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  Being able to pass freely between Olympus, the Underworld, and the mortal realm, Hermes fulfilled an important role in Greek mythology as the messenger god. However, the Angelos Athanatôn, or “messenger of the gods,” was not the only emissary for the Olympians. The goddess Iris, a descendant of Titans and dedicated to Hera, also fulfilled an important role in Greek mythology as an emissary for the Olympians. Although not as prominent in mythology as Hermes, Iris is a colorful, striking part of Classical culture.   Titans, Gods, and Monsters: The Family of Iris Iris Carrying the Water of the River Styx to Olympus for the Gods to Swear, by Guy Head, c. 1793. Source: Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art   The story of the goddess Iris begins with the Titans, the forebears of the Olympian gods who reigned over the heavens and earth in Greek mythology. Writing around 700 BCE, the poet Hesiod produced his Theogony, which narrates the origins of the gods. This is one of the oldest pieces of literature to have survived from the ancient Mediterranean, alongside Homer’s epic. Hesiod describes how Iris was the daughter of Thaumas and Electra. Thaumas was a god of the sea and a son of Pontus and Gaia. An Oceanid, Electra was similarly related to the Titans, being the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys.   According to Hesiod, the marriage of Thaumas and Electra, two deities of the sea, produced several offspring, including the Harpies. Half-bird, half-human, these monstrous creatures featured prominently in ancient Greek and Roman culture as wind spirits and agents of vengeance and punishment. Alongside these monstrous offspring, about whom Virgil says existed, “no worse monsters than these… clawed hands and faces always thin with hunger,” Thaumas and Electra had two other daughters, Iris and Arke. The two daughters would both become messengers: Iris to the Olympian gods and Arke to the Titans.   Iris would also have a family of her own. Often, her partner is said to be Zephyrus, the god and personification of the west wind. Different literary traditions identify different offspring for the divine pair. Fragmentary poetry of Alcaeus of Mytilene (6th century BCE) claims Iris and Zephyrus were the parents of Eros, the god of desire. Nonnus, a poet from 5th century CE Egypt, described the two as the parents of Pothos, another love deity, in his Dionysiaca, a 48-book epic that detailed the life of Dionysus (and is the longest surviving poem from antiquity!).   Divine Purpose: Messenger Goddess The Fall of the Titans, by Cornelisz van Haarlem, c. 1596-98. Source: Statens Museum for Kunst   The two daughters of Thaumas and Electra had, for a time, a shared purpose in life. They were both messengers for the gods, flitting between the immortal and mortal realms carrying messages to humans. Things soon soured, however, with the advent of the Titanomachy. This is the great battle that was fought between the Olympian gods and the Titans (the older generation of gods). The war between the gods of Mount Olympus and the Titans of Mount Othrys was fought for control over the universe. During the conflict, Arke betrayed the Olympians and joined the side of the Titans, for whom she would serve as a messenger.   Junon, Iris et Flore (Juno, Iris, and Flora), by Francois Lemoyne, c. 1720s. Source: Louvre   The war would eventually be won by the Olympians, and this was bad news for Arke. Her punishment at the hands of Zeus was severe. The ruler of the gods tore off Arke’s wings and offered them as a gift to Thetis, the nereid, to celebrate her wedding to Peleus. The wings would, in turn, be bestowed to Thetis’ son, Achilles, who took to wearing the wings on his feet. For this rather grisly decision, Achilles would sometimes be known by the name Podarkes, which meant “feet like the wings of Arke.” While one-half of Thaumas and Electra’s duo of messenger daughters suffered, Iris flourished. She continued to serve the gods as a messenger alongside Hermes, often serving as the personal messenger of Hera, the wife of Zeus.   War and Madness: Iris in Epic, Drama, and Comedy Red Figure Amphora with central detail of Hades (seated) with Persephone before him, attributed to the Patera Painters, c. 340-330 BCE. Source: British Museum   Although she may not have been as influential or prominent as other gods and goddesses in Greco-Roman mythology, Iris nevertheless remains a conspicuous figure. Her role as the messenger of the gods ensures that she fulfills an important narratological function, bridging the mortal and divine characters together.   Perhaps Iris’ most famous narrative appearance is in the myth of Persephone. Having been abducted by Hades, ruler of the underworld, Demeter, the goddess of agriculture, withdrew in mourning to her temple at Eleusis. The earth suffered immeasurably, quickly becoming barren and a place of deprivation. Starving mortals soon began to perish in the resulting famine caused by Demeter’s retreat to her sanctuary. Desperate, the humans soon stopped offering sacrifices to the gods. This roused the gods into action, and Zeus dispatched Iris to Demeter, pleading with the goddess of agriculture to return to Olympus and restore some semblance of normality to the world.   The Rape of Prosperina (Persephone), Lucas Kilian (after Joseph Heintz the Elder), c. 1605. Source: British Museum   Iris’ entreaties were in vain. Without the return of her daughter, Demeter remained resolute. It took Zeus’ intervention to return Persephone to her mother, this time sending Hermes as his messenger. Even then, it was only for two-thirds of the year. While captive in the underworld, Persephone had eaten pomegranate seeds, which was a ploy of Hades. Because Persephone had eaten the fruit of the underworld, she would be obliged to spend at least one-third of the year in his realm. These months are the winter season when Demeter laments Persephone’s absence.   Aristophanes, by Alexandre Chaponnier (after Raphael), 1807. Source: British Museum   Alongside her role in the mythology of the seasons, Iris also features across the broad spectrum of ancient literature, from epic and tragedy to the bawdy comedy of Aristophanes. In his 5th-century The Birds, which focuses on the attempt of a group of birds to build a city in the sky to replace the Olympians, Iris goes to meet with the avian schemers. Upon meeting them, however, she is ridiculed, insulted, and subjected to vile threats by Pisetaerus, an elderly Athenian man and the leader of the birds.   Elsewhere on stage, Iris features in Herackles Gone Mad, by Euripides. First performed in 416 BCE, the tragedy concerns the madness of the demi-god, which results in the death of his wife and children at his own hand. In the play, Iris appears alongside the goddess Lysa, the divinity of madness and insanity, at the moment when Herakles is cursed.   Iris Sent by Jove in the Iliad, Tommaso Piroli (after John Flaxman), 1795. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In addition to the stage productions of the Athenian Golden Age, Iris is a prominent character in the epics that focus on the Trojan War. Curiously, she does not appear at all in the Odyssey, where Hermes is the only messenger god employed by the Olympians. In one version of the famous story of Troy, Iris appears to Menelaus to break the news of his being cuckolded. While sailing to Crete, Iris informs the Spartan king that his wife has eloped with the Trojan Prince, Paris.   Elsewhere in the story, Iris reprises her role as messenger, most notably bringing Achilles’s prayer to her husband, Zephyrus, to light the funeral pyre of Achilles’ beloved comrade, Patroclus. Zeus also sends Iris to visit the Trojan king, Priam, where she delivers to him the instructions to sneak into the Greek camp and beg for the body of his son, Hector, who was slain by Achilles in vengeance for the death of Patroclus.   Cult and Iconography: Representing the Goddess Iris Terracotta figure of a draped woman identified as Iris, Italy, c. 3rd-2nd century BCE. Source: British Museum   Like her counterpart messenger divinity, Iris is sometimes depicted in ancient artworks bearing a caduceus. This is the distinctive staff topped by wings, which may or may not also be entwined by two serpents. She may also be associated with rainbows, of which she was the personification, and also a pitcher; Iris was said to water the clouds with seawater from a jug.   Marble statue from the west pediment of the Parthenon identified as Iris, c. 438-432 BCE. Source: British Museum   Although she shared certain iconographic similarities with other gods, such as Hermes, Iris was comparatively small-scale in the ancient religious collective conscience. She apparently received no significant cult worship in the ancient Greek world. This means that, although she may have featured as part of the ornamentation of ancient temples, such as on the Parthenon’s pedimental sculpture, there were, so far as we know, no temples, sanctuaries, or shrines dedicated to the messenger goddess. The only known passing reference to a cult of Iris is from the Deipnosophistae, or “Dinner Sophists,” of Athenaeus, an early 3rd-century work. According to Athenaeus, the people of the island of Delos, famous for its sanctuary of Apollo, sacrificed a type of cake, called basyniae, to the goddess.   Plants and Paintings: Afterlife of the Goddess Iris Irises, by Vincent Van Gogh, c. 1889. Source: Getty Center   Despite the lack of notable cult worship, Iris has nevertheless enjoyed an especially colorful nachleben or afterlife. The association of the goddess with rainbows led to a genus of particularly colorful plants being named after her: the Iris. There are 310 species of this plant found all over the world. Their color has also inspired artists of all different styles throughout the centuries, most notably Vincent Van Gogh in the late 19th century. Elsewhere in art, the meaning of Iris was taken to a more abstract degree. Given the role of the goddess as the messenger of the gods, the flower of the same name could be used to symbolize a warning to be heeded. This is the case for the painting Broken Vows (1856) by the British Pre-Raphaelite painter Philip Hermogene Calderon. Now on display in London, it means that Iris, the divine messenger goddess, has moved over the course of the millennia from the realm of the Titans to the Tate!

  Worshiping the gods was an important part of daily life in ancient Greece. The most powerful gods were the 12 Olympians who held supreme power over the world. These gods and goddesses resided on Mount Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. From there, they oversaw human affairs, controlled the forces of nature, and competed among themselves. Each Olympian had unique attributes and responsibilities, from love and war to skies and seas. However, the Greek Pantheon also included a host of minor deities, such as Chthonic gods like Hades, the ruler of the Underworld, primordial divine beings like Nyx and her many children, plus the Titans and the Muses.   The Primordials: Before the Olympian Gods  Terracotta lekythos (oil flask) depicting Nyx and Helios, attributed to the Sappho Painter, c. 500 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   While the Olympians were the most important deities in the Greek Pantheon, they did not come into existence from nothing. Instead, the primordial gods were the first beings to emerge at the creation of the universe, representing fundamental forces and elements. These beings arose from Chaos, the void of emptiness, marking the beginning of cosmic order. Nyx, the primordial goddess of night, was among the first to emerge from Chaos. Mysterious and powerful, Nyx was feared even by Zeus. Nyx’s union with Erebus (darkness) produced numerous offspring, including Hypnos (sleep) and Thanatos (death).   The Titans and the Muses The Fall of the Titans, by Dutch painter Cornelis van Haarlem, 1596-1598. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Titans, born from the primordial gods Gaia (Earth) and Uranus (Sky), were the next generation of deities. According to the creation myth recorded by Hesiod, the Titans ruled before the Olympians, with the Titans Kronos and Rhea being the parents of Zeus. Then, there were the Muses, nine daughters of Zeus and the Titan Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory. The Muses inspired creativity and the arts, influencing both the mortal and divine realms.   The 12 Olympians   1. Zeus: King of the Gods and Mortals Statue of Zeus in the Temple at Olympia, drawing by Alfred Charles Conrade, 1913-1914. Source: British Museum   Zeus (known as Jupiter among the Romans) was the ruler of Mount Olympus, the king of all gods. Zeus’ power was unmatched, and he had control over mortals. Zeus’ main domains were sky, thunder, and lightning. Often depicted holding a lightning bolt, the ruler of Olympus enforced justice and punished those who defied him. As the protector of law and order, he maintained balance in the universe, both in the heavens and on earth.   Zeus was (in)famous for having relationships with goddesses, supernatural creatures like nymphs, but also mortals, resulting in numerous offspring who played significant roles in Greek mythology, including Heracles, Perseus, and Helen of Troy.   2. Hera: Capricious Goddess of Marriage and Family Marble bust of Hera/Juno wearing polos or crown, Roman copy of a Hellenistic original. Source: Vatican Museum   Hera (Juno) was the queen of the gods and the wife of Zeus, which made her the second most powerful Olympian. As the goddess of marriage, women, and family, Hera was revered by women of all ages. Hera was famous for her beauty and was often portrayed as a regal, dignified figure.   Despite her lofty position, Hera had to endure a tumultuous marriage due to her husband’s amorous adventures. Thus, Hera was considered a jealous and vengeful deity, whose punishments of Zeus’ (often unwilling) lovers and their offspring became recurrent themes in many myths. Yet, this capricious Olympian remained a symbol of loyalty and protection for married women.   3. Poseidon: God of the Sea and Creation Poseidon/Neptune with Dolphin, after Bernini, c. 17th century. Source:  J. Paul Getty Museum   Poseidon (Neptune) was one of Zeus’s brothers, the other being Hades, the god of the underworld. This made Poseidon one of the most powerful Olympians. He was a god of the sea, earthquakes, and horses. For the ancient Greeks, seafaring was one of the most essential parts of life, and the sailors feared Poseidon, whose mighty trident could cause storms, floods, and even earthquakes when struck on the ground.   Poseidon, however, had a more tepid side. The master of seas was also associated with creation, and he was credited with raising islands and shaping coastlines. Poseidon played an essential role in various myths and history, including in the Trojan War and his competition with Athena for the city of Athens.   4. Athena: Goddess of Wisdom and War Athena of Varvakeio, Athens, 200 BCE. Source: National Archaeological Museum, Athens   Athena (Minerva), one of the most famous Olympians, was the goddess of wisdom but also of warfare and strategy. Unlike her half-brother Ares, the god of war, Athena represented the strategic side of warfare. She was also a goddess-protector of those who defended the Greek world from foreign enemies. Above all, her protection was reserved for the city-state that bore her name, Athens.   Athena was also the goddess of crafts, such as weaving and pottery. The goddess’ symbols were the owl, representing wisdom, and the olive tree, symbolizing peace and abundance. As one of the few deities who cared about humans, Athena assisted the Greek heroes, such as Odysseus, Diomedes, Hercules, Jason, and Perseus. Despite being depicted fully armored, Athena valued wisdom over violence, often resorting to tricks and strategies to overcome her enemies.   5. Ares: God of War Attic-black volute krater showing Ares kneeling before Aphrodite, c. 570-565 BCE. Source: University of California   Clad in armor, Ares (Mars) was the god of war, an embodiment of the brutal and chaotic aspects of conflict. Unlike Athena, who represented strategy and reason in war, Ares symbolized violence, bloodlust, and destruction on the battlefield.   Ares’ cruelty and overt love of war made him unpopular among the other Olympians, and he did not enjoy the same respect from mortals as his half-sister. Yet, Ares’s presence on the battlefield was both feared and respected by soldiers who fought in many conflicts, from the Peloponnesian War to the Conquests of Alexander the Great. Ares’ tumultuous relationship with his half-sister Aphrodite, the goddess of love, highlighted the tension between love and war.   6. Aphrodite: Goddess of Love and Beauty Venus (Aphrodite) and Anchises, by Williams Blake Richmond, 1889/1890. Source: Walker Art Gallery   Known for her unparalleled charm and attractiveness, Ares’ half-sister Aphrodite (Venus) was the goddess of love, beauty, and desire. Famously born from sea foam, Aphrodite inspired love and passion in both gods and mortals. She was often depicted as a radiant figure, surrounded by symbols of beauty such as roses, myrtles, doves, and sparrows.   While Aphrodite was synonymous with love and romance, the goddess also had a dark side, as she could (and often did) incite jealousy, lust, and unrequited love. She engaged in affairs with gods and mortals. Aphrodite’s affair with Ares while married to Hephaestus is one of the most well-known love stories in Greek mythology.   7. Hephaestus: God of Fire and Blacksmiths Vulcan (Hephaestus) at his Forge, by Pompeo Batoni, 1750. Source: National Gallery of Canada   Hephaestus (Vulcan) was the Greek god of fire, metalworking, and craftsmanship. He was also the god of volcanoes. He was the only Olympian known for physical imperfections, often depicted as lame or deformed. According to one of the stories, Haephaestus’ lameness resulted in his expulsion from Mount Olympus by Hera, his own mother. Zeus, however, intervened, entrusting Hephaestus to make powerful weapons and tools for the gods and heroes, including Zeus’s lightning bolt and Achilles’s armor.   Hephaestus was also the husband of Aphrodite, though their marriage was far from harmonious. Upon discovering her adultery with Ares, Hephaestus ensnared the lovers in an unbreakable chain-link net and dragged them to Mount Olympus to shame them in front of the other Olympians.   8. Apollo: God of the Sun, Music, and Prophecy Apollo, God of Light, Eloquence, Poetry and the Fine Arts with Urania, Muse of Astronomy, by Charles Meynier, 1798. Source: Cleveland Art Museum   Apollo oversaw multiple aspects of life. He was the god of the sun, music, prophecy, healing, and the arts. As the god of the sun, Apollo drove his chariot across the sky each day, bringing light to the world. He was also a master of the lyre and was often depicted playing it.   As a god of prophecy, Apollo had his own sanctuary, the famous Oracle at Delphi, where people would come to ask for guidance, given by Apollo priestesses in cryptic words. Apollo’s twin sister was Artemis, and together, they represented a balance between day and night, civilization and nature.   9. Artemis: Goddess of the Hunt and the Moon A Companion of Diana (Artemis), by René Frémin, 1717. Source: Louvre Museum   Artemis was Apollo’s twin sister. While her brother brought light during the day, Artemis (Diana), the goddess of the moon, brought light during the night. She was also the goddess of the hunt and wilderness, often depicted carrying a bow and arrows. Her connection to nature made her one of the primary deities for those who lived in rural areas.   Artemis was the protector of animals, as well as young women. A virgin goddess, Artemis represented purity and independence and was particularly venerated by women during childbirth. Artemis was one of the most revered of the Olympians. Her temples, altars, and shrines could be found everywhere in the ancient Greek world, with the magnificent Temple at Ephesus being one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World before being burnt to the ground.   10. Demeter: Goddess of Agriculture and Harvest The Return of Persephone, by Frederic Leighton, 1891. Source: Leeds Art Gallery   Demeter (Ceres) was the goddess of agriculture, harvest, and fertility. For ancient Greek society, which was primarily agricultural-based, keeping Demeter happy was paramount. That’s not surprising, as Demeter was deeply connected to the cycles of life and death, with her myth explaining the changing seasons.   In the myth, Demeter’s daughter, Persephone, was abducted by Hades, the god of the Underworld. In her grief, Demeter caused the earth to become barren, leading to winter. Her joy upon Persephone’s partial return brought about spring.   11. Hermes: God of Messengers, Commerce, and Thieves Apollo and Mercury (Hermes), by Noël Coypel, 1688. Source: Château de Versailles   Hermes (Mercury) was the messenger of the gods, with the many epithets, known for his speed, wit, and cunning. This also made him the god of commerce, trade, travelers, but also thieves. Hermes is often depicted with winged sandals and a caduceus, a staff entwined with snakes.   Hermes had a significant role not only in life, but also in death, as he was a guide of the souls to the Underworld. He was also known for his trickery and cleverness, often outwitting both gods and mortals. Hermes’s quick thinking and resourcefulness made him a favorite figure in many myths, where he played the role of a mediator and problem-solver.   12a. Hestia  Votive Relief of Vesta, 150 BCE. Source: Altes Museum, Berlin   Depending on the account, sometimes Hestia appears as the 12th Olympian and other times Dionysus.   Hestia was the goddess of the hearth but also the protector of the home and the state. Hestia was a virgin goddess, like Athena. Even though Apollo and Poseidon were said to have asked for her hand, she refused. As such, her modesty was an important aspect of her cult and emphasized in her statues. She often appeared veiled and modestly dressed.   She commonly appeared as a woman sitting next to a hearth, which was also her most important symbol. As the heath was a central aspect of ancient Greek houses, Hestia was particularly significant for everyday life. Through the hearth—the religious center of the house—one could offer sacrifices to the goddess and request her help. Due to the prominent role of the heath in public spaces, Hestia was also the goddess of the state in general.   12b. Dionysus Dionysus with a Panther,  1st to 3rd century CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum, New York   Dionysus was the god of wine, ecstasy, fertility, theater, and festivity. He was the son of Zeus and Semele and according to the myth, he was born out of Zeus’ thigh and raised by nymphs. Dionysus is a later addition to the pantheon and is generally considered to be a god whose cult spread from the East as far as India, even though its true origins remain obscure.   In art, he was often depicted mounted on exotic animals such as panthers and/or among maenads and satyrs drinking wine, dancing, and playing music. Other creatures of the countryside were often linked to his cult, such as centaurs, nymphs, the god Pan, and Dionysus’s favorite companion, Silenus. Worth noting is that Dionysus was the god of theater, which developed from his cult.   Hades, the Underworld, and Chthonic Deities Pinax with Persephone and Hades Enthroned, Greek, c. 500-450 BCE. Source: Cleveland Museum of Art   Although one of the most important gods in Greek mythology, Hades (Pluto) is not considered an Olympian. A brother of Zeus, Poseidon, and Hera, and ruler of his own realm, Hades did not reside on Mount Olympus with the other gods. Hades’ dominion was the Underworld, where he governed the dead and oversaw the afterlife. This made him and his Queen Persephone Chthonic deities (Greek “khthon,” meaning earth or soil) associated with the surface of the earth and what was below, including the dead. Some Olympians, like Demeter or Hermes, were in part Chthonic, as they were associated with the earth, especially agriculture.   Importantly, Hades was not considered evil, but he was more feared than worshiped due to his association with death. Unlike the 12 Olympians, who often interacted with humans, Hades did not meddle in human affairs, focusing on maintaining balance in the afterlife. Most interestingly, unlike his Olympian peers, Hades remained loyal to Persephone. In artistic depictions, Hades is typically depicted with his Queen, or with his companion, Cerberus, the three-headed guard dog of the Underworld, standing at his side.

  Even in ancient times, ancient Greece was recognized as a leader in culture, philosophy, and politics. When the Romans brought Greece into their Empire, they were highly influenced by their art, literature, politics, and more. They even integrated Greek religion into their own, syncretizing their gods with those of the Greeks and linking the foundation of Rome to the story of the Trojan War through the hero Aeneas. But it is not just the Romans who were influenced by ancient Greece, elements of their culture can still be seen in our modern world. Here are some of the most important elements of Greek myth and the impact they have had in the modern age. What’s in a Name? Wounded Amazon, Roman marble statue, c. 1st/2nd century CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Many of the names made famous by the characters of Greek mythology have been repurposed and found new life in the modern world. Names, once reserved for deities worthy of veneration, are now used for your drinking buddies and sneakers. Sometimes, these draw clear parallels with their ancient forebearer, but not always.   We’ve all received packages from Amazon. The e-commerce titan—the word titan is also a Greek mythological reference—was named after the tribe of fierce warrior women. Have you ordered a pair of Nikes? They were named after the goddess of victory, who was considered a patroness of Greek athletes. Pandora, a popular jewelry company, is named after the woman who opened a box and unleashed evils into the world. I’m not sure what they were thinking with that one.   Greek mythology has also influenced what we call our nearest and dearest. The name Troy comes from the legendary city of the epic war, while Jason led a group of adventurers, the Argonauts. Helen is the name of the Greek beauty whose face launched a thousand ships. Phoebe was a divine titan, Penelope was the faithful wife of Odysseus, and Casandra was a Trojan prophetess.   Terracotta roof tile with Gorgon’s head, Southern Italy, c. 540 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Greek mythology is also full of striking visual images that have been transmitted into modern society. The logo for the fashion brand Versace is the head of the gorgon Medusa. More generically, the symbol for medicine is a staff entwined by one or two snakes, which may also include a pair of wings. The version with one snake is the rod of Asclepius, a deity associated with medicine and healing. If the symbol has two snakes and a pair of wings, it is the Caduceus, which originally symbolized wisdom and alchemy. While it was eventually connected with medicine, it was distinct from the rod of Asclepius and rather carried by Hermes, the messenger of the gods.   Reaching for the Stars Apollo Belvedere, Roman statue, c. 2nd century CE. Source: Vatican Museums   For those who look up in wonder, the Greek gods will be waiting for them. Although they are known by their Roman labels, the planets in our solar system are all named after Olympian deities and the primordial beings who preceded them. These were given these names in ancient times, and they have survived into the present day. Other celestial bodies, such as meteors, stars, asteroids, and constellations, also bear the names of Greek gods and goddesses.   NASA has leaned heavily toward using Greek names for its space exploration operations. During the Space Race, the agency had a number of programs designed to reach the moon before the Soviet Union. The first two were named after the Romanized versions of Greek gods: Mercury, after the messenger god Hermes, and Gemini, a zodiac sign originally called Dioscuri or the twins. The final stage in the program was the Apollo missions, taking their name from the god of the sun, healing, poetry, and many other realms of responsibility.   Are You Not Entertained?! Terracotta relief of Odysseus returning to Penelope, Melia, Greece, c. 4th century BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   After a long day at work, nothing is better than relaxing with a TV show or movie. In modern times, Greek myth is a common theme in Hollywood. Sometimes, these are directly lifted from the original myths, including the television shows Hercules: The Legendary Journeys, the spin-off Xena: Warrior Princess, and the recent animated series Blood of Zeus. Greek myths are also common sources of inspiration for feature-length films, such as the epics Troy and Clash of the Titans, the action-adventure Hercules, and the Disney animated movie of the same name. However, for some reason, Hollywood always uses the Romanized version of the legendary strongman’s name rather than the Greek Herakles.   Sometimes the references are more subtle. The Coen Brother’s period drama Oh Brother Where Art Thou? is centered around a man returning home to his wife after a prison term in the Depression-era South, with the adventure taken almost beat for beat from the Odyssey. The sci-fi television series Battlestar Galactica draws heavily on Greek myth as a religion for its characters, and the Greeks also provide the name for ships, planets, and even pilot’s call signs. Moulin Rouge retells the Orpheus myth in late 19th century France.   In the world of video games, many have aspects of Greek myth as a part of, if not the core of, the game’s plot. These include the classic strategy game Age of Mythology and the stealth action game Assassin’s Creed Odyssey, both of which use classical mythology to create the game world. The most prominent example, however, is the hack-and-slash franchise God of War. In the first three games of the series, as well as multiple prequels and spin-offs, Kratos, a thinly veiled version of Cratus, who was strength and power personified, goes on a murderous rampage against the gods of Olympus, exacting his brutal revenge on those who wronged him.   Comic books are also filled with references to Greek mythology, the most famous being Wonder Woman, an Amazon who routinely fights against and encounters other Greek deities such as Ares and Aquaman, the king of the sunken continent of Atlantis.   Athletes and Artists Bronze statue of Hercules or Atlas supporting the world, possibly by Claude Michel, 1780. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   The ancient Greeks were obsessed with athletic competitions, which had a profound religious and spiritual significance. There are a number of games and festivals held by the Greeks, the most important of which was undoubtedly the Olympic Games, held every four years. Performed in honor of Zeus, the king of the gods, and named after Mount Olympus, the home of the Greek deities, the Olympics would fall out of favor in the 4th century CE, only to be revitalized in the late 19th century as an international athletic competition. Like the ancient counterpart, the games are held every four years and have expanded to include winter sports. They showcase the pinnacle of human athletic skill and ability.   More generally, any fitness enthusiast who is compared to a Greek god will take the comparison as the highest of compliments. The name Hercules, the Roman name for Herakles, has become a byword for strength and power. In the World’s Strongest Man competition, a favorite event is the “Hercules Hold,” where competitors will test their grip strength by keeping heavy pillars upright, referencing the myth of the pillars of Hercules. Strongman events also feature the Atlas Stones, large concrete spheres that are lifted onto platforms, named after the titan condemned to hold up the heavens.   In ancient Greece, the gods were depicted as ideal figures, represented in statues displaying heroic physiques. In the late 19th century, inspired by the statues he saw on a family vacation, a young Friedrich Wilhelm Müller became fascinated by the proportions and musculature of the statues. Growing up, he devoted his life to achieving the same form as the Greek gods, using his flesh instead of marble. Changing his name to Eugen Sandow, he is widely considered to be the first bodybuilder. Today, the pinnacle of bodybuilding is to be awarded the Sandow trophy, which is presented to the winner of the Mr. Olympia contest, yet another connection to the home of the gods.   The Birth of Venus, by Sandro Botticelli, 1485. Source: Uffizi Gallery, Florence   Like bodybuilders, artists since the Renaissance have used Greek myth as the subject of countless works of art, ranging from paintings to sculpture to literature. Visit any art museum, and there will be countless examples of Greek mythological scenes used as inspiration. For centuries, artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, Peter Paul Rubens, Francisco Goya, Pablo Picasso, and many others have depicted myths. These include Cronos or Saturn, the Romanized name, devouring his children, Medusa, Leda with Zeus as a swan, the birth of Venus, and enough others to fill museum galleries worldwide.   Odds and Ends Midas Washing at the Source of the Pactolus, by Nicholas Poussin, 1627. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   There are countless ways that Greek myth has influenced us today, which have become so commonplace that they are hardly noticed. Giant and titanic, words used to describe things that are big or oversized, are derived from the gigantes and the titans, races of primordial beings that warred against the gods. When spending time on the internet, one has to be careful to avoid Trojan Horse scams, which might lead to the fall of a civilization or a nasty computer virus.   Want to study geography? Better consult an atlas, a reference to the titan who held up the heavens. Having a bad day? Maybe check your horoscope, a concept pioneered by the Greeks, who believed that the movement of the stars was a sign of divine control over the cosmos. Maybe it wasn’t the movement of the stars but rather a small flaw that led to disastrous results. The great warrior Achilles and his heel would certainly sympathize with this plight. Some people just have all the luck, and whatever they touch seems to turn to gold. This trait was shared by King Midas, and having the Midas touch is someone who succeeds at anything they try. This is a bit strange since the tale of Midas cautions us to be careful what we wish for.   These are just a few ways that Greek mythology still impacts us today. The scientific community, popular culture, art, and day-to-day life are all influenced by Greek mythology in ways that can be blatant and obvious but also so subtle that we don’t even realize it.

  The OSS, or Office of Strategic Services, came into being on President Roosevelt’s order on June 13, 1942, during World War II. The agency’s responsibilities included consolidating the nation’s intelligence efforts, collecting and analyzing strategic information, and conducting clandestine operations.   Hiring the Right Man: Who Was “Wild Bill” Donavan? “Wild Bill” Donovan. Source: WTOP News   With the OSS’s existence established, Roosevelt chose William “Wild Bill” Donovan, a decorated Great War Medal of Honor-winning veteran and very successful lawyer/banker. Roosevelt considered Donovan’s thinking similar to his own, and Donovan was determined and willing to consider the unorthodox. Donovan previously traveled around Europe and Asia before the December 7th invasion, meeting all kinds of leaders, including Mussolini and Hitler.    What Was the Mission? OSS Insignia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Subordinate to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the OSS’s mission contained two parts. The primary mission was foreign intelligence. This involved collecting, analyzing, and spreading foreign intelligence. The OSS Research and Analysis branch played a crucial role, giving insights into enemy thinking. Such information then got passed along to where needed.   The OSS’s second and much more hazardous mission focused on unconventional warfare. Agents conducted secret operations behind enemy lines. Activities included helping resistance fighters, sabotage, and espionage, and could be lethal. More than a few agents faced execution or were killed in combat. The OSS also carried out propaganda and subversion operations.   When Was the First Covert Operation? The Vichy Regime Government. Source: School History   The OSS efforts to assist the war began almost immediately, starting with the November 1942 North Africa Invasion-Operation Torch. Vichy France’s North African colonies remained politically aligned with the France’s cooperationist government. American troops couldn’t hope for a friendly encounter.   In the months before the landings, OSS agents contacted resistance groups and mapped out defenses and troop locations. Others cut communications, waited near the invasion beaches as guides, and persuaded Vichy officers not to fight. All these efforts saved many Allied soldier’s lives.   Thanks, But No  FBI Director Herbert Hoover. Source: Shapell.org   Despite having a good reputation, not all liked the OSS.    McCarthur banned the group from his command areas, such as the Philippines. FBI Director Herbert Hoover got the OSS barred from South America, seeing this as his preserve hunting Nazis. Despite the dislikes or rivalries, the OSS conducted operations in most theaters and even neutral countries. The OSS brought in specialists and used new or experimental technology all the time. The group also worked with Allied intelligence services like Britain’s SOE on joint operations.   What Role Did the OSS Play in Europe? Jedburgh Team 1944. Source: U.S. National Archives   In Europe, the OSS experienced solid success in espionage and combat. In mid-1942, the OSS established an office in Bern, Switzerland, under Allen Dulles. He became a spymaster, setting up agents or spy rings in Nazi-occupied countries and Germany. Dulles, later director of the OSS’s descendant, the CIA, through double agents, obtained critical Nazi information. One German agent, codenamed “George Wood,” provided numerous details high in the Foreign Ministry. Wood gave details about Japan’s Southeast Asia plans and, critically, German thoughts on locations for the D-Day invasion. By the war’s end, Wood passed along 1,600 documents.   To support the June 6, 1944, D-Day landings, the OSS and British trained small groups called Jedburgh Teams parachuted into France. Each team contained one American, British, and French agent. They linked up with French partisan groups for sabotage missions or operated independently. These agents provided invaluable intelligence, too, helping the Allied advance.   What Did the OSS Do in the Mediterranean? U.S. Bombers Bomb Ploest, Romania 1943. Source: Air Force Historical Support   Besides helping with the 1942 North African landings, the OSS went into Italy, the Balkans, and neutral Turkey. Here, OSS teams helped with intelligence, sabotage, and rescuing downed airmen. The last part resulted from heavy Allied bombing raids against Eastern European targets, especially Romanian oil production. Allied bombers flew over several countries to reach their targets, facing Luftwaffe fighters. OSS agents worked with Yugolasv partisans, helping airmen return to Italy.   What Activities Did the OSS Carry Out in Asia? Nationalist Chinese Paratroopers. Source: Wikimedia   OSS activities in South East Asia and China went beyond spies and espionage. In 1943, the OSS worked with the U.S. Navy, the Chinese Nationalist government, and not-yet opponents like Vietnam’s Ho Chi Minh to oppose the Japanese occupation.   The OSS started training different groups across the region. In Vietnam, OSS agents contacted Ho Chi Minh, working with him and other rebels. These groups attacked Japanese troops or blew up bridges and other mayhem to tie down Japanese divisions.    Burma-based OSS teams trained Chinese Nationalist troops for combat jumps, for example. They recruited 10,000 ethnic Karins to fight the Japanese occupation. These tough tribesmen also guided Allied troops after the 1944 invasion. The OSS monitored Japanese radio traffic, watched air and naval movements, and relayed the information. Teams also parachuted into Thailand to organize resistance.