Rising up out of the water like someplace from a fairy tale‚ Venice is a city of extremes.  A romantic destination of bridges and canals… and a moldering cesspool of crumbling buildings tilting slowly towards the mud that has supported them for a thousand years or more. It begs the question: why was this astonishing city built in the middle of an inhospitable marsh? And how did they accomplish this seemingly impossible task so many hundreds of years ago?  Aerial view of the old town island of Venice and its surrounding lagoons The Founding of Venice The early origins of Venice are murky – fitting‚ for a city that rose up from the muck. Long before the city was built‚ this land past the northernmost reaches of the Adriatic Sea was inhabited by the Veneti people who gave the area its name. They spoke Venetic‚ an extinct language that shared features with both Latin and local Germanic languages. They allied with Rome in 182 BC‚ and their culture gave way to gradual Romanization. Venice began with a population of refugees. People fled the cities and countryside of Northern Italy as the Roman Empire began to crumble.  The region was frequently attacked by the Huns and by various Germanic peoples‚ who destroyed a number of Roman cities. Roman residents took refuge in the marshy lagoons near the coast that had been previously unoccupied‚ save for a smattering of fishermen. There are no surviving documents from the time that the Republic of Venice was founded. Those damp buildings and watery streets aren’t kind to anything so ephemeral as parchment. But the city is said to have been officially founded at noon on the 25 of March in the year 421 AD. By the seventh century‚ the Imperial District of Venetia ruled a large swath of land encompassing the northernmost reaches of the Adriatic Sea. This marshland had been inhabited for centuries by the time the twelve founding families elected their first doge‚ the official leader of Venice‚ in 697. The Construction of Venice Early settlers lived in rough structures made of wood‚ reeds‚ and clay. There was also some dry land in the marsh. The fishermen and refugees who lived there in Roman times built their simple dwellings along the sandy coastline and on the small islands that dotted the wetlands. As the population grew‚ they had to devise a way to build where there was no dry land at all. They began by driving long wooden posts directly into the muck that lay beneath the water. They used water-resistant varieties of wood‚ such as larch and oak.  Countless wooden posts were used in the construction of Venice. The Santa Maria Della Salute church alone required the use of over one million stakes to construct its foundation. The basilica of Santa Maria Della Salute church Most of this wood was sourced from the forests of Croatia‚ Montenegro‚ Slovenia‚ and Northern Italy. It was transported to Venice by water. Under the soft mud is a layer of solid clay called Caranto. This dense material is found two meters beneath the surface in some areas but may be as deep as ten meters in others.  In the early days‚ the posts were driven in by men with huge handheld pile drivers – a difficult and potentially dangerous job. Wooden posts were laid out in a spiral that began at the center and moved out to the edges of the foundation. More posts were placed closer together beneath the outer walls‚ to support the immense weight. These posts were topped with two layers of horizontal planks and then with stone‚ nearly always an impermeable variety of limestone quarried in Istria‚ Croatia. Finally‚ the building was constructed. Venetian buildings were generally constructed with brick. Then‚ the dense variety of limestone called Istrian stone was used to protect the brick walls from the salty water of the lagoon. Sometimes marble was used to decorate the upper parts of the buildings. These techniques had been used elsewhere by the Romans‚ but the Venetians improved upon pre-existing architectural techniques.  As buildings became larger and heavier‚ the wooden poles were placed closer together to support more weight. They were generally five or six meters long and couldn’t always reach the sturdy layer of clay beneath the softer mud. If the Caranto was too deep to reach‚ the poles were placed so close together that there was virtually no space between them. If spaces were left‚ they were filled with stones and gravel. As weight was placed on top of these supports‚ the mud beneath became so compacted that it became as stable as the Caranto clay. Most of the surviving man-made ground of Venice was created in the 15th and 16th centuries‚ but some were created much earlier. St. Mark’s Bell Tower St. Mark’s Bell Tower collapsed in 1902‚ giving people the opportunity to investigate what was below.  The foundation had been created in the 10th century‚ and the poles used were about four meters long. The planks were laid atop these poles and the subsequent stone added another three and a half meters in height to the foundation. The wooden piles are still mostly intact‚ preserved by the mud itself. The wood had mineralized‚ making it nearly as hard as stone. Lack of oxygen and high mineral content in the silty saltwater sped up the process‚ giving Venice its enduring foundation. Venice (Italy) with a view to the Campanile of St. Mark’s Basilica A City of Water Venice was an important trading hub between Europe and the Near East‚ amassing immense riches over the centuries through the trade of salt‚ spices‚ and luxury goods.  Eventually‚ Venice became a formidable power in the region and commanded a great navy. Its watery location protected it from enemies. When Charlemagne’s son Pepin tried to invade‚ he failed to even reach the city. Venice reached its zenith in the 15th century. After that‚ it slowly declined and was captured by Napoleon in 1797. These days‚ a sea level two meters higher than the water level at which Venice was originally built is wreaking havoc. Mobile floodgates have been designed to staunch the tide and postpone the inevitable destruction of The Floating City. The post How was the Floating City of Venice Constructed? first appeared on History Defined.

They were ruthless‚ cold-hearted‚ merciless‚ and deadly. Established in 1929‚ Murder Inc. was a group organized by the National Crime Syndicate that threatened‚ injured‚ and killed anyone who didn’t comply with the Syndicate’s demands or crossed paths with the Mafia. Established by Louis “Lepke” Buchalter‚ Murder Inc. is believed to have been responsible for up to 1‚000 killings between 1929 and 1941. In essence‚ they were “the muscle” behind the Mafia. The group was comprised mostly of Jewish and Italian-American gangsters in New York City. They focused mostly on low-class neighborhoods within Brooklyn and Manhattan at first. Eventually‚ they expanded and handled contracts across various parts of the US. Mugshots of Martin Goldstein‚ Abe Reles and Harry Strauss. Cipollini Collection Background Many of the victims were people associated with criminal activities‚ such as loan-sharking‚ bootlegging‚ prostitution‚ gambling‚ and racketeering. However‚ within Murder Inc.‚ they were strictly responsible for carrying out orders that came from the top. Murder Inc. was not an established enterprise like an organized military‚ but rather like a militia. It was used by key mob bosses to carry out the brutality of others. They were like taxi drivers‚ sitting at a coffee shop and waiting for “the call.” They were referred to by many as the Syndicate’s “Execution Squad.” However‚ while Murder Inc. saw it rise as one of the most dangerous mob groups in the country‚ it fell in the early 1940s. Abe “Twist” Reles‚ once a Murder Inc. member‚ began the downfall when he confessed his crimes and threw the organization under the bus. His work as an informant assisted in bringing the group down right before the start of World War II. Eventually‚ this led to the arrest and death sentence of the group’s founder. The Roots of Murder Inc. Organized crime saw a meteoric rise in the late 1920s in major cities like Chicago and New York. This was at the heart of the Prohibition era where many mobsters and gangs got involved in bootlegging and other criminal activity. In the early 1920s‚ hitmen were used to carry out orders. However‚ by the late 1920s‚ a rising number of crime organizations were getting involved in illegal activity‚ and the need for buffers and hitmen grew. As the Great Depression hit‚ even more people turned to this way of life to try and make money.  Bugsy Siegel and Meyer Lansky were New York Jewish mobsters in the 1920s. They took notice of the increase in organized crime. They crafted the idea of forming a group of hitmen that wouldn’t be attached to any one Mafia group but instead be a separate faction of the National Crime Syndicate that could carry out orders and settle disputes. They partnered with Louis “Lepke” Buchalter and Albert “Mad Hatter” Anastasia to run Murder Inc. More men were added to the top list‚ including Lucky Luciano. They kept their main headquarters in a coffee shop and candy store‚ Midnight Roses‚ in Brownsville‚ Brooklyn. Charlie “Lucky” Luciano‚ an Italian mobster born in Sicily By 1931‚ the Great Depression was tearing America apart‚ and as a result‚ Murder‚ Inc. kept adding more members. Top Mafia groups used people within Murder Inc. to maim‚ use brutality‚ and kill those who weren’t complying or were seen as threats. Contracts were drawn and orders handed down. Sitting around at the Midnight Roses coffee shop‚ once a call came in‚ it was “off to work.”  The National Crime Syndicate kept a separation of powers from Murder Inc. and had several layers of buffers to prevent being linked. Murder Inc. was a private and secret organization that helped keep the attention and blame off of Mafia groups‚ hence a major reason so few mobsters were prosecuted. Murder Inc. Was Organized Buchalter eventually was the top man in Murder Inc. He had his right-hand man‚ Jacob “Gurrah” Shapiro. Leadership was also divided into groups heralded by Lucky Luciano‚ Dutch Schultz‚ Lansky‚ and Siegel. There was also a group of enforcers below them led by the likes of Abe “Twist Kid” Reles and Joe Adonis‚ who were the big muscle behind Murder Inc. Groups were also separated by ethnicity. Buchalter was in charge of the Jewish members and Anastasia headed the Italians. Early on‚ most orders were focused on areas around New York. But over time as crime spread nationwide‚ so did Murder Inc. They went to places like Florida‚ Chicago‚ Detroit‚ and even Los Angeles to “handle business.” The routine was simple; once the Syndicate ordered a murder contract‚ they had someone contact Murder Inc. Murder Inc. would follow up and study the victim. Eventually‚ the order was officially handed down‚ and the Murder Inc. killer handled the execution. It was important that the Murder Inc. “killer” not know the victim personally‚ a significant reason why the organization lasted so long. Everything was extremely carefully planned so all tracks were covered. Sometimes planning for these “executions” was done weeks in advance. By having layers in between the top of the Syndicate and Murder Inc.‚ the organization went a long time without ever being noticed by law enforcement. These were also professionals who knew what they were doing and were well-trained. Each member of Murder Inc. had their strengths. Some were better at handling executions (and the way they executed them) while others were used simply for beatings or maiming. One group may have been professionals dealing with loan sharks and their victims‚ while others handled bootlegging operations.  Abe Reles was a key killer that the Syndicate requested a lot. He rose up the ranks and gained a reputation as one of the most reliable and brutal killers there was.  Abe Reles between 1930 and 1941. Library of Congress. Thomas Dewey Enters the Picture Thomas Dewey made a name for himself as a prosecutor for bringing down high-profile mobsters and bootleggers in the early 1930s. When he brought down famous bootlegger Waxey Gordon‚ everyone took notice. In 1935‚ the New York governor responded to accusations that New York City wasn’t doing enough to tackle racketeering and gangsters. Their answer was to hire Dewey as a special prosecutor to work specifically in that area. This involved investigating and bringing down some of the highest-profile mobsters in Brooklyn and Manhattan‚ which was also the jurisdiction of where Murder Inc. did their business. Thomas Edmund Dewey circa 1948‚ Greystone Studio‚ N.Y. Early on in Dewey’s handlings‚ he went after Dalton Schultz‚ a Murder Inc. member renowned for his gambling and prostitution rings on the side. When Schultz went to Lucky Luciano and asked for the organization to intervene and kill Dewey so he would get off his back‚ Luciano refused‚ saying killing a public official would hurt business and increase “eyes.” Killing Dewey would lead to a massive crackdown on crime and draw attention to organizations in the area. Schultz disagreed with Luciano’s decision. He decided he would go after Dewey and kill him himself. Luciano went to Buchalter‚ who told Luciano he would take care of Schultz. Buchalter hired Charles “The Bug” Workman and Mendy Weiss as enforcers to take the case. In 1935‚ Workman shot and killed Schultz and his associates in a Newark tavern in 1935. Before Dewey‚ most of these murders would go unnoticed. But Dewey went deeper into organized crime than any prosecutor before him. Schultz’s murder was the starting point of the Murder Inc. unraveling. Arrests Start Piling Up Buchalter had become increasingly paranoid after Schultz’s murder and Dewey’s rise as a prosecutor. He sent Workman and his crew to murder anybody who could testify as a witness against Buchalter‚ wanting to eliminate any chance of a connection.  Buchalter began to lose his grasp on things when he murdered Joe Rosen. Joe had threatened to expose Buchatler and the organization to Dewey if Buchalter didn’t help him financially with his business. This led to Rosen and anyone associated with him being given death warrants by Buchalter. Dewey’s entrance into the situation had made people within the organization come off the hinges a bit. Dewey had won 72 out of 73 convictions between 1935 and 1937‚ making mobsters fear him more. In 1938‚ he was successfully elected as District Attorney and continued to tighten the noose on organized crime.  The first domino to fall was Lucky Luciano‚ who was arrested in 1936. Next on the list were Buchalter and Shapiro for narcotics and antitrust violations. Meanwhile‚ crimes continued to escalate all the way up to upstate New York‚ but nobody was ever getting convicted for it. Soon‚ Dewey and new special prosecutor William O’Dwyer began to realize this was part of a much larger organization rather than just one Mafia group. Investigations began to ramp up. By 1940‚ O’Dwyer had become district attorney and the investigations into several Murder Inc. suspects began to grow. Abe Reles was one of the men that law enforcement had arrested and suspected of murder. They decided to use Reles as a way to help bring the organization down. When they linked Reles to the murder of police informant Harry Rudolph in 1933‚ Reles broke down and agreed to confess to over 200 unsolved murders that Murder Inc. had been a part of. He mentioned the names of major members of the organization. Every person he had worked through his whole life didn’t matter; he caved and confessed everything. The Fall of Murder Inc. Many assert that Reles was the big domino that led to the fall of Murder Inc. According to Assistant District Attorney Burton Turks‚ Reles’ memory was photographic. He detailed every murder‚ the dates‚ those involved‚ where they took place‚ and how they were committed. Afraid of the death sentence‚ Reles did what he could to help his future. Reles continued to spill details in the coming days. He spoke about political corruption as well as the connection between The National Crime Syndicate and different organized crime groups. He confessed about what happened to Dutch Schultz and helped corroborate other witnesses’ testimony.  Reles wasn’t alone. Soon‚ Allie Tannenbaum‚ Seymour Magono‚ Sholem Bernstein‚ and Abe “Pretty” Levine all became informants and confessed to crimes not just by themselves but by others in the organization. They testified against former colleagues‚ continuing the downfall of Murder Inc. When more testimony corroborated the story about Schultz‚ Buchalter and his associates’ days became numbered. To prevent the men from any contact‚ they held them in a secure location on Coney Island at the Half Moon Motel. However‚ on Nov. 12‚ 1941‚ Reles was found dead seven stories down from the balcony of his hotel room. Official reports claim he tried to escape and fell‚ although there are conspiracies surrounding that story. His death‚ however‚ hindered the investigation since they had lost a key witness. By 1941‚ Murder Inc.‚ under investigation‚ ceased operations with many of its members disappearing. Many‚ however‚ were caught and brought to justice through testimony and investigations. Albert Anastasia had kept himself away from the law for years‚ but in 1957. However‚ he was brutally murdered in Manhattan by his underboss Carlo Gambino‚ who would quickly rise to power. Buchalter‚ who had been arrested‚ had enough people testify against him that he was sentenced to life and subsequently‚ the death penalty. So were his enforcers Louis Capone and Mendy Weiss‚ who were implicated in the Schultz murder and other executions‚ including the Rosen contract killing.  Louis Capone and Mendy Weiss‚ bottom of stairs‚ board a train bound for Sing Sing prison in 1941. Cipollini Collection. The death sentence ruling went to the Court of Appeals and subsequently‚ the U.S. Supreme Court. In 1943‚ the ruling was upheld. Buchalter became the only major organization leader to die by the death penalty. Jacob Shapiro was also caught and sentenced to life‚ then died in a prison hospital in 1947. Some Murder Inc. members successfully evaded the law. Bugsy Siegel was eventually shot dead in 1947. Lucky Luciano moved to Florida‚ where he died of a heart attack in 1962. Joe Adonis was finally confronted for his crimes but died of a heart attack after abusive treatment and questioning in 1971. Meyer Lansky also moved to Florida and lived until 1983.  References Cipollini‚ Christian. “The Fall of Murder Inc.” TheMobMuseum.org. 13 Sep 2021. https://themobmuseum.org/blog/the-fall-of-murder-inc/.  “Murder Inc.: The Syndicate’s Killing Team.” J-Grit.com. Nd. https://www.j-grit.com/criminals-murder-inc-brooklyn-1930s-1940s.php.  “Thomas Dewey.” TheMobMuseum.org. Nd. https://themobmuseum.org/notable_names/thomas-dewey/. The post Hitmen for Hire: The Rise and Fall of Murder Inc. first appeared on History Defined.

In the mid-1980s‚ the city of Los Angeles was gripped by fear as a shadowy figure prowled the streets‚ leaving a trail of brutality and horror in his wake. This sinister presence was none other than Richard Ramirez‚ infamously known as the Night Stalker. The saga of Ramirez’s crimes remains etched in the dark annals of true crime‚ a chilling tale of a man whose rampage of violence and terror left an indelible mark on the history of criminal infamy. Ramirez at his trial in 1989 Early Life and Disturbing Beginnings Richard Ramirez was born on February 29‚ 1960‚ in El Paso‚ Texas into a troubled family life. Ramirez’s father‚ a former police officer‚ was an angry‚ abusive man‚ which resulted in violence against Ramirez throughout his early life. The injuries inflicted by his father around age 6 would permanently alter Ramirez’s life. Psychologists believe the brain injuries he sustained at this age that caused epileptic seizures in Ramirez also altered his psyche and turned him into a psychopath. By age 10 Ramirez was drinking and smoking marijuana and in early puberty became abnormally physically and sexually aggressive.  At age 12‚ Ramirez found himself under the wing of his older cousin Miguel who had recently returned from fighting in the Vietnam War. While the pair would smoke together‚ Miguel would recall the heinous things he had done to Vietnamese women during the war and would show Ramirez photographic evidence. Ramirez became fascinated with Miguel’s stories. They fueled his sadistic thoughts‚ dovetailing with his rising interest in Satanism and all things macabre. In 1973‚ Ramirez witnessed Miguel shoot his wife in the face during a dispute. He claimed that this situation intrigued him more than disturbed him. Miguel would eventually be found not guilty due to insanity. This would be attributed to the post-traumatic stress disorder of his service‚ and would be held in a psychiatric hospital for a few years. During this time Ramirez became more withdrawn and moody‚ compounded by entering puberty. He began expanding his drug use to include LSD and cocaine‚ which would become his drug of choice‚ and his sexual criminality rapidly evolved.  His first sexual crimes appeared during his teenage years‚ as he became a voyeur with Miguel and his brother-in-law. They would make nightly excursions to spy on women through their windows. Ramirez began escalating when he got a job in a hotel‚ which allowed him access to more people in their private spaces. He molested two children in the elevator and was eventually caught raping a man’s wife when the husband returned to the room. After the husband beat Ramirez in the room‚ the couple refused to return to Texas to testify‚ so Ramirez was never charged. Shortly after‚ Ramirez would graduate high school and move to Los Angeles where he would escalate his crimes even further. The Night Stalker Emerges In the summer of 1984‚ Los Angeles became the hunting ground for Ramirez‚ who became a serial killer. His modus operandi was to break into people’s homes in the dead of night‚ after which he would sexually assault‚ kill‚ or rob them; sometimes all three. One particular pattern he repeated was targeting couples specifically. He broke into their homes under cover of night‚ shooting the husband‚ then sexually assaulting the wife‚ although this was not his only demographic. Alongside his inclusion of Satanic imagery in his crime scenes‚ his cocktail of criminal activity created an atmosphere of terror that permeated the city. This only worsened as Ramirez continued to evade law enforcement. Ramirez would kill over 20 victims in Los Angeles and San Francisco‚ terrifying the residents of both cities. Mug shot of Richard Ramirez‚ taken on 12 December 1984 The Capture and Trial The turning point in the Night Stalker saga came in August 1985. Ramirez’s last victims‚ Inez Harrison and Bill Carns‚ were able to provide police with a description of Ramirez after he told them to inform law enforcement that the Night Stalker had been there. Police had lifted a partial fingerprint from a prior crime scene and used a new system to identify Ramirez‚ and Harrison’s story corroborated their conclusion. They released his identity to the media and asked the public to be on alert for Ramirez.  Ramirez was quickly recognized in a convenience store by his mugshot. He was beaten by a crowd of vigilantes so badly that he was almost relieved to be taken into custody. The subsequent trial was a spectacle that garnered significant media attention. As a televised event‚ Ramirez had the chance to show that he was proud of his actions. Even as lawyers laid out the gruesome details of his crimes and survivors pled their case‚ Ramirez smiled. At the end of his trial‚ in 1989‚ Ramirez was convicted of 13 counts of murder‚ 5 counts of attempted murder‚ 11 counts of sexual assault‚ and 14 counts of burglary‚ among other charges. The gravity of his crimes was reflected in his multiple death sentences. Richard Ramirez (aka The Night Stalker) smiling at the camera as he is escorted by sheriffs from court in Los Angeles after testimony in his preliminary hearing‚ 1986. The Dark Charisma and Satanic Influences What set Richard Ramirez apart from other serial killers was his dark charisma and the apparent enjoyment he derived from the chaos he sowed. During the trial‚ Ramirez flaunted satanic symbols in the courtroom‚ including one on the palm of his hand‚ which earned him a cult following that supported his actions. While some became enamored with him‚ his flagrant use of Satanic symbols contributed to the rest of the public’s perception of the occult as a criminal ideology and lifestyle.  One terrifying aspect of the case was that one of the jurors failed to show up in the courtroom one day. It was discovered they had been killed‚ further mystifying his Satanic connections and the fear of the Night Stalker. It was later discovered that she had been killed by her boyfriend‚ who then used the same weapon to kill himself. But the damage was done. The judge‚ jury‚ and public all feared that Ramirez had somehow orchestrated the death from within prison‚ and the replacement juror was too afraid to return home for the extent of the trial.  Richard Ramirez (aka The Night Stalker) with attorney Joseph Gallegos in Los Angeles during appearance in Municipal Court The Psychological Profile: Unraveling the Mind of a Killer Richard Ramirez’s case has become a subject of intense interest for criminal psychologists seeking to understand the mind of a killer. His troubled upbringing‚ exposure to violence‚ and descent into criminality paint a complex picture of a man shaped by a multitude of factors. The debate between nature and nurture in Ramirez’s life is still up for debate. Although Ramirez grew up in an abusive home and spent significant time with a violent cousin‚ many others have experienced similar upbringings and been disgusted by the behavior. His descent into criminal behavior was not guaranteed‚ and it is impossible to extrapolate what sets Ramirez apart.  The Night Stalker’s crimes also defy easy categorization. Typically law enforcement can build a profile that helps identify unknown criminals‚ to narrow down the suspect list. However‚ Ramirez’s victims varied widely in age‚ gender‚ and socio-economic background. The closest thing to a pattern is that he targeted a few couples and that his victims were mostly women. This diversity challenged prevailing notions about serial killers who often adhere to specific patterns and made it nearly impossible to locate Ramirez. It was not until he left a survivor that he was able to be caught‚ with her description corroborating a fingerprint police had found at one crime scene. Ramirez’s indiscriminate brutality left an indelible mark on criminal profiling. It prompted a reevaluation of methodologies used to understand and predict the actions of violent offenders. The Death of the Night Stalker: His Final Years in Prison Ramirez remained on death row from 1989 until 2013‚ when he finally died from cancer. During the nearly 25-year sentence‚ he maintained a cult following and received hundreds of letters from fans. In 1996 he married Doreen Lioy‚ a woman who had been writing him letters for nearly a decade. She repeatedly said that she would kill herself when Ramirez died. Although she regularly visited him in prison after their marriage‚ she cut ties when evidence emerged in 2006 that Ramirez had assaulted and murdered a child in 1984‚ leaving him to die alone in 2013.  Ramirez and his wife‚ Doreen Lioy. Conclusion: The Echoes of Darkness As society grapples with the haunting legacy of the Night Stalker‚ the lessons learned from this dark chapter continue to inform our understanding of criminal behavior‚ the complexities of human psychology‚ and the importance of collective vigilance in the face of evil. The echoes of Richard Ramirez’s darkness serve as a haunting reminder that‚ even in the most seemingly ordinary corners of life‚ the potential for unspeakable horrors may lurk. It challenges us to remain vigilant and resilient in the pursuit of justice and the preservation of the safety and well-being of our communities. References Learish‚ Jessica. “Richard Ramirez: The story‚ the evidence‚ the Night Stalker.” CBS News‚ May 21‚ 2021. https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/richard-ramirez-night-stalker-murders/.  “Richard Ramirez: The Night Stalker.” Crime Museum‚ 2022. https://www.crimemuseum.org/crime-library/serial-killers/richard-ramirez/. The post Richard Ramirez: The Night Stalker’s Reign of Terror first appeared on History Defined.

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