quot;Our planet’s gravitational pull is expected to alter the asteroid’s orbit‚ change how and how fast it spins on its axis‚ and possibly cause quakes or landslides that will alter its surface‚&;quot; NASA explains of their planned mission. &;quot;OSIRIS-APEX will allow scientists on Earth to observe these changes. Additionally‚ the OSIRIS-APEX spacecraft will dip toward the surface of Apophis ­– a 'stony' asteroid made of silicate (or rocky) material and a mixture of metallic nickel and iron ­ – and fire its engines to kick up loose rocks and dust. This maneuver will give scientists a peek at the composition of material just below the asteroid’s surface.&;quot;      At the ESA meeting‚ private companies proposed other missions to the asteroid‚ Space News reports. Blue Origin's idea is to use its Blue Ring spacecraft to deliver up to 13 payloads totaling up to 2 metric tons to the asteroid‚ launching in 2027 and approaching the asteroid shortly before its closest approach to Earth. Meanwhile‚ NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory outlined its Distributed Radar Observations of Interior Distributions (DROID) mission. &;quot;DROID’s architecture calls for a dedicated launch of three spacecraft: an ESPA Grande-class Mothership and two CubeSats‚&;quot; JPL explains in a proposal. &;quot;The Mothership carries the CubeSats to Apophis‚ achieves the rendezvous cruise trajectory‚ performs high resolution imaging with a narrow-angle camera‚ and acts as a Direct-to-Earth (DTE) node for the constellation. Once Apophis’s physical characteristics (shape‚ spin‚ gravity field) are characterized sufficiently the Mothership deploys both CubeSats‚ which each carry a wide-angle camera and low-frequency radar (60 MHz‚ based on JuRa) and insert themselves into coordinated low orbits to perform monostatic and bistatic radar observations.&;quot;While it is hoped that the flyby will help us learn more about planetary defense from such objects‚ there is nothing to fear from Apophis. In 2021‚ Apophis made a flyby of Earth‚ at which point astronomers made powerful radar observations in order to better define its orbit. Before that‚ NASA believed that it had a chance of impact later in the century‚ but the observations ruled that out.“A 2068 impact is not in the realm of possibility anymore‚&;quot; Davide Farnocchia of NASA’s Center for Near-Earth Object Studies said of the asteroid‚ &;quot;and our calculations don’t show any impact risk for at least the next 100 years.&;quot;

Fantastic news has dropped‚ as a first-of-its-kind review has concluded that conservation action does have a meaningful impact on biodiversity loss. The global meta-analysis uncovered how in two-thirds of cases‚ conservation efforts either improved the state of biodiversity or at least slowed its decline.It’s the strongest evidence to date that nature conservation is worth the investment. It also paints a promising picture for the future‚ as by scaling up conservation interventions‚ it shows we can halt and reverse biodiversity loss‚ returning our planet to a healthier balance that will in turn reduce the effects of climate change.   In the poignant documentary David Attenborough: A Life On Our Planet‚ everyone’s favorite naturalist drew harrowing comparisons between the 1986 Chernobyl disaster and the ongoing crisis of biodiversity loss on Earth. Speaking from the condemned city‚ Attenborough described how‚ without proper intervention‚ the climatic and ecological consequences of biodiversity loss could one day parallel the destruction caused by the rupture of Chernobyl’s radioactive core.Biodiversity is a crucial feature of a healthy ecosystem‚ and yet there are currently more than 44‚000 species documented as being at risk of extinction. As such‚ this latest insight into the efficacy of conservation strategies isn’t just good news for the animals scientists are working to protect‚ but also for our own survival.One of the studies in the meta-analysis looked at a nationwide REDD+ program In Guyana that reduced tree cover loss by 35 percent‚ which is equivalent to 12.8 million tons of avoided carbon emissions.Image credit: © Andrew Snyder‚ Re:wild“If you look only at the trend of species declines‚ it would be easy to think that we’re failing to protect biodiversity‚ but you would not be looking at the full picture‚” said Penny Langhammer‚ lead author of the study and executive vice president of Re:wild‚ in a statement. “What we show with this paper is that conservation is‚ in fact‚ working to halt and reverse biodiversity loss.&;quot; &;quot;It is clear that conservation must be prioritized and receive significant additional resources and political support globally‚ while we simultaneously address the systemic drivers of biodiversity loss‚ such as unsustainable consumption and production.”   Science has demonstrated that biodiverse ecosystems can help stabilize the climate‚ helping to provide billions of people around the world with everything from clean water and shelter to their livelihoods and culture. It’s been estimated that the ecosystem services provided by elephants should put them on an annual salary of around $70‚000 a year‚ and creatures big and small are similarly pivotal in shaping our environment. Governments across the globe have targets to reach in order to halt and reverse biodiversity loss – and to inspire funding‚ it pays to be able to demonstrate the results. Looking at 186 studies‚ including 665 trials‚ this analysis was able to quantify how conservation strategies have changed the outcome for species and ecosystems all around the planet.Predator management of two of Florida’s barrier islands‚ Cayo Costa and North Captiva‚ resulted in an immediate and substantial improvement in nesting success by loggerhead turtles and least terns‚ especially compared to other barrier islands where no predator management was applied.Image credit: © Matthew Paulson‚ Flickr Creative Commons‚ via Re:wildSome of the most influential actions include establishing protected areas‚ eradicating invasive species‚ finding sustainable ways to manage ecosystems‚ reducing habitat loss‚ and restoring those that had been destroyed. The authors described them as being highly effective with large effect sizes‚ but stressed that conservation actions “require transformational scaling up to meet global targets.”“It would be too easy to lose any sense of optimism in the face of ongoing biodiversity declines‚” said study co-author and Associate Professor Joseph Bull‚ from the University of Oxford’s Department of Biology‚ in a statement. “However‚ our results clearly show that there is room for hope. Conservation interventions seemed to be an improvement on inaction most of the time; and when they were not‚ the losses were comparatively limited.&;quot;The study is published in the journal Science.

Measles cases across the world rose by 88 percent between 2022 and 2023‚ almost doubling from 171‚153 to 321‚582 cases. According to the figures‚ presented at a recent conference‚ 2024 looks set to be just as bad‚ sparking calls from health officials for new strategies to maximize vaccine coverage around the globe.Humanity has been contending with measles for centuries‚ and it’s among the most contagious diseases threatening our species. When the first effective vaccine hit the market in the 1960s‚ followed less than 10 years later in the US by the combined measles‚ mumps‚ and rubella (MMR) vaccine‚ eradicating a disease that killed approximately 2 million people every year looked like a real possibility for the first time.  For complete coverage‚ it’s recommended that all children receive at least two doses of a measles vaccine. Age recommendations vary by region and according to a child’s risk of exposure; in the UK‚ for example‚ the National Health Service recommends all children receive their first MMR vaccine when they’re 1 year old‚ and the second before they start school at age 5.“The measles virus is extremely infectious and any gaps in immunisation coverage are potential risk for outbreak. So‚ coverage needs to high but also uniform and equitable‚” explained Dr Patrick O’Connor of the World Health Organization (WHO) in a statement.While Dr O’Connor and co-presenter Professor Hanna Nohynek‚ of the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare‚ acknowledge that incredible progress has been made this century‚ the new data do present cause for some alarm.As well as the overall increase in cases‚ the period between December 2022 and November 2023 saw a tripling of the number of countries experiencing large measles outbreaks‚ defined as a continuous 20 cases per million of the population.“Measles cases were high in 2019‚ with the majority seen in Africa‚” said Professor Nohynek. This continent‚ she explained‚ has historically seen the lowest vaccine coverage and has suffered regular measles outbreaks.An early look at the 2024 data‚ however‚ throws the spotlight on another area: the WHO European Region. Of the cases so far recorded this year‚ 45 percent have occurred in this region‚ which covers 53 countries. Three of these – Yemen‚ Azerbaijan‚ and Kyrgyzstan – currently have the highest reported measles incidences in the world.  A specific review of measles elimination in the European Region will take place in September this year‚ Dr O’Connor explained. But in the meantime‚ both experts stressed the need for innovative ways to boost vaccination coverage‚ for all children‚ everywhere.“During the [COVID-19] pandemic‚ many children remained unvaccinated‚ and catchup vaccinations have not reached them. Therefore we now see cases increasing again in various regions of the world‚” said Professor Nohynek.Vaccine hesitancy is also a longstanding problem‚ and it arguably affects measles vaccines more than most. Memories of the scaremongering around the MMR and purported links to autism‚ based on fraudulent science that has been thoroughly and repeatedly debunked‚ live long in the mind – and sadly‚ on the internet.This year‚ UK officials declared a national incident after a sharp increase in measles cases; in total‚ 41 member states of the WHO European Region reported cases in 2023. There are even concerns that the United States’ measles elimination status may be under threat.Encouraging vaccine-hesitant parents is only part of the picture‚ as Professor Nohynek explained: “Vaccine hesitancy is only one component that can contribute to lower coverage – misinformation about vaccines‚ access to immunization services‚ and on-time vaccination cause immunization gaps.”It means that we likely need lots of different strategies to tackle these different aspects simultaneously. Professor Nohynek pointed to new innovations in vaccine delivery‚ like the needle-free measles-rubella microarray patch‚ as well as countries using disease surveillance to identify and plug gaps in vaccine coverage.“Over the last 20 years‚” Dr O’Connor concluded‚ “there has been significant progress toward achieving measles and rubella elimination – in order to solidify and maintain those gains‚ we need to ensure high‚ uniform and equitable routine immunization coverage; and robust outreach and rapid outbreak response.”The data were presented at the 2024 ESCMID Global Congress. 

Space might be the final frontier but when it comes to food‚ life in microgravity still leaves a lot to be desired – and it seems that it has been like that from the very beginning. The first meal in space was eaten by Yuri Gagarin on humanity's first-ever trip in orbit. What did he eat&;#63; Well‚ it was certainly a choice.In 1961‚ cosmonaut Gagarin became the first human in space‚ completing a single orbit of Earth in 108 minutes. Gagarin’s Vostok 1 space capsule was stacked with 13 days’ worth of provisions just in case the retrorocket failed and he had to wait for the natural orbital decay to come back down to Earth but this was a good chance to test eating in space. Despite tests carried out on the  &;quot;Vomit Comet&;quot; back on Earth‚ scientists didn't know for sure if basic functions like chewing and swallowing could be carried out in microgravity. One vital consideration was “no crumbs” so the solution was food items that could be made into a paste and placed in a metal toothpaste-style tube.Despite being in orbit for less than two hours‚ Gagarin actually had two courses. The main course was beef and liver puree. Gagarin ate two tubes of it – maybe it was more appetizing than it sounds – and then he had a tube of chocolate sauce for dessert.Because scientists didn’t know at the time the effect of microgravity on humans‚ they didn’t want to risk Gagarin losing consciousness so the capsule was controlled from the ground with a code to switch to manual control in case of emergency. This included if digestion went wrong‚ but with the first meal in orbit‚ Gagarin proved it was OK to eat in space.What became clear‚ as more and more astronauts went into space and stayed there for longer‚ is that our sense of taste can change once in microgravity. Bodily fluids shift towards your head and studies have shown that this may lead to an attenuation of the olfactory components in the flavor of food‚ a bit like eating with a cold.Since the days of Gagarin‚ there have been changes and improvements to what astronauts and cosmonauts eat and drink in orbit. Gone are the days of &;quot;freeze-dried astronaut ice cream&;quot;. Not only can astronauts have pizza delivered to the International Space Station (ISS) but they can bake cookies on the ISS‚ too. You can even grab an espresso thanks to a bespoke cup to drink it in microgravity.Scientists have even bravely tested if it's possible to fry food in microgravity. Tests were carefully conducted using a special fryer on a parabolic plane simulating weightlessness and showed that it is perfectly possible to deep fry things in microgravity – with the right kit (do not try this at home).However‚ the &;quot;no crumbs&;quot; rule is still proving a hard challenge to beat and one thing that has not been solved yet is bread: wraps‚ pittas‚ rotis‚ and bread that doesn’t have crumbs are A-OK in space but if you're holding out for a space sandwich‚ we've still got a way to go.

Three years after evidence emerged that the quasi-moon known as Kamo’oalewa is formed from a chunk of Earth’s one true Moon‚ we may know just where it comes from. Besides showing the rapid progress in knowledge about the exceptionally recent field of quasi-moons‚ the discovery honors a scientist who believed in the plurality of worlds.Until recently‚ the inner Solar System was thought to be a pretty lonely place‚ with just three moons between four planets‚ plus a few asteroids with orbits closer than the main belt. However‚ a by-product of the search for objects that could pose a threat to Earth is the discovery of so-called quasi-moons. These objects orbit the Sun on the same timeline as the planet‚ causing them to stay close for years‚ before shifting to horseshoe-shaped orbits. The first of these‚ a quasi-moon of Venus‚ achieved some fame thanks to the delightful way in which it got named Zoozve.In the process‚ we have learned that Earth has a few quasi-moons of its own. They’re all small – some the size of elephants. The largest we’ve found is Kamo’oalewa‚ which is about the length of two blue whales (oh you want a less zoological measurement&;#63; – try about 60 meters‚ 200 feet‚ tops). A quasi-satellite doesn’t exactly translate as a second Moon‚ but on the asteroid-to-moon spectrum‚ Kamo’oalewa is more towards the moon end‚ and maybe deserves the title. Five years after its discovery‚ Kamo’oalewa’s spectrum was analyzed and found to look a lot like that of some lunar rocks‚ but nothing like any known asteroid.The idea that Kamo’oalewa might have been knocked off the Moon in an asteroid strike gained credibility from the fact that its orbit is more stable than the other quasi-moons‚ and has a much lower velocity compared to the Earth-Moon system‚ as would be expected of something with nearby origins. Modeling last year of the required conditions to make an object like this showed the idea to be plausible. Still‚ there are a lot of impact craters on the Moon. Identifying the one that gave birth to Kamo’oalewa seems like a fool’s errand‚ but that is what a new paper claims to have done.Although Kamo’oalewa is fairly small‚ the crater from which it came would have to be much larger – at least 10-20 kilometers (6-12 miles) across‚ the authors calculate. Moreover‚ it’s likely to be relatively young. Kamo’oalewa’s orbit may be stable by the standards of quasi-satellites‚ but it’s unlikely to survive for hundreds of millions of years given the tug of planets’ gravity and the possibility of a collision with some other object.That makes for a short list of possibilities‚ and the authors think the crater Giordano Bruno is the most likely candidate. It’s 22 kilometers (14 miles) wide‚ and thought to be between 1 and 10 million years old‚The spectrum collected from Kamo’oalewa most closely matches the samples brought back by the Apollo 14 mission‚ as well as those collected by the Soviet Luna 24 lander‚ and some meteorites knocked off the Moon.We’re going to need a more detailed analysis of Kamo’oalewa‚ probably by landing there‚ to be sure of the match. Giordano Bruno has attracted the authors’ suspicions because it is thought to be the youngest lunar crater of suitable size‚ but there are others‚ such as the much more famous Tycho crater‚ that might be young enough. If the authors are right‚ quite a few other objects of similar size would have been ejected when a 1.6-kilometer (1-mile) wide object hit the Moon and created the Giordano Bruno crater. Most would since have hit the Earth‚ or been ejected from the Solar System‚ but there could be other survivors to look out for.“Asteroids tens of metres in size have never been explored by space missions and thus are among the least understood small bodies‚ even though they represent the most frequent [near-Earth asteroid] hazard and could be the most accessible space resources‚” the authors note. The planned Tianwen-2 mission to Kamo’oalewa next year could change all that‚ and provide us with a comparison of how material evolves on and off the Moon.Not having any samples of Giordano Bruno‚ we can’t measure its age precisely. However‚ its steep walls and prominent surrounding rays speak to a recent birth‚ as does how few smaller craters have appeared on top. The crater achieved some fame when its creation was proposed to be the cause of the events described by medieval monks‚ but the idea it’s as young as that is now largely discredited. The crater is named after the philosopher burned for heresy after proposing the stars had planets of their own‚ although the execution probably had other motivations.The study is published in Nature Astronomy.

The changes that our species is making to the planet are deeper than initially thought. Not only are the impacts of human activity changing the surface and climate of the Earth‚ but new research suggests that we have also changed the deep subsurface‚ a zone located hundreds of meters to several kilometers beneath where we stand.A team of researchers looked at the extraction of fossil fuels‚ such as oil and gas‚ and their replacement underground using salt water. That is done to maintain the pressure in the reservoir. There’s often water already present in these reservoirs – water that has been untouched for millions of years. Adding new water changes the composition as well as how it moves in the subsurface.There is also hydraulic fracturing‚ also known as fracking. This is a technique to extract oil and gas‚ not from reservoirs‚ but from deep rock formations. Breaking the rocks has led to quakes in regions that are not seismically active‚ but also introduces water and bacteria to different underground environments.In general‚ the data shows that the motion of fluids in the subsurface is much higher under human activity than compared to natural circulation. While this fact is significant‚ it is currently unclear what the consequences of these changes might be.&;quot;We looked at how the rates of fluid production with oil and gas compare to natural background circulation of water and showed how humans have made a big impact on the circulation of fluids in the subsurface‚&;quot; senior study author Professor Jennifer McIntosh from the University of Arizona said in a statement.&;quot;The deep subsurface is out of sight and out of mind for most people‚ and we thought it was important to provide some context to these proposed activities‚ especially when it comes to our environmental impacts‚&;quot; added lead study author Professor Grant Ferguson.The many unknowns about the subsurface lead to concern when it comes to possible solutions to the climate crisis. Some carbon storage solutions aim to bury carbon dioxide from the atmosphere deep underground. The extraction of lithium for batteries is also dependent on extraction methods that require a lot of water to be injected into the subsurface. Then the use of geothermal energy as a carbon-free source of electricity might also affect the subsurface. It is important to understand what is going on under us.&;quot;We need to use the deep subsurface as part of the solution for the climate crisis‚&;quot; McIntosh said. &;quot;Yet‚ we know more about the surface of Mars than we do about water‚ rocks and life deep beneath our feet.&;quot;A paper describing the work and the current uncertainties is published in the journal Earth’s Future.

There’s a family of new COVID-19 variants in town‚ and at least one of them looks set to begin jostling for position at the top of the transmission stakes. They’ve been nicknamed the FLiRT variants‚ for reasons that will soon become clear. Here’s what we know about them so far.If you’re thinking it’s been a long time since we had a new Greek letter COVID variant‚ you’re not wrong. The reason for that is pretty much all the variants currently circulating – as you can see in the latest data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) – are derived from the Omicron lineage‚ albeit quite distantly by now.These latest variants to join the party are derivatives of JN.1‚ the variant that rose to global dominance at the start of this year and continues to account for a large proportion of cases.  As physician-scientist Eric Topol of The Scripps Research Institute explained in a recent edition of his newsletter‚ Ground Truths‚ the new variants have picked up mutations in their spike proteins. In one location‚ an amino acid labeled “F” was switched for one labeled “L”; in another‚ an “R” was swapped for a “T”. Put those letters together (with the judicious addition of an “i”) and you get FLiRT.One of the FLiRT family‚ called the KP.2 variant‚ seems to be leading the pack at this point. CDC modeling suggests it could now be responsible for almost a quarter of infections. But is it anything to be concerned about&;#63;Topol told Time that he’s not expecting a huge wave of infections from this variant: “It might be a ‘wavelet.’” Some early data from researchers in Japan‚ which has been posted to preprint server bioRxiv and is yet to be peer-reviewed‚ supports this. The authors wrote that “the infectivity of KP.2 is significantly (10.5-fold) lower than that of JN.1‚” based on experiments in which they tried to infect cells with pseudoviruses‚ particles of other viruses that had been modified to carry the different COVID spike proteins. Despite this decreased infectivity‚ however‚ the study authors also found that KP.2 was able to spread more easily than JN.1‚ and may also be more resistant to immune responses from vaccines and prior infections. Again‚ this data has not yet been published in a peer-reviewed journal. But it’s still something health authorities will want to keep a close eye on‚ especially because it’s probably been a while since most people had a COVID-19 booster – if they bothered to get one at all. The World Health Organization released a statement recently‚ recommending that future COVID-19 vaccine formulations specifically target JN.1 and its derivatives. They accept that “the timing‚ specific mutations and antigenic characteristics‚ and the potential public health impact of newly emerged (e.g. KP.2) and future variants remain unknown‚” but based on the current data they believe that setting our sights on JN.1 is the best bet.But vaccines only work if people take them. Just this week‚ a new study published in Nature Medicine reports that trust in vaccines remains a mixed picture in the wake of this pandemic.“While we are concerned about the evident fallout of the pandemic on large numbers of people‚ we still see a general openness to immunization that we must build on to boost vaccine confidence‚ including acceptance of new generations of COVID-19 vaccines and boosters‚” senior author Ayman El-Mohandes said in a statement. “We must design targeted messages from trusted communicators to encourage vaccine uptake.”[H/T: Time] 

Contrary to the popular stereotype‚ stoners aren’t lazy layabouts. At least‚ that’s the conclusion of a new study‚ which found that chronic cannabis users don’t appear to experience any reduction in motivation or willingness to exert effort as a result of their consumption.The researchers recruited 260 weed smokers from Reddit‚ all of whom said they got high at least three times a week for recreational rather than medical reasons. Through a smartphone app‚ participants received five questionnaires a day for seven days‚ asking them about whether they were stoned and testing their motivation levels.“There is a stereotype that chronic cannabis users are somehow lazy or unproductive‚” said study author Michael Inzlicht in a statement. “We found that’s not the case – their behaviours might change a bit in the moment while they’re high‚ but our evidence shows they are not lazy or lacking motivation at all.”As part of the assessment‚ participants were repeatedly asked to choose between an easy number-sorting task in exchange for a small amount of compensation‚ or a more difficult mathematical challenge for a higher reward. Overall‚ the chronic cannabis users chose the harder task at about the same rate when they were high as they did when they weren’t high.Based on this observation‚ the study authors write that “when chronic users got high‚ they were no more amotivated‚ no less motivated for extrinsic or intrinsic reasons‚ and no less willing to objectively push themselves.” Even more surprisingly‚ results showed that those with more extreme levels of cannabis use were often more up for a challenge than more moderate users.“Again‚ countering the stereotype of the lazy stoner‚ people who get high multiple times per day are not less motivated than those who get high multiple times per week‚” note the researchers. “In fact‚ in some instances‚ they are more motivated.”Overall‚ results indicated that chronic cannabis users tend to consume the drug for the simple reason that it feels good and is “associated with a host of increased positive emotions such as awe‚ inspiration‚ and gratitude‚ as well as reduced stress and fear.” “Interestingly‚ getting high was not associated with increased suspicion/paranoia among chronic users‚ contrary to popular depictions and even medical symptom lists‚” continue the study authors. On top of this‚ the researchers say they were surprised to find no evidence for a “weed hangover”‚ with users displaying no signs of altered emotions or motivation the day after getting stoned.On the flip-side‚ results showed that regular cannabis use does impede conscientiousness‚ as getting high appears to make people more impulsive‚ less organized‚ more willing to lie‚ and less willing to follow rules. “These things can detract someone from getting stuff done‚ but we didn’t find it made them less hard-working‚ responsible or able to focus‚” says Inzlicht. The study is published in the journal Social Psychological and Personality Science.

Many of us are being exposed to chemicals linked to an increased risk of cancer‚ and a new study has found that they can be absorbed through our skin. The ironic part&;#63; They were originally intended to help save our lives.Protecting our household items from bursting into flames seems like a no-brainer‚ right&;#63; This is why‚ for decades now‚ manufacturers have added a type of chemical compound called polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) to things like upholstery‚ plastics‚ electronics‚ and other everyday objects to act as a flame retardant.But in a cruel twist of fate‚ it turns out that these PBDEs – long known to be associated with various negative health effects – can be absorbed so easily through the skin via contact with microplastics that they turn up in the blood within 24 hours. “This is the first experimental evidence to show that certain additive chemicals linked with so many diseases – including cancer‚ endocrine disruption and reproductive problems – enter the human body from dermal exposure to microplastics‚” said Dr Ovokeroye Abafe‚ now a lecturer in Environmental Sciences at Brunel University and co-author of the study‚ in a statement.“These results provide important experimental evidence for regulators and policy makers to legislate for microplastics and safeguard public health against such exposure‚” he added.By using skin models 3D printed using human keratinocytes – the main type of cell found in the outermost layer of the skin – the team behind the study measured the amount of two common forms of PBDE present in microplastics that were absorbed over 24 hours. In what amounts to the first experimental evidence that these compounds can be taken in through the skin‚ the results showed that as much as 8 percent of the exposure dose of PBDEs could be taken in via touch alone‚ with the effect being strongest in hydrated – or “sweaty” – skin.That may not sound like much‚ but remember: these are present in objects we may interact with many times a day‚ every day. “These chemicals are persistent‚ so with continuous or regular exposure to them‚ there will be a gradual accumulation to the point where they start to cause harm‚” Abafe pointed out in another statement.So‚ if these chemicals are so dangerous‚ why are they so ubiquitous&;#63; The problem is that‚ despite mounting evidence of the health dangers of PBDEs from various animal and longitudinal human studies‚ the exact harm caused by exposure to microplastics such as the ones PBDEs were present in isn’t well understood. That makes regulation difficult – and while some more obviously harmful compounds have been banned or voluntarily removed from the market‚ they have long half-lives and many are still present in older products. The problem is especially worrisome in the US‚ where tests have found that the population has levels of a specific PBDE called BDE-47 in their blood three to ten times greater than those found in Europeans. “Unfortunately‚ there are myriads of toxic additive chemicals‚ ranging from plasticizers to stabilizers in microplastics‚ some of which are not regulated‚ that can potentially find their way into the human system‚” Abafe said. “Also significant is the uptake of these toxic additive chemicals through other human exposure pathways such as ingestion and inhalation of microplastics‚ of which nothing is known on the body burden of these additives.”The study is published in the journal Environment International.

The more we search among the stars‚ the more we find potentially habitable planets. And yet to date‚ we have not found any conclusive signs of intelligent civilizations out there in the cosmos‚ begging the question: Where is everybody&;#63;This is the basic question of the Fermi Paradox‚ to which scientists‚ philosophers‚ and science fiction writers have proposed a number of explanations. They range from the benign (maybe we haven't searched for long enough yet‚ or are searching for the wrong types of signs‚ given our own technological immaturity) to the profoundly terrifying.      One that fits somewhere in the middle is the idea that conditions for life and intelligent civilizations to evolve have only just (in cosmological timescales) started to emerge.&;quot;The rate of gamma-ray bursts almost certainly was higher in the past than in the present‚&;quot; James Annis of the Experimental Astrophysics Group at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory wrote in a 1999 paper‚ originally published in the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. &;quot;The leading contender for the cause of gamma-ray burst is colliding neutron stars. These would have been born in binary systems and fairly rapidly spiral inward. Their numbers reflect the star formation history of the universe‚ which peaked 10 billion years ago and has declined since.&;quot;While this might sound like a relatively benign solution to the great silence‚ it implies that earlier on in the evolution of the universe life was constantly being wiped out before intelligent life had the chance to emerge. What's more‚ the extinctions would take place on a galactic scale.&;quot;The gamma-ray burst model is therefore one where galactic scale mass-extinctions occur often. Ten billion years ago‚ the rate was quite high‚ perhaps every 3 million years‚&;quot; Annis explained. &;quot;Over time this rate slows down and now the rate is perhaps once every 220 million years. Given the premise of this model‚ the last such burst in our Galaxy was before the solid surface of the Earth was covered with life‚ 270 million years ago. These bursts are not likely to be lethal to an advanced civilization‚ so their effectiveness at preventing the Galaxy from being colonized lies in their effectiveness are preventing intelligent life from evolving in the first place. &;quot;   The idea may not sound testable‚ but if it's correct we could find evidence for such extinctions on Earth. Gamma ray bursts have been suggested as possible driver of the Ordovician mass extinction around 450 million years ago‚ depleting the ozone layer and leaving life vulnerable to UV radiation. If this is correct‚ it could add evidence to the idea that alien life could have been similarly wiped out. It's bleak‚ but there is an upside to the idea. Now that gamma-ray bursts have calmed down a little‚ life has a chance to make its mark on the galaxy.&;quot;A previously forbidden configuration is now allowed‚&;quot; Annis concludes. &;quot;It is likely that intelligent life has recently sprouted up [at many] places in the Galaxy‚ and that at least a few are busily engaged in spreading. In another 108 years‚ a new equilibrium state will emerge‚ where the galaxy is completely filled with intelligent life.&;quot;A copy of the 1999 paper has been posted to preprint server arXiv.