Worshiping the gods was an important part of daily life in ancient Greece. The most powerful gods were the 12 Olympians who held supreme power over the world. These gods and goddesses resided on Mount Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. From there, they oversaw human affairs, controlled the forces of nature, and competed among themselves. Each Olympian had unique attributes and responsibilities, from love and war to skies and seas. However, the Greek Pantheon also included a host of minor deities, such as Chthonic gods like Hades, the ruler of the Underworld, primordial divine beings like Nyx and her many children, plus the Titans and the Muses.   The Primordials: Before the Olympian Gods  Terracotta lekythos (oil flask) depicting Nyx and Helios, attributed to the Sappho Painter, c. 500 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   While the Olympians were the most important deities in the Greek Pantheon, they did not come into existence from nothing. Instead, the primordial gods were the first beings to emerge at the creation of the universe, representing fundamental forces and elements. These beings arose from Chaos, the void of emptiness, marking the beginning of cosmic order. Nyx, the primordial goddess of night, was among the first to emerge from Chaos. Mysterious and powerful, Nyx was feared even by Zeus. Nyx’s union with Erebus (darkness) produced numerous offspring, including Hypnos (sleep) and Thanatos (death).   The Titans and the Muses The Fall of the Titans, by Dutch painter Cornelis van Haarlem, 1596-1598. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Titans, born from the primordial gods Gaia (Earth) and Uranus (Sky), were the next generation of deities. According to the creation myth recorded by Hesiod, the Titans ruled before the Olympians, with the Titans Kronos and Rhea being the parents of Zeus. Then, there were the Muses, nine daughters of Zeus and the Titan Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory. The Muses inspired creativity and the arts, influencing both the mortal and divine realms.   The 12 Olympians   1. Zeus: King of the Gods and Mortals Statue of Zeus in the Temple at Olympia, drawing by Alfred Charles Conrade, 1913-1914. Source: British Museum   Zeus (known as Jupiter among the Romans) was the ruler of Mount Olympus, the king of all gods. Zeus’ power was unmatched, and he had control over mortals. Zeus’ main domains were sky, thunder, and lightning. Often depicted holding a lightning bolt, the ruler of Olympus enforced justice and punished those who defied him. As the protector of law and order, he maintained balance in the universe, both in the heavens and on earth.   Zeus was (in)famous for having relationships with goddesses, supernatural creatures like nymphs, but also mortals, resulting in numerous offspring who played significant roles in Greek mythology, including Heracles, Perseus, and Helen of Troy.   2. Hera: Capricious Goddess of Marriage and Family Marble bust of Hera/Juno wearing polos or crown, Roman copy of a Hellenistic original. Source: Vatican Museum   Hera (Juno) was the queen of the gods and the wife of Zeus, which made her the second most powerful Olympian. As the goddess of marriage, women, and family, Hera was revered by women of all ages. Hera was famous for her beauty and was often portrayed as a regal, dignified figure.   Despite her lofty position, Hera had to endure a tumultuous marriage due to her husband’s amorous adventures. Thus, Hera was considered a jealous and vengeful deity, whose punishments of Zeus’ (often unwilling) lovers and their offspring became recurrent themes in many myths. Yet, this capricious Olympian remained a symbol of loyalty and protection for married women.   3. Poseidon: God of the Sea and Creation Poseidon/Neptune with Dolphin, after Bernini, c. 17th century. Source:  J. Paul Getty Museum   Poseidon (Neptune) was one of Zeus’s brothers, the other being Hades, the god of the underworld. This made Poseidon one of the most powerful Olympians. He was a god of the sea, earthquakes, and horses. For the ancient Greeks, seafaring was one of the most essential parts of life, and the sailors feared Poseidon, whose mighty trident could cause storms, floods, and even earthquakes when struck on the ground.   Poseidon, however, had a more tepid side. The master of seas was also associated with creation, and he was credited with raising islands and shaping coastlines. Poseidon played an essential role in various myths and history, including in the Trojan War and his competition with Athena for the city of Athens.   4. Athena: Goddess of Wisdom and War Athena of Varvakeio, Athens, 200 BCE. Source: National Archaeological Museum, Athens   Athena (Minerva), one of the most famous Olympians, was the goddess of wisdom but also of warfare and strategy. Unlike her half-brother Ares, the god of war, Athena represented the strategic side of warfare. She was also a goddess-protector of those who defended the Greek world from foreign enemies. Above all, her protection was reserved for the city-state that bore her name, Athens.   Athena was also the goddess of crafts, such as weaving and pottery. The goddess’ symbols were the owl, representing wisdom, and the olive tree, symbolizing peace and abundance. As one of the few deities who cared about humans, Athena assisted the Greek heroes, such as Odysseus, Diomedes, Hercules, Jason, and Perseus. Despite being depicted fully armored, Athena valued wisdom over violence, often resorting to tricks and strategies to overcome her enemies.   5. Ares: God of War Attic-black volute krater showing Ares kneeling before Aphrodite, c. 570-565 BCE. Source: University of California   Clad in armor, Ares (Mars) was the god of war, an embodiment of the brutal and chaotic aspects of conflict. Unlike Athena, who represented strategy and reason in war, Ares symbolized violence, bloodlust, and destruction on the battlefield.   Ares’ cruelty and overt love of war made him unpopular among the other Olympians, and he did not enjoy the same respect from mortals as his half-sister. Yet, Ares’s presence on the battlefield was both feared and respected by soldiers who fought in many conflicts, from the Peloponnesian War to the Conquests of Alexander the Great. Ares’ tumultuous relationship with his half-sister Aphrodite, the goddess of love, highlighted the tension between love and war.   6. Aphrodite: Goddess of Love and Beauty Venus (Aphrodite) and Anchises, by Williams Blake Richmond, 1889/1890. Source: Walker Art Gallery   Known for her unparalleled charm and attractiveness, Ares’ half-sister Aphrodite (Venus) was the goddess of love, beauty, and desire. Famously born from sea foam, Aphrodite inspired love and passion in both gods and mortals. She was often depicted as a radiant figure, surrounded by symbols of beauty such as roses, myrtles, doves, and sparrows.   While Aphrodite was synonymous with love and romance, the goddess also had a dark side, as she could (and often did) incite jealousy, lust, and unrequited love. She engaged in affairs with gods and mortals. Aphrodite’s affair with Ares while married to Hephaestus is one of the most well-known love stories in Greek mythology.   7. Hephaestus: God of Fire and Blacksmiths Vulcan (Hephaestus) at his Forge, by Pompeo Batoni, 1750. Source: National Gallery of Canada   Hephaestus (Vulcan) was the Greek god of fire, metalworking, and craftsmanship. He was also the god of volcanoes. He was the only Olympian known for physical imperfections, often depicted as lame or deformed. According to one of the stories, Haephaestus’ lameness resulted in his expulsion from Mount Olympus by Hera, his own mother. Zeus, however, intervened, entrusting Hephaestus to make powerful weapons and tools for the gods and heroes, including Zeus’s lightning bolt and Achilles’s armor.   Hephaestus was also the husband of Aphrodite, though their marriage was far from harmonious. Upon discovering her adultery with Ares, Hephaestus ensnared the lovers in an unbreakable chain-link net and dragged them to Mount Olympus to shame them in front of the other Olympians.   8. Apollo: God of the Sun, Music, and Prophecy Apollo, God of Light, Eloquence, Poetry and the Fine Arts with Urania, Muse of Astronomy, by Charles Meynier, 1798. Source: Cleveland Art Museum   Apollo oversaw multiple aspects of life. He was the god of the sun, music, prophecy, healing, and the arts. As the god of the sun, Apollo drove his chariot across the sky each day, bringing light to the world. He was also a master of the lyre and was often depicted playing it.   As a god of prophecy, Apollo had his own sanctuary, the famous Oracle at Delphi, where people would come to ask for guidance, given by Apollo priestesses in cryptic words. Apollo’s twin sister was Artemis, and together, they represented a balance between day and night, civilization and nature.   9. Artemis: Goddess of the Hunt and the Moon A Companion of Diana (Artemis), by René Frémin, 1717. Source: Louvre Museum   Artemis was Apollo’s twin sister. While her brother brought light during the day, Artemis (Diana), the goddess of the moon, brought light during the night. She was also the goddess of the hunt and wilderness, often depicted carrying a bow and arrows. Her connection to nature made her one of the primary deities for those who lived in rural areas.   Artemis was the protector of animals, as well as young women. A virgin goddess, Artemis represented purity and independence and was particularly venerated by women during childbirth. Artemis was one of the most revered of the Olympians. Her temples, altars, and shrines could be found everywhere in the ancient Greek world, with the magnificent Temple at Ephesus being one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World before being burnt to the ground.   10. Demeter: Goddess of Agriculture and Harvest The Return of Persephone, by Frederic Leighton, 1891. Source: Leeds Art Gallery   Demeter (Ceres) was the goddess of agriculture, harvest, and fertility. For ancient Greek society, which was primarily agricultural-based, keeping Demeter happy was paramount. That’s not surprising, as Demeter was deeply connected to the cycles of life and death, with her myth explaining the changing seasons.   In the myth, Demeter’s daughter, Persephone, was abducted by Hades, the god of the Underworld. In her grief, Demeter caused the earth to become barren, leading to winter. Her joy upon Persephone’s partial return brought about spring.   11. Hermes: God of Messengers, Commerce, and Thieves Apollo and Mercury (Hermes), by Noël Coypel, 1688. Source: Château de Versailles   Hermes (Mercury) was the messenger of the gods, with the many epithets, known for his speed, wit, and cunning. This also made him the god of commerce, trade, travelers, but also thieves. Hermes is often depicted with winged sandals and a caduceus, a staff entwined with snakes.   Hermes had a significant role not only in life, but also in death, as he was a guide of the souls to the Underworld. He was also known for his trickery and cleverness, often outwitting both gods and mortals. Hermes’s quick thinking and resourcefulness made him a favorite figure in many myths, where he played the role of a mediator and problem-solver.   12a. Hestia  Votive Relief of Vesta, 150 BCE. Source: Altes Museum, Berlin   Depending on the account, sometimes Hestia appears as the 12th Olympian and other times Dionysus.   Hestia was the goddess of the hearth but also the protector of the home and the state. Hestia was a virgin goddess, like Athena. Even though Apollo and Poseidon were said to have asked for her hand, she refused. As such, her modesty was an important aspect of her cult and emphasized in her statues. She often appeared veiled and modestly dressed.   She commonly appeared as a woman sitting next to a hearth, which was also her most important symbol. As the heath was a central aspect of ancient Greek houses, Hestia was particularly significant for everyday life. Through the hearth—the religious center of the house—one could offer sacrifices to the goddess and request her help. Due to the prominent role of the heath in public spaces, Hestia was also the goddess of the state in general.   12b. Dionysus Dionysus with a Panther,  1st to 3rd century CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum, New York   Dionysus was the god of wine, ecstasy, fertility, theater, and festivity. He was the son of Zeus and Semele and according to the myth, he was born out of Zeus’ thigh and raised by nymphs. Dionysus is a later addition to the pantheon and is generally considered to be a god whose cult spread from the East as far as India, even though its true origins remain obscure.   In art, he was often depicted mounted on exotic animals such as panthers and/or among maenads and satyrs drinking wine, dancing, and playing music. Other creatures of the countryside were often linked to his cult, such as centaurs, nymphs, the god Pan, and Dionysus’s favorite companion, Silenus. Worth noting is that Dionysus was the god of theater, which developed from his cult.   Hades, the Underworld, and Chthonic Deities Pinax with Persephone and Hades Enthroned, Greek, c. 500-450 BCE. Source: Cleveland Museum of Art   Although one of the most important gods in Greek mythology, Hades (Pluto) is not considered an Olympian. A brother of Zeus, Poseidon, and Hera, and ruler of his own realm, Hades did not reside on Mount Olympus with the other gods. Hades’ dominion was the Underworld, where he governed the dead and oversaw the afterlife. This made him and his Queen Persephone Chthonic deities (Greek “khthon,” meaning earth or soil) associated with the surface of the earth and what was below, including the dead. Some Olympians, like Demeter or Hermes, were in part Chthonic, as they were associated with the earth, especially agriculture.   Importantly, Hades was not considered evil, but he was more feared than worshiped due to his association with death. Unlike the 12 Olympians, who often interacted with humans, Hades did not meddle in human affairs, focusing on maintaining balance in the afterlife. Most interestingly, unlike his Olympian peers, Hades remained loyal to Persephone. In artistic depictions, Hades is typically depicted with his Queen, or with his companion, Cerberus, the three-headed guard dog of the Underworld, standing at his side.

  Even in ancient times, ancient Greece was recognized as a leader in culture, philosophy, and politics. When the Romans brought Greece into their Empire, they were highly influenced by their art, literature, politics, and more. They even integrated Greek religion into their own, syncretizing their gods with those of the Greeks and linking the foundation of Rome to the story of the Trojan War through the hero Aeneas. But it is not just the Romans who were influenced by ancient Greece, elements of their culture can still be seen in our modern world. Here are some of the most important elements of Greek myth and the impact they have had in the modern age. What’s in a Name? Wounded Amazon, Roman marble statue, c. 1st/2nd century CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Many of the names made famous by the characters of Greek mythology have been repurposed and found new life in the modern world. Names, once reserved for deities worthy of veneration, are now used for your drinking buddies and sneakers. Sometimes, these draw clear parallels with their ancient forebearer, but not always.   We’ve all received packages from Amazon. The e-commerce titan—the word titan is also a Greek mythological reference—was named after the tribe of fierce warrior women. Have you ordered a pair of Nikes? They were named after the goddess of victory, who was considered a patroness of Greek athletes. Pandora, a popular jewelry company, is named after the woman who opened a box and unleashed evils into the world. I’m not sure what they were thinking with that one.   Greek mythology has also influenced what we call our nearest and dearest. The name Troy comes from the legendary city of the epic war, while Jason led a group of adventurers, the Argonauts. Helen is the name of the Greek beauty whose face launched a thousand ships. Phoebe was a divine titan, Penelope was the faithful wife of Odysseus, and Casandra was a Trojan prophetess.   Terracotta roof tile with Gorgon’s head, Southern Italy, c. 540 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Greek mythology is also full of striking visual images that have been transmitted into modern society. The logo for the fashion brand Versace is the head of the gorgon Medusa. More generically, the symbol for medicine is a staff entwined by one or two snakes, which may also include a pair of wings. The version with one snake is the rod of Asclepius, a deity associated with medicine and healing. If the symbol has two snakes and a pair of wings, it is the Caduceus, which originally symbolized wisdom and alchemy. While it was eventually connected with medicine, it was distinct from the rod of Asclepius and rather carried by Hermes, the messenger of the gods.   Reaching for the Stars Apollo Belvedere, Roman statue, c. 2nd century CE. Source: Vatican Museums   For those who look up in wonder, the Greek gods will be waiting for them. Although they are known by their Roman labels, the planets in our solar system are all named after Olympian deities and the primordial beings who preceded them. These were given these names in ancient times, and they have survived into the present day. Other celestial bodies, such as meteors, stars, asteroids, and constellations, also bear the names of Greek gods and goddesses.   NASA has leaned heavily toward using Greek names for its space exploration operations. During the Space Race, the agency had a number of programs designed to reach the moon before the Soviet Union. The first two were named after the Romanized versions of Greek gods: Mercury, after the messenger god Hermes, and Gemini, a zodiac sign originally called Dioscuri or the twins. The final stage in the program was the Apollo missions, taking their name from the god of the sun, healing, poetry, and many other realms of responsibility.   Are You Not Entertained?! Terracotta relief of Odysseus returning to Penelope, Melia, Greece, c. 4th century BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   After a long day at work, nothing is better than relaxing with a TV show or movie. In modern times, Greek myth is a common theme in Hollywood. Sometimes, these are directly lifted from the original myths, including the television shows Hercules: The Legendary Journeys, the spin-off Xena: Warrior Princess, and the recent animated series Blood of Zeus. Greek myths are also common sources of inspiration for feature-length films, such as the epics Troy and Clash of the Titans, the action-adventure Hercules, and the Disney animated movie of the same name. However, for some reason, Hollywood always uses the Romanized version of the legendary strongman’s name rather than the Greek Herakles.   Sometimes the references are more subtle. The Coen Brother’s period drama Oh Brother Where Art Thou? is centered around a man returning home to his wife after a prison term in the Depression-era South, with the adventure taken almost beat for beat from the Odyssey. The sci-fi television series Battlestar Galactica draws heavily on Greek myth as a religion for its characters, and the Greeks also provide the name for ships, planets, and even pilot’s call signs. Moulin Rouge retells the Orpheus myth in late 19th century France.   In the world of video games, many have aspects of Greek myth as a part of, if not the core of, the game’s plot. These include the classic strategy game Age of Mythology and the stealth action game Assassin’s Creed Odyssey, both of which use classical mythology to create the game world. The most prominent example, however, is the hack-and-slash franchise God of War. In the first three games of the series, as well as multiple prequels and spin-offs, Kratos, a thinly veiled version of Cratus, who was strength and power personified, goes on a murderous rampage against the gods of Olympus, exacting his brutal revenge on those who wronged him.   Comic books are also filled with references to Greek mythology, the most famous being Wonder Woman, an Amazon who routinely fights against and encounters other Greek deities such as Ares and Aquaman, the king of the sunken continent of Atlantis.   Athletes and Artists Bronze statue of Hercules or Atlas supporting the world, possibly by Claude Michel, 1780. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   The ancient Greeks were obsessed with athletic competitions, which had a profound religious and spiritual significance. There are a number of games and festivals held by the Greeks, the most important of which was undoubtedly the Olympic Games, held every four years. Performed in honor of Zeus, the king of the gods, and named after Mount Olympus, the home of the Greek deities, the Olympics would fall out of favor in the 4th century CE, only to be revitalized in the late 19th century as an international athletic competition. Like the ancient counterpart, the games are held every four years and have expanded to include winter sports. They showcase the pinnacle of human athletic skill and ability.   More generally, any fitness enthusiast who is compared to a Greek god will take the comparison as the highest of compliments. The name Hercules, the Roman name for Herakles, has become a byword for strength and power. In the World’s Strongest Man competition, a favorite event is the “Hercules Hold,” where competitors will test their grip strength by keeping heavy pillars upright, referencing the myth of the pillars of Hercules. Strongman events also feature the Atlas Stones, large concrete spheres that are lifted onto platforms, named after the titan condemned to hold up the heavens.   In ancient Greece, the gods were depicted as ideal figures, represented in statues displaying heroic physiques. In the late 19th century, inspired by the statues he saw on a family vacation, a young Friedrich Wilhelm Müller became fascinated by the proportions and musculature of the statues. Growing up, he devoted his life to achieving the same form as the Greek gods, using his flesh instead of marble. Changing his name to Eugen Sandow, he is widely considered to be the first bodybuilder. Today, the pinnacle of bodybuilding is to be awarded the Sandow trophy, which is presented to the winner of the Mr. Olympia contest, yet another connection to the home of the gods.   The Birth of Venus, by Sandro Botticelli, 1485. Source: Uffizi Gallery, Florence   Like bodybuilders, artists since the Renaissance have used Greek myth as the subject of countless works of art, ranging from paintings to sculpture to literature. Visit any art museum, and there will be countless examples of Greek mythological scenes used as inspiration. For centuries, artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, Peter Paul Rubens, Francisco Goya, Pablo Picasso, and many others have depicted myths. These include Cronos or Saturn, the Romanized name, devouring his children, Medusa, Leda with Zeus as a swan, the birth of Venus, and enough others to fill museum galleries worldwide.   Odds and Ends Midas Washing at the Source of the Pactolus, by Nicholas Poussin, 1627. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   There are countless ways that Greek myth has influenced us today, which have become so commonplace that they are hardly noticed. Giant and titanic, words used to describe things that are big or oversized, are derived from the gigantes and the titans, races of primordial beings that warred against the gods. When spending time on the internet, one has to be careful to avoid Trojan Horse scams, which might lead to the fall of a civilization or a nasty computer virus.   Want to study geography? Better consult an atlas, a reference to the titan who held up the heavens. Having a bad day? Maybe check your horoscope, a concept pioneered by the Greeks, who believed that the movement of the stars was a sign of divine control over the cosmos. Maybe it wasn’t the movement of the stars but rather a small flaw that led to disastrous results. The great warrior Achilles and his heel would certainly sympathize with this plight. Some people just have all the luck, and whatever they touch seems to turn to gold. This trait was shared by King Midas, and having the Midas touch is someone who succeeds at anything they try. This is a bit strange since the tale of Midas cautions us to be careful what we wish for.   These are just a few ways that Greek mythology still impacts us today. The scientific community, popular culture, art, and day-to-day life are all influenced by Greek mythology in ways that can be blatant and obvious but also so subtle that we don’t even realize it.

  The OSS, or Office of Strategic Services, came into being on President Roosevelt’s order on June 13, 1942, during World War II. The agency’s responsibilities included consolidating the nation’s intelligence efforts, collecting and analyzing strategic information, and conducting clandestine operations.   Hiring the Right Man: Who Was “Wild Bill” Donavan? “Wild Bill” Donovan. Source: WTOP News   With the OSS’s existence established, Roosevelt chose William “Wild Bill” Donovan, a decorated Great War Medal of Honor-winning veteran and very successful lawyer/banker. Roosevelt considered Donovan’s thinking similar to his own, and Donovan was determined and willing to consider the unorthodox. Donovan previously traveled around Europe and Asia before the December 7th invasion, meeting all kinds of leaders, including Mussolini and Hitler.    What Was the Mission? OSS Insignia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Subordinate to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the OSS’s mission contained two parts. The primary mission was foreign intelligence. This involved collecting, analyzing, and spreading foreign intelligence. The OSS Research and Analysis branch played a crucial role, giving insights into enemy thinking. Such information then got passed along to where needed.   The OSS’s second and much more hazardous mission focused on unconventional warfare. Agents conducted secret operations behind enemy lines. Activities included helping resistance fighters, sabotage, and espionage, and could be lethal. More than a few agents faced execution or were killed in combat. The OSS also carried out propaganda and subversion operations.   When Was the First Covert Operation? The Vichy Regime Government. Source: School History   The OSS efforts to assist the war began almost immediately, starting with the November 1942 North Africa Invasion-Operation Torch. Vichy France’s North African colonies remained politically aligned with the France’s cooperationist government. American troops couldn’t hope for a friendly encounter.   In the months before the landings, OSS agents contacted resistance groups and mapped out defenses and troop locations. Others cut communications, waited near the invasion beaches as guides, and persuaded Vichy officers not to fight. All these efforts saved many Allied soldier’s lives.   Thanks, But No  FBI Director Herbert Hoover. Source: Shapell.org   Despite having a good reputation, not all liked the OSS.    McCarthur banned the group from his command areas, such as the Philippines. FBI Director Herbert Hoover got the OSS barred from South America, seeing this as his preserve hunting Nazis. Despite the dislikes or rivalries, the OSS conducted operations in most theaters and even neutral countries. The OSS brought in specialists and used new or experimental technology all the time. The group also worked with Allied intelligence services like Britain’s SOE on joint operations.   What Role Did the OSS Play in Europe? Jedburgh Team 1944. Source: U.S. National Archives   In Europe, the OSS experienced solid success in espionage and combat. In mid-1942, the OSS established an office in Bern, Switzerland, under Allen Dulles. He became a spymaster, setting up agents or spy rings in Nazi-occupied countries and Germany. Dulles, later director of the OSS’s descendant, the CIA, through double agents, obtained critical Nazi information. One German agent, codenamed “George Wood,” provided numerous details high in the Foreign Ministry. Wood gave details about Japan’s Southeast Asia plans and, critically, German thoughts on locations for the D-Day invasion. By the war’s end, Wood passed along 1,600 documents.   To support the June 6, 1944, D-Day landings, the OSS and British trained small groups called Jedburgh Teams parachuted into France. Each team contained one American, British, and French agent. They linked up with French partisan groups for sabotage missions or operated independently. These agents provided invaluable intelligence, too, helping the Allied advance.   What Did the OSS Do in the Mediterranean? U.S. Bombers Bomb Ploest, Romania 1943. Source: Air Force Historical Support   Besides helping with the 1942 North African landings, the OSS went into Italy, the Balkans, and neutral Turkey. Here, OSS teams helped with intelligence, sabotage, and rescuing downed airmen. The last part resulted from heavy Allied bombing raids against Eastern European targets, especially Romanian oil production. Allied bombers flew over several countries to reach their targets, facing Luftwaffe fighters. OSS agents worked with Yugolasv partisans, helping airmen return to Italy.   What Activities Did the OSS Carry Out in Asia? Nationalist Chinese Paratroopers. Source: Wikimedia   OSS activities in South East Asia and China went beyond spies and espionage. In 1943, the OSS worked with the U.S. Navy, the Chinese Nationalist government, and not-yet opponents like Vietnam’s Ho Chi Minh to oppose the Japanese occupation.   The OSS started training different groups across the region. In Vietnam, OSS agents contacted Ho Chi Minh, working with him and other rebels. These groups attacked Japanese troops or blew up bridges and other mayhem to tie down Japanese divisions.    Burma-based OSS teams trained Chinese Nationalist troops for combat jumps, for example. They recruited 10,000 ethnic Karins to fight the Japanese occupation. These tough tribesmen also guided Allied troops after the 1944 invasion. The OSS monitored Japanese radio traffic, watched air and naval movements, and relayed the information. Teams also parachuted into Thailand to organize resistance.

  Worshiping the gods was an important part of daily life in ancient Greece. The most powerful gods were the 12 Olympians who held supreme power over the world. These gods and goddesses resided on Mount Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. From there, they oversaw human affairs, controlled the forces of nature, and competed among themselves. Each Olympian had unique attributes and responsibilities, from love and war to skies and seas. However, the Greek Pantheon also included a host of minor deities, such as Chthonic gods like Hades, the ruler of the Underworld, primordial divine beings like Nyx and her many children, plus the Titans and the Muses.   The Primordials: Before the Olympian Gods  Terracotta lekythos (oil flask) depicting Nyx and Helios, attributed to the Sappho Painter, c. 500 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   While the Olympians were the most important deities in the Greek Pantheon, they did not come into existence from nothing. Instead, the primordial gods were the first beings to emerge at the creation of the universe, representing fundamental forces and elements. These beings arose from Chaos, the void of emptiness, marking the beginning of cosmic order. Nyx, the primordial goddess of night, was among the first to emerge from Chaos. Mysterious and powerful, Nyx was feared even by Zeus. Nyx’s union with Erebus (darkness) produced numerous offspring, including Hypnos (sleep) and Thanatos (death).   The Titans and the Muses The Fall of the Titans, by Dutch painter Cornelis van Haarlem, 1596-1598. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Titans, born from the primordial gods Gaia (Earth) and Uranus (Sky), were the next generation of deities. According to the creation myth recorded by Hesiod, the Titans ruled before the Olympians, with the Titans Kronos and Rhea being the parents of Zeus. Then, there were the Muses, nine daughters of Zeus and the Titan Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory. The Muses inspired creativity and the arts, influencing both the mortal and divine realms.   The 12 Olympians   1. Zeus: King of the Gods and Mortals Statue of Zeus in the Temple at Olympia, drawing by Alfred Charles Conrade, 1913-1914. Source: British Museum   Zeus (known as Jupiter among the Romans) was the ruler of Mount Olympus, the king of all gods. Zeus’ power was unmatched, and he had control over mortals. Zeus’ main domains were sky, thunder, and lightning. Often depicted holding a lightning bolt, the ruler of Olympus enforced justice and punished those who defied him. As the protector of law and order, he maintained balance in the universe, both in the heavens and on earth.   Zeus was (in)famous for having relationships with goddesses, supernatural creatures like nymphs, but also mortals, resulting in numerous offspring who played significant roles in Greek mythology, including Heracles, Perseus, and Helen of Troy.   2. Hera: Capricious Goddess of Marriage and Family Marble bust of Hera/Juno wearing polos or crown, Roman copy of a Hellenistic original. Source: Vatican Museum   Hera (Juno) was the queen of the gods and the wife of Zeus, which made her the second most powerful Olympian. As the goddess of marriage, women, and family, Hera was revered by women of all ages. Hera was famous for her beauty and was often portrayed as a regal, dignified figure.   Despite her lofty position, Hera had to endure a tumultuous marriage due to her husband’s amorous adventures. Thus, Hera was considered a jealous and vengeful deity, whose punishments of Zeus’ (often unwilling) lovers and their offspring became recurrent themes in many myths. Yet, this capricious Olympian remained a symbol of loyalty and protection for married women.   3. Poseidon: God of the Sea and Creation Poseidon/Neptune with Dolphin, after Bernini, c. 17th century. Source:  J. Paul Getty Museum   Poseidon (Neptune) was one of Zeus’s brothers, the other being Hades, the god of the underworld. This made Poseidon one of the most powerful Olympians. He was a god of the sea, earthquakes, and horses. For the ancient Greeks, seafaring was one of the most essential parts of life, and the sailors feared Poseidon, whose mighty trident could cause storms, floods, and even earthquakes when struck on the ground.   Poseidon, however, had a more tepid side. The master of seas was also associated with creation, and he was credited with raising islands and shaping coastlines. Poseidon played an essential role in various myths and history, including in the Trojan War and his competition with Athena for the city of Athens.   4. Athena: Goddess of Wisdom and War Athena of Varvakeio, Athens, 200 BCE. Source: National Archaeological Museum, Athens   Athena (Minerva), one of the most famous Olympians, was the goddess of wisdom but also of warfare and strategy. Unlike her half-brother Ares, the god of war, Athena represented the strategic side of warfare. She was also a goddess-protector of those who defended the Greek world from foreign enemies. Above all, her protection was reserved for the city-state that bore her name, Athens.   Athena was also the goddess of crafts, such as weaving and pottery. The goddess’ symbols were the owl, representing wisdom, and the olive tree, symbolizing peace and abundance. As one of the few deities who cared about humans, Athena assisted the Greek heroes, such as Odysseus, Diomedes, Hercules, Jason, and Perseus. Despite being depicted fully armored, Athena valued wisdom over violence, often resorting to tricks and strategies to overcome her enemies.   5. Ares: God of War Attic-black volute krater showing Ares kneeling before Aphrodite, c. 570-565 BCE. Source: University of California   Clad in armor, Ares (Mars) was the god of war, an embodiment of the brutal and chaotic aspects of conflict. Unlike Athena, who represented strategy and reason in war, Ares symbolized violence, bloodlust, and destruction on the battlefield.   Ares’ cruelty and overt love of war made him unpopular among the other Olympians, and he did not enjoy the same respect from mortals as his half-sister. Yet, Ares’s presence on the battlefield was both feared and respected by soldiers who fought in many conflicts, from the Peloponnesian War to the Conquests of Alexander the Great. Ares’ tumultuous relationship with his half-sister Aphrodite, the goddess of love, highlighted the tension between love and war.   6. Aphrodite: Goddess of Love and Beauty Venus (Aphrodite) and Anchises, by Williams Blake Richmond, 1889/1890. Source: Walker Art Gallery   Known for her unparalleled charm and attractiveness, Ares’ half-sister Aphrodite (Venus) was the goddess of love, beauty, and desire. Famously born from sea foam, Aphrodite inspired love and passion in both gods and mortals. She was often depicted as a radiant figure, surrounded by symbols of beauty such as roses, myrtles, doves, and sparrows.   While Aphrodite was synonymous with love and romance, the goddess also had a dark side, as she could (and often did) incite jealousy, lust, and unrequited love. She engaged in affairs with gods and mortals. Aphrodite’s affair with Ares while married to Hephaestus is one of the most well-known love stories in Greek mythology.   7. Hephaestus: God of Fire and Blacksmiths Vulcan (Hephaestus) at his Forge, by Pompeo Batoni, 1750. Source: National Gallery of Canada   Hephaestus (Vulcan) was the Greek god of fire, metalworking, and craftsmanship. He was also the god of volcanoes. He was the only Olympian known for physical imperfections, often depicted as lame or deformed. According to one of the stories, Haephaestus’ lameness resulted in his expulsion from Mount Olympus by Hera, his own mother. Zeus, however, intervened, entrusting Hephaestus to make powerful weapons and tools for the gods and heroes, including Zeus’s lightning bolt and Achilles’s armor.   Hephaestus was also the husband of Aphrodite, though their marriage was far from harmonious. Upon discovering her adultery with Ares, Hephaestus ensnared the lovers in an unbreakable chain-link net and dragged them to Mount Olympus to shame them in front of the other Olympians.   8. Apollo: God of the Sun, Music, and Prophecy Apollo, God of Light, Eloquence, Poetry and the Fine Arts with Urania, Muse of Astronomy, by Charles Meynier, 1798. Source: Cleveland Art Museum   Apollo oversaw multiple aspects of life. He was the god of the sun, music, prophecy, healing, and the arts. As the god of the sun, Apollo drove his chariot across the sky each day, bringing light to the world. He was also a master of the lyre and was often depicted playing it.   As a god of prophecy, Apollo had his own sanctuary, the famous Oracle at Delphi, where people would come to ask for guidance, given by Apollo priestesses in cryptic words. Apollo’s twin sister was Artemis, and together, they represented a balance between day and night, civilization and nature.   9. Artemis: Goddess of the Hunt and the Moon A Companion of Diana (Artemis), by René Frémin, 1717. Source: Louvre Museum   Artemis was Apollo’s twin sister. While her brother brought light during the day, Artemis (Diana), the goddess of the moon, brought light during the night. She was also the goddess of the hunt and wilderness, often depicted carrying a bow and arrows. Her connection to nature made her one of the primary deities for those who lived in rural areas.   Artemis was the protector of animals, as well as young women. A virgin goddess, Artemis represented purity and independence and was particularly venerated by women during childbirth. Artemis was one of the most revered of the Olympians. Her temples, altars, and shrines could be found everywhere in the ancient Greek world, with the magnificent Temple at Ephesus being one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World before being burnt to the ground.   10. Demeter: Goddess of Agriculture and Harvest The Return of Persephone, by Frederic Leighton, 1891. Source: Leeds Art Gallery   Demeter (Ceres) was the goddess of agriculture, harvest, and fertility. For ancient Greek society, which was primarily agricultural-based, keeping Demeter happy was paramount. That’s not surprising, as Demeter was deeply connected to the cycles of life and death, with her myth explaining the changing seasons.   In the myth, Demeter’s daughter, Persephone, was abducted by Hades, the god of the Underworld. In her grief, Demeter caused the earth to become barren, leading to winter. Her joy upon Persephone’s partial return brought about spring.   11. Hermes: God of Messengers, Commerce, and Thieves Apollo and Mercury (Hermes), by Noël Coypel, 1688. Source: Château de Versailles   Hermes (Mercury) was the messenger of the gods, with the many epithets, known for his speed, wit, and cunning. This also made him the god of commerce, trade, travelers, but also thieves. Hermes is often depicted with winged sandals and a caduceus, a staff entwined with snakes.   Hermes had a significant role not only in life, but also in death, as he was a guide of the souls to the Underworld. He was also known for his trickery and cleverness, often outwitting both gods and mortals. Hermes’s quick thinking and resourcefulness made him a favorite figure in many myths, where he played the role of a mediator and problem-solver.   12a. Hestia  Votive Relief of Vesta, 150 BCE. Source: Altes Museum, Berlin   Depending on the account, sometimes Hestia appears as the 12th Olympian and other times Dionysus.   Hestia was the goddess of the hearth but also the protector of the home and the state. Hestia was a virgin goddess, like Athena. Even though Apollo and Poseidon were said to have asked for her hand, she refused. As such, her modesty was an important aspect of her cult and emphasized in her statues. She often appeared veiled and modestly dressed.   She commonly appeared as a woman sitting next to a hearth, which was also her most important symbol. As the heath was a central aspect of ancient Greek houses, Hestia was particularly significant for everyday life. Through the hearth—the religious center of the house—one could offer sacrifices to the goddess and request her help. Due to the prominent role of the heath in public spaces, Hestia was also the goddess of the state in general.   12b. Dionysus Dionysus with a Panther,  1st to 3rd century CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum, New York   Dionysus was the god of wine, ecstasy, fertility, theater, and festivity. He was the son of Zeus and Semele and according to the myth, he was born out of Zeus’ thigh and raised by nymphs. Dionysus is a later addition to the pantheon and is generally considered to be a god whose cult spread from the East as far as India, even though its true origins remain obscure.   In art, he was often depicted mounted on exotic animals such as panthers and/or among maenads and satyrs drinking wine, dancing, and playing music. Other creatures of the countryside were often linked to his cult, such as centaurs, nymphs, the god Pan, and Dionysus’s favorite companion, Silenus. Worth noting is that Dionysus was the god of theater, which developed from his cult.   Hades, the Underworld, and Chthonic Deities Pinax with Persephone and Hades Enthroned, Greek, c. 500-450 BCE. Source: Cleveland Museum of Art   Although one of the most important gods in Greek mythology, Hades (Pluto) is not considered an Olympian. A brother of Zeus, Poseidon, and Hera, and ruler of his own realm, Hades did not reside on Mount Olympus with the other gods. Hades’ dominion was the Underworld, where he governed the dead and oversaw the afterlife. This made him and his Queen Persephone Chthonic deities (Greek “khthon,” meaning earth or soil) associated with the surface of the earth and what was below, including the dead. Some Olympians, like Demeter or Hermes, were in part Chthonic, as they were associated with the earth, especially agriculture.   Importantly, Hades was not considered evil, but he was more feared than worshiped due to his association with death. Unlike the 12 Olympians, who often interacted with humans, Hades did not meddle in human affairs, focusing on maintaining balance in the afterlife. Most interestingly, unlike his Olympian peers, Hades remained loyal to Persephone. In artistic depictions, Hades is typically depicted with his Queen, or with his companion, Cerberus, the three-headed guard dog of the Underworld, standing at his side.

  The 19th president of the United States is often overshadowed by the giants who directly preceded him during a tumultuous time in US history, including Lincoln and Grant. However, staunch in his beliefs, Hayes brought a drastic overhaul to the federal government. A precursor of the progressives to come, Hayes invited controversy from the time he was elected, yet still demonstrated a skill for effective politics. What was his impact on the future of America?   The Young Life of Rutherford B. Hayes in Ohio Rutherford & Lucy Hayes. Source: Library of Congress via Wikimedia Commons   Rutherford Birchard Hayes was born in Delaware, Ohio, in October 1822. He was born to a single mother, as his father had died just months before his birth. His mother, Sophia, raised him and his sister Arabella (known as Fanny) with assistance from her brother, Sardis. Rutherford was named for his father, and his middle name was his mother’s maiden name.   Hayes was educated at a local Methodist school and also spent time at a prep school in Connecticut. In November 1838, he enrolled in Kenyon College. Four years later he graduated valedictorian of his class and immediately began studying law with the brother of the college’s president. After a year of work-study, he enrolled at Harvard Law School, matriculating in 1845. He started a local law practice but moved to Cincinnati for better opportunities. He found them and soon became a successful lawyer. Hayes involved himself in politics and was intrigued with the new Republican Party, largely because of their anti-slavery ideals.   Lucy Webb Hayes. Source: Internet Archive via Wikimedia Commons   In 1852, Hayes married Lucy Ware Webb, who was also an Ohio native. Lucy was educated and a graduate of Wesleyan Women’s College. She had strong anti-slavery views and practiced and promoted abstinence from alcohol. The pair had eight children together. Hayes shared his Methodist wife’s abolitionist views and defended a number of escaped slaves in court.   War & Politics Hayes in his Civil War uniform, 1861. Source: Rutherford Hayes Presidential Center via Wikimedia Commons   When the Civil War broke out, Hayes was approaching 40. Despite his age, he argued that he would rather die in the war than do nothing for his country. He enlisted as a three-year volunteer, accepting a commission as a major in the 23rd Ohio Infantry. Despite his comfortable life as a lawyer, Hayes adapted well to military life and was noted for his bravery. By the end of the war, he’d earned the rank of brevet Brigadier General. He received four wounds during the course of his military service but persisted.   While he was still serving in the military, the Republican party of the Cincinnati area recruited Hayes to run on their political ticket. He was officially a candidate for the House of Representatives. However, Hayes refused to campaign, saying “an officer fit for duty who at this crisis would abandon his post to electioneer, ought to be scalped.” Nevertheless, he was elected by a strong majority, and in December 1865, he entered Congress. He returned to the House the following year and then went on to serve three terms as Ohio’s governor.   A Fierce Election A ribbon featuring a portrait of Hayes. Source: Cornell University Library via Wikimedia Commons   After his success in other governmental roles, the Republicans chose Hayes to act as their presidential candidate. The 1876 election was one of the most tumultuous in history, pitting Hayes against the Democrat Samuel J. Tilden. Tilden won the popular vote, but electoral votes were undetermined. The results of the electorate in South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana were disputed, with both Democrats and Republicans claiming victory. The election results were a point of contention for months. Finally, the presidential election was decided with the Compromise of 1877.   In the compromise, Hayes was named president, contingent on his removing Reconstruction-era troops from the South and allowing a Democratic majority in the three states in question. Therefore, Hayes’ first act as president was the conclusion of Reconstruction. In March 1877, Hayes took the oath of office and, as a sign of his dedication to his political morals, swore to serve only a single term as president.   An End to Excess President Rutherford B. Hayes. Source: Library of Congress via Wikimedia Commons   As Hayes ascended to office, the federal government was distrusted by many Americans. Ulysses S. Grant’s presidency had resulted in several accusations of government corruption. Hayes endeavored to restore transparency and morality to the government. He promoted meritocracy, the idea that jobs in civil service should be based on merit, not connections, and issued an executive order that prohibited government workers from engaging in party politics.   Hayes received extensive pushback from Congress regarding these efforts, which left him unable to make significant progress in his civil service reforms. Still, his attempts set a precedent for future changes. Congressional opposition also came into play regarding Black rights. The abolitionist president was no match for the Democrats in power in the South, and Jim Crow laws moved quickly throughout. Nevertheless, Hayes continued to fight for equality. He also vetoed Congress’ Chinese Exclusion Act which sought to limit immigration.   His view toward the American Indian was one of white superiority, aiming for a paternalistic assimilation policy. He admitted that most of the US “Indian wars” were rooted in “broken promises and acts of injustice on our part,” but continued the process of removal to reservations. The Nez Perce War occurred under his presidency, and he seemed uninterested in any efforts to retain traditional cultures.   Rutherford B. Hayes illustration from A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1907. Source: New York Public Library via Wikimedia Commons   Hayes came into the presidency amid a struggling economy. The Panic of 1873 had led to an ongoing depression, and Hayes aimed to help the economy rebound. He favored the gold standard and, with Congress, brought into effect many laws that reduced paper currency. By the end of his term, the economy was slowly rebounding. However, Hayes was faced with the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. In this dispute, rail workers rioted in response to decreased wages and other labor complaints. The president even deployed the National Guard to quell the uproar. At the conclusion of his presidency, Hayes retired to Fremont, Ohio, where he and Lucy lived on their personal estate, Spiegel Grove. He acted as a philanthropist and worked with many educational, humanitarian, and other public causes. He served as a trustee for several colleges, supporting both traditional scholarly education and training in industrial arts. After experiencing chest pains, Rutherford B. Hayes died on January 17, 1893.   Rutherford B. Hayes: A Disputed Legacy Hayes photographed by Matthew Benjamin Brady. Source: Zeno Photography via Wikimedia Commons   Hayes was proud of the job he’d done when he left the White House at the conclusion of his term. In his time, many would agree with him. Even Henry Adams, a harsh political critic of the era who had initially dismissed the president as a “nonentity” during his campaign, acknowledged Hayes’ “most successful administration.” However, in hindsight, historians have blamed Hayes for a number of his actions. His election led to the abandonment of Reconstruction, and during his term, racist policies were allowed to flourish in the South.   Hayes in 1886. Source: University of Kentucky via Wikimedia Commons   However, many of Hayes’ critics examine his actions through a modern lens, and that perspective is somewhat flawed in some considerations. Hayes had limited control over some of the events that occurred during his presidency, sharing responsibility with his predecessors, Congress, and the courts. In some situations, his options for reaction were limited, and he had to play the hand he was dealt, which does not always appear favorably when reexamined. Nevertheless, some argue that Hayes’ promise of leaving office after a single term damaged what progress he did make, abandoning the rebounding economy and small progressions made in civil service reforms. He is also considered the last president in the 19th century who had any interest in Black rights.   “President Hayes & His Cabinet” by Currier & Ives. Source: Library of Congress via Wikimedia Commons   While Hayes’ legacy is disputed among scholars and is largely forgotten in the United States, he is a national hero in Paraguay. During his tenure, he served as a negotiator in a border dispute between Paraguay and Argentina. There was no global court system at the time, so countries occasionally asked one another to oversee negotiations. The long-held border argument was successfully settled, resulting in a large portion of land being awarded to Paraguay. This land accounted for 60 percent of Paraguay’s land mass. The decision is considered crucial in the country’s history, allowing it to survive. The country named a state after him, along with a city, and celebrates President Hayes Day annually on November 12.   Hayes helped define Paraguary’s border with Argentina. Source: Suriname Central via Wikimedia Commons   Though his legacy is a controversial one, there’s no denying the impact of the often-overlooked Hayes on American history. He was far from inept in his political dealings and was dedicated to his morals. His presidency marked the end of an era and brought a new emphasis on integrity in government.

  By the end of 1915, it was clear to the German General Staff that there was a growing discrepancy in the number of troops on the Western Front. The Entente forces were growing in size and Germany needed to keep pace. Germany sought to mitigate the growing strength of the Entente, and the Chief of General Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, decided to act.   The result was a battle of attrition that characterized the misery of the First World War. This was the Battle of Verdun, fought throughout almost the entirety of 1916.   Before the Battle of Verdun Erich von Falkenhayn. Source: Dutch National Archives   On the Western Front, French attempts to break through the German lines at the end of 1914 and through 1915 had been dismal failures. The French had consistently underestimated the value of German soldiery and blundered with wildly inaccurate beliefs of how the war would be fought. In the upper echelons of France’s military societies, it was believed that modern weaponry would not make the slightest difference and that victory lay in being able to hold forts. In reality, buildings such as these ended up being easily overcome by German artillery.   Nevertheless, around the town of Verdun, the French occupied a well-fortified salient that was perilously close to the German city of Metz. Von Falkenhayn decided that this was to be the direction of the German attack. Breaking through here, he hoped, would collapse the entire front line and open the way to Paris.   According to his writings, Von Falkenhayn had planned on winning the battle through attrition. However, the veracity of this claim has been called into question. Historian Gerd Krumeich claimed that a document known as the “Christmas Memorandum,” supposedly written by Von Falkenhayn at the end of 1915 that outlines his attempt at victory through attrition, was fabricated after Falkenhayn’s initial failure to secure a quick victory.   Birds-eye view map of Verdun, 1916. Source: Staatsbibliothek-Berlin/Wikimedia Commons   Nevertheless, the plan was to either capture or threaten to capture Verdun with minimal infantry usage and use artillery to inflict massive casualties on French counterattacks. Von Falkenhayn hoped to eliminate the threat of the French before the British could respond in full. In so doing, he also hoped the French would continue to send troops into a hopeless situation where the Germans could inflict heavy casualties.   The Germans’ ultimate hope was that if the French were significantly defeated, they would withdraw from the war, thus removing their 96 divisions and leaving the Entente unable to continue with any hope of victory.   On February 11, 1916, the French noticed the buildup of German forces on the east bank of the Meuse near Verdun. Alarmed and almost taken by surprise, the French hastily began reinforcing defenses in the area.   Poor weather hampered German preparations and forced the offensive to be delayed, thus giving the French valuable time to reinforce their positions around Verdun.   The Fighting Begins Colorized image of Philippe Pétain in 1917. Source: Cassowary Colorizations/Wikimedia Commons   On February 21 at 4 a.m., the Battle of Verdun began with the German offensive named “Operation Judgement.” The thunder of German artillery filled the air, and the French took cover, waiting for the shelling to end. German troops probed the line, looking for weak spots and testing the French defenses.   After five days, the German 5th Army achieved its first victory of the battle and captured Fort Douaumont. This defensive position was the largest and highest of the 19 defensive forts surrounding Verdun. In the days that followed, the Germans advanced five miles from their starting point, but the offensive slowed as the French were able to rally their defenses.   Fearing that France’s national morale would not survive the loss of the city, the Commander-in-Chief of the French forces, General Joseph Joffre, decided that Verdun was to be held at all costs, and put General Philippe Pétain, commanding the French 2nd Army, in charge of its defense. For the French, it was critical to stop the Germans from gaining all the high ground on the east bank of the Meuse.   The French rushed towards the front lines, moving past long lines of civilians evacuating in the opposite direction, and were able to halt the German offense.   This was accomplished with the help of snow and muddy ground, which hampered German efforts. Much of the frontline had moved beyond the range of German artillery, and so German troops were out of range of covering fire.   Pétain was a highly competent leader who believed in the effectiveness of proper defense. Under his command, trenches and fortifications were linked to form a defensive line that could easily withstand German efforts to break through.   Deadlock Map of the Western Front in World War I. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica   With the Germans’ advance suddenly halted, the French were able to capitalize on German failures. The Germans did not control all the high ground to the east, and had not attacked in the west, leaving the area free for the deployment and use of French artillery.   To mitigate this, the Germans launched their attack in the west on March 6 but were stopped by a dogged French defense and rain that turned the ground into mud. With the Germans held back, the French were able to establish logistical lines and defense-in-depth to counter any further German attempts to advance.   As the fighting raged on, Pétain kept the front line well supplied with fresh troops by rotating troops out, while the Germans had the habit of keeping troops at the front line until they were completely exhausted or destroyed. The effect this had on morale was significant, helped by the arrival of more French artillery to the front.   German attack on Le Mort Homme, Dead Man’s Hill, mid-March, 1916. Photo by Hermann Rex. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Still, the Germans held their ground and committed themselves to continuing the battle. Intelligence showed that the Entente was planning to launch a major offensive along the Somme to the west, and the Germans wanted to keep the battle going at Verdun to disrupt the Entente’s plan for operations in the Picardy region where their offensive was planned.   French propaganda spoke of “courage” and the will to resist, while German propaganda, initially declaring that a quick victory was inevitable, switched to focusing on French losses. In truth, the losses were huge on both sides. In the thick morass of mud and craters, decomposing corpses littered the ground. Desperation was everywhere. Soldiers thirsted, searching for potable water, while the wounded fended for themselves on a battlefield where medical assistance was virtually non-existent.   The battle reached a point of deadlock, and through April and May, the front lines shifted little as the Germans and the French jostled for more ground.   Pétain was promoted, and his former command was split. On the east bank of the Meuse, French forces were commanded by Robert-Georges Nivelle, while on the left bank, they were under the command of Henri Berthelot. The Germans also saw the pragmatism of splitting command of their forces. General Bruno von Mudra was in command on the east bank, while General Max von Gallwitz commanded troops on the west bank. Gallwitz was replaced with General Hermann von François in July.   French troops using flamethrowers. Colorized. Source: Julius Jääskeläinen/Wikimedia Commons   Falkenhayn was not blind to what was happening on a strategic level and toyed with the idea of ceasing operations. He informed Kaiser Wilhelm II that the battle was deadlocked with no victory in sight for either side. Falkenhayn was, however, informed by optimism and a good deal of faulty intelligence.   There was a failure to correctly interpret the French rotation system, and to the Germans, it looked as if fresh troops were replacing destroyed divisions instead of relieving them. As such, reports of French casualties were greatly inflated. In reality, French casualties were only slightly higher than those of the Germans.   The French Seize the Initiative French infantry recapturing Fort Douaumont on the 24 October 1916 by Henri-Georges Chartier. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In May and June, the Germans had made incremental gains but were unable to turn their minor successes into victories. French counterattacks limited the effect of the German successes.   Nevertheless, these gains had sowed much doubt in the mind of Pétain, who considered giving up the east bank, but he was ordered to hold his ground at all costs. Meanwhile, the Somme offensive began on June 24 after days of constant artillery barrages. The British began their assault and suffered 60,000 casualties on the first day alone, with a third of them dead.   Meanwhile, in Verdun, the back-and-forth continued until September 3, with the final German attack failing to achieve anything of significant value. By this time, the French had already decided to take the initiative and launch major attacks of their own. In August, the French made significant progress in taking the fort of Thiaumont and the village of Fleury in what was a bitterly contested struggle. The Germans finally managed to regain Thiaumont, but Fleury would remain in French hands.   In October, preparations were underway for the French to launch a large counteroffensive. Under the Command of General Charles Mangin, three divisions advanced on October 24 under the cover of a creeping barrage from hundreds of the newest French artillery pieces. In a stunning blow to the Germans, by the evening of the 24th, Douaumont was once again in French hands, along with 6,000 German prisoners.   With the help of constant artillery barrages and control over the skies throughout November and into December, the French pushed forward, edging closer to the lines they had been forced to abandon at the beginning of the battle.   By December 18, the battle was over with a resounding French victory, but the cost had been horrendous for both sides.   The Cost Graves of soldiers who died during the Battle of Verdun. Source: Paul Arps/Wikimedia Commons   As the Battle of the Somme developed to the northwest, the focus of the Western Front shifted. While the French made headway at Verdun, the Germans were forced to accept defeat and redeploy vast amounts of resources to the Picardy region in an attempt to defeat the Entente there.   The Battle of Verdun was one of the costliest battles of the First World War. The Germans took around 350,000 casualties, with 143,000 killed, while the French casualties were as high as 400,000, with a claim of 163,000 dead.   The Germans had expected a battle of attrition but did not expect it to drag out as long as it did, nor did they expect a near-par ratio of casualties.   Unsurprisingly, the effect the battle had on national morale was significant. The French were bolstered by their victory but were well aware that the misery of war was set to continue. For the Germans, the defeat was humiliating and served to increase the need for victory elsewhere on the Western Front. The Austro-Hungarians had also suffered a terrible defeat in the East during the time of Verdun, and it became clear that if the war were to be won, it would be Germany that had to carry victory for the Central Powers. The loss at Verdun made this outcome even harder to achieve.   Today, Verdun is remembered as an example of the misery and horrors of World War I while simultaneously representing a patriotic symbol for the French. In exchange for the massive cost of human life, valuable lessons were learned as the effectiveness of troop rotation, air superiority, and mechanized logistics were significant factors that led to the French triumph.

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