The Runaways featured both Joan Jett (Joan Marie Larkin) and Lita Ford. Despite being big in Japan and recording a Rock version of Martha and the Vandella’s “Nowhere To Run,” the Runaways didn’t live up to expectations. Jett fared far better fronting The Blackhearts. And while Jett was a songwriter, she also had great success with covers. Of course, the original’s groove got jacked up. Here are Jett’s Top 10: #10. Long Live The Night “Long Live the Night” was written by Joan Jett, Kenny Laguna, and Ricky Byrd. They collaborated to create a song that captured the essence of the rock ‘n’ roll lifestyle. Long Live The Night #9. Dead End Justice “Dead End Justice” is the only song on The Runaway’s debut album to feature both Jett and Currie on lead vocals. Dead End Justice #8. I Love Playing With Fire It’s a re-recording of a Runaways’ song. “I know what’s going to happen,” Jett once commented. “When we included lots of covers, people would call us on it. If we don’t they’d say, ‘Where’s the covers?'” I Love Playing With Fire #7. Fake Friends As the first single released from Jett’s third solo album (titled “Album”), the song received heavy MTV airplay but was a relative disappointment on the Billboard Hot 100 – peaking at #35,   Producer Kenny Laguna objected to “Fake Friends” being the first single because he didn’t feel it fit on Rock radio. He was overruled by the Jett’s record label. The video has ‘fans’ and hangers-on who quickly turn into cardboard cut-outs and fall over” like “fake friends.” Fake Friends #6. Do You Wanna Touch Me? (Oh Yeah) A cover of Gary Glitter’s U.K. monster hit, Jett’s version landed on her ’80 debut album, “Bad Reputation.”  Both the Glam Rock original and Jett’s cover peaked at #20 on the Billboard Hot 100. Do You Wanna Touch Me? (Oh Yeah) #5. I Hate Myself For Loving You  Written by Jett and ace songwriter Desmond Child, the track is from Jett’s sixth album “Up Your Alley” (1988). The song was reworked into “Waiting All Day For Sunday Night” to open the NFL’s Sunday night games. It was the original theme song choice in 2006 before NBC tried out a few other tunes, finally returning to the Jett remake in 2019. I Hate Myself For Loving You #4. You Don’t Know What You’ve Got The song was written by Jett and Laguna and was featured on her album “I Love Rock ‘n Roll” (1988) – Jett’s most commercially successful album to date. The rehearsal version of “You Don’t Know What You’ve Got” was the original B-side to “I Love Rock N’ Roll” in North America.   You Don’t Know What You’ve Got #3. Cherry Bomb  Jett composed the song with Kim Fowley, the band’s then-manager. It appeared on The Runaway’s self-titled debut album. Jett re-recorded the song with The Blackhearts for the ’84 album “Glorius Results Of A Misspent Youth.” Cherry Bomb #2. I Love Rock N’ Roll Jett saw The Arrows perform the song on their weekly TV series while she was touring England with The Runaways. Her version, backed by the Sex Pistols’ Steve Jones and Paul Cook, went nowhere. But three years later Jett took another stab at the song with The Blackhearts.  “I Love Rock N’ Roll” went on to top the Billboard Hot 100 becoming the band’s only #1. I Love Rock N’ Roll #1. Bad Reputation The title track from Jett’s solo debut album references her “bad reputation” as a former member of The Runaways. Back in ’09, the song was named the 29th best Hard Rock song of all time by VH-1. It was the highest-ranked song by a woman on the list and remains one of Jett’s signature songs. Bad Reputation ### The post The Top 10: Joan Jett appeared first on RockinTown.

Propaganda 101: NYSlimes edition https://t.co/gFWf5rjDB3 — Chris Martenson (@chrismartenson) July 18, 2025

by Alex Berenson, Unreported Truths: The white male villains and everyone-else heroes, the global warming speeches, the people-of-color pep talks – they’re so deep in studio DNA now we hardly notice. Until we do. (A short break from our regularly scheduled programming on the crisis in medicine, though not entirely, as you’ll see.) Like all […]

by Antonius Aquinas, Antonius Aquinas: Despite considerable arm-twisting, President Donald Trump’s laughably misnamed “Big Beautiful Bill” (actually a Big Ugly Atrocity) barely passed both houses of Congress.  Such a monstrosity, which has been conservatively estimated to add $5 trillion to the national debt including interest over the next decade, is a slap in the face […]

from The Prather Point: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

  Demetrius Poliorcetes, “the Besieger,” became central to the scramble for power following the death of Alexander the Great. The drama of his life is such that a historian described it as one that “still awaits a movie producer” (Chaniotis, 2018, 47). Ever-changing fortune cast him down from the pinnacle of power before lifting him up again. His life was also one of contradictions. He was a talented general most famous for his defeats and a capable organizer but dissolute and extravagant. His story is a tale of thwarted ambitions, but he helped shape the emerging Hellenistic world.   The Antigonids and Demetrius Buts of Demetrius Poliorcetes, c. 310-290 BCE. Source: Museo del Prado, Madrid   Demetrius was born in Macedonia to a noble family in early 336 BCE, shortly before the ancient world changed forever with the conquests of Alexander the Great (r. 336-323 BCE). There is doubt about whether he was the son or nephew of Antigonus Monophthalmus (382-301 BCE), a significant figure under Alexander. Antigonus himself made no distinction, and the close and trusting relationship between Antigonus and Demetrius became a hallmark of their family, known as the Antigonids.   While Antigonus had a long career behind him, he rose to prominence under Alexander as governor of Phrygia (central Turkey) from 333 BCE onwards. The posting was significant for Antigonus and his family, who joined him in Asia. This background makes Demetrius one of the first figures of a new world ruled over by a Macedonian elite.   When Alexander died in 323 BCE, his empire had no obvious king. A son was on the way but was in no position to rule anytime soon. There was a half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus, but for unknown reasons, he was judged to be unfit to rule. This left a pack of ambitious generals and governors to rule the empire, who became known as the Diadochi, or “Successors.” Antigonus and his now teenage son were amongst this pack of potential successors.   Demetrius’ Early Career Map of the Empire of Alexander the Great. Source: TheCollector   Over the course of four decades, the leading generals fought a series of wars with constantly shifting alliances. Demetrius’ life, from his teenage years up to his death in his 50s, was one of almost constant war.   Demetrius started to play a role before he was out of his teens when he married Phila, the 35-year-old daughter of Antipater, the governor of Macedonia and Greece. Polygamy was a common practice for the male members of the Macedonian nobility, and Demetrius would go on to have several marriages and significant relationships. Despite the age difference, this first marriage seems to have been happy.   Having helped seal an alliance, Demetrius’ next step was to aid his father in war. He first appears in battle as a cavalry commander and then commander of the right wing at the battles of Paraetacene and Gabiene in 317-316 BCE as Antigonus pursued the rival general Eumenes into Persia. Though little is said of Demetrius’ role, his father had enough confidence in his son to leave him in charge of Syria in 314 BCE at the age of just 22.   The Battle of Gaza, engraving in The Illustrated History of the World, 1881. Source: Wikimedia Commons   It was in this role that Demetrius experienced the first of many reversals of fortune. He was meant to monitor Ptolemy and Seleucus, two of the most experienced successors. In 312 BCE, Demetrius engaged them in an ill-advised battle at Gaza. This first solo command ended in disaster as Demetrius was beaten and lost much of Syria.   In the aftermath, Demetrius showed his ability to recover, as a victory over one of Ptolemy’s generals limited the immediate damage. Nevertheless, the long-term consequences of Gaza were damaging for the Antigonids. With their power suddenly weakened, Ptolemy released Seleucus to conquer Babylon. Demetrius and Antigonus unsuccessfully tried to dislodge him in the following years, but Seleucus carved out his own empire. In the long run, this development would prove fatal to Antigonid ambitions.   Becoming a King Acropolis of Athens. Source: Copyright Neil Middleton   After an uncertain beginning to his career, Demetrius learned from his mistakes and elevated his family’s fortunes to new heights.   His next major initiative was an invasion of Greece in 307 BCE. The Antigonids claimed to be liberating Greece. In practice, this meant that they would free Greek cities from the control of their rival, Cassander. The first major success of this policy came at Athens. Since its defeat in the Lamian War in 322 BCE, the city had been under Macedonian control, which, in 307 BCE, put it under the domination of Cassander. The Athenians, desperate to end Cassander’s control, greeted Demetrius warmly after he sailed into the harbor of Piraeus.   After removing Cassander’s garrison, the restored Athenian democracy voted honors for Demetrius and his father. Statues were set up, hymns were sung, and even the Athenian local administration was modified to name parts of it after the Antigonids.   In 306 BCE, Antigonus ordered Demetrius to attack Cyprus, which was held by Ptolemy. Upon landing, Demetrius began a siege of the city of Salamis. At Athens, Demetrius had shown a skill for using siege engines to take fortified positions. Outside Salamis, he developed his art further by constructing massive siege towers. However, the fate of Cyprus was decided at sea. Ptolemy himself arrived with a fleet to challenge the man he had brushed aside at Gaza. Though slightly outnumbered, Demetrius won a resounding victory, forcing Ptolemy to abandon Cyprus.   Victory at Salamis had momentous consequences. By 306 BCE, the two kings, Philip Arrhidaeus and Alexander IV, were both dead. The Macedonian throne had been left vacant. Following Demetrius’ recent victories in Greece and Cyprus, Antigonus was clearly the most powerful general. He used his glory to declare himself and his son kings. Not to be outdone, the other generals elevated themselves to kings soon after. The fiction of a united empire was over as the rival generals became rival kings. Demetrius’ victory in Cyprus marked the beginning of a new era.   Demetrius’ First Fall Silver coin of Demetrius, Greece, c. late 4th century BCE. Source: British Museum   Demetrius and Antigonus were at the pinnacle of their power, but in the five years following Cyprus, fortune turned, bringing a series of devastating defeats.   The first setback was an invasion of Egypt in late 306 BCE. Antigonus failed to overcome Ptolemy’s defenses on land, while Demetrius was hampered by storms at sea, forcing the Antigonids to withdraw quickly.   The following year saw the famous siege of Rhodes. The Rhodians were a significant naval power, and while not hostile to the Antigonids, they were friendly to Ptolemy. For a year, Demetrius attempted to take the main city of the Rhodians, who resisted fiercely. Demetrius brought into action numerous inventive siege engines, which culminated in the helepolis, which was a massive movable tower. Though it may have been as high as 44 meters and took thousands of men to move, it ultimately failed to force the Rhodians to surrender. Demetrius did not take Rhodes, but the peace terms did give the Antigonids hostages and made Rhodes an ally against all except Ptolemy (Wheatley & Dunn, 2020, 200).   Acropolis of Rhodes. Source: City of Rhodes   The epic siege is tied up with Demetrius’ nickname, the Besieger (Zielinski, 2023, 122). There is some debate about whether the name was given in admiration or irony. Demetrius, in the end, failed to take Rhodes, and one modern historian described the campaign as an “extravagant waste of time and resources” (Errington, 2008). Others believe the name reflects Demetrius’ inventiveness and points to his otherwise impressive record of taking cities (Wheatley & Dunn, 2020, Zielinski, 2023, Chaniotis, 2018). Given that Rhodes was close to falling and Demetrius had an impressive record of taking cities, plus he started the Hellenistic world’s obsession with ever larger and more inventive siege weaponry, it seems likely the nickname was a genuine reflection on an impressive military reputation (Wheatley & Dunn, 2020, 2-3).   The setbacks in Egypt and Rhodes showed that while powerful, the Antigonids were not invulnerable (Errington, 2008). A coalition of Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus formed to confront the Antigonids before their power got too great. In 301 BCE, the Antigonids faced the combined armies of Lysimachus and Seleucus at the battle of Ipsus. With more than 150,000 men involved, along with hundreds of elephants, Ipsus was an era-defining battle. Initially, Demetrius gained the upper hand as he once again commanded his father’s right wing and drove back his opponents. However, he rode on too far, and Seleucus blocked his return to the battlefield with his elephants. Antigonus, now in his 80s, was overwhelmed in the center and fell, still believing Demetrius was about to return and save him (Plutarch, Demetrius, 29).   Just five years after reaching the height of its power in Cyprus, the Antigonid empire seemed to be over.   The Return of Demetrius Seleucus I, c. 1st-2nd century CE. Source: Louvre   The death of his father and the loss of almost all his former empire was remarkably not the end of Demetrius.   Despite treating him like a god, the Athenians shut their gates to Demetrius after Ipsus. Following their initial enthusiastic, even sycophantic, welcome of Demetrius, the relationship soured. A second stay in the city before Ipsus saw Demetrius elevated to divine status as he was allowed to live on the acropolis, an unheard-of intrusion in the sacred space. His lavish lifestyle and his habit of inviting the famous beauty Lamia, along with numerous women and young men of Athens, into the house of the gods, plus his inclusion in the Athenian sacred calendar, alienated many Athenians. Demetrius’ later biographer Plutarch (Demetrius, 19-20) commented that Demetrius dedicated himself to whatever he was doing. In war, this was a virtue as he was sober and organized. In peace, this could be a vice as his dedication turned to luxury and extravagance.   Demetrius Poliorcetes and Lamia with her friend Demo, by Claudius Herr, c. 18th century. Source: National Gallery of Slovenia   Demetrius still retained a powerful fleet and a number of coastal cities in Greece, Lebanon, and Cyprus. Clinging onto this foothold made Demetrius relevant again a few years later. Though he had done the most to defeat the Antigonids, Seleucus sought an alliance with Demetrius in 299-298 BCE and married Demetrius’ daughter Stratonice.   In 294 BCE, the next major opportunity presented itself. Cassander, king in Macedonia, had died in 297 BCE, and within a few years, his dynasty was reduced to two young and squabbling successors, Antipater and Alexander. When Alexander called for Demetrius’ aid, the far more experienced king simply moved north, had Alexander killed, and took over.   Demetrius’ proclamation as king of Macedonia in 294 BCE marked another remarkable turn of fortune. After Ipsus, he was little more than a fugitive. Now, he was back in his homeland for the first time since childhood and was once again an equal to any of Alexander the Great’s successors.   Demetrius’ Second Fall Bust of Pyrrhus, c. 3rd century BCE. Source: National Archaeological Museum, Naples   Demetrius was king in Macedonia, but his position was far from secure. On his borders were the powerful kings Lysimachus and the ambitious young warrior Pyrrhus. Further away, the alliances he had made with Seleucus and later Ptolemy were, at best, weak bonds.   For Demetrius, Macedonia does not seem to have been an end in itself. He used the country to rebuild his forces to reconquer his father’s lost empire. For the Macedonians, it seemed like Demetrius’ ambitions were simply draining them as he invested their money, men, and resources into his armies and fleets. Macedonian kings were meant to be somewhat accessible and responsive to their subjects. Demetrius appeared distant and arrogant. Furthermore, the failure of a campaign against the Aitolians and Pyrrhus made him appear ineffective (Chaniotis, 2018, 45).   By 288 BCE, Demetrius’ preparations prompted a coalition of Pyrrhus, Lysimachus, and Ptolemy to act. Caught between Pyrrhus and Lysimachus, his support evaporated, forcing Demetrius to flee Macedonia. A further blow came as his first wife, Phila, died or committed suicide as Demetrius fled. Once again, his fortunes had abruptly turned.   This time, despite another attempt, there was to be no recovery. His remaining forces and his son Antigonus Gonatus still held some positions in Greece. Despite losing Macedonia, Demetrius took what soldiers he could and headed east. In a final campaign between 287/6 and 285 BCE, Demetrius tried to win over some of Lysimachus’ cities in Asia Minor. Eventually, Seleucus cornered him in Cilicia (south-east Turkey) and compelled him to surrender. Demetrius’ tumultuous career finally ended as a prisoner. Seleucus was not harsh and allowed his fellow king to live out the last few years of his life in comfortable captivity in Syria. It is even said that, after all the years of battles and campaigns, Demetrius came to enjoy his enforced leisure before he died aged 54 in 282 BCE (Plutarch, Demetrius, 52).   Given that it ended in captivity, it would be easy to see Demetrius’ life as a failure. At one time, the empire of Antigonus and Demetrius was the most powerful force in the post-Alexander world. Both ended in defeat. It has been said that, like Alexander himself, he knew how to fight a war but not how to administer an empire (Errington, 2008). All of that is true, but despite the defeat of his own ambitions, Demetrius helped shape the world that was to come. The Antigonids were the first to publicly acknowledge the new reality by declaring themselves kings. Furthermore, Demetrius’ son, Antigonus, still lived and, in time, gained the Macedonian throne. Through many twists and turns, the Antigonids ultimately became one of the three great powers of the Hellenistic World.   Selected Bibliography   Chaniotis, A. (2018) The Age of Conquests: The Greek World from Alexander to Hadrian, Harvard University Press.   Errington, R.M. (2008) A History of the Hellenistic World: 323 – 30 BC, John Wiley & Sons.   Whealey, P. and Dunn, C. (2020). Demetrius the Besieger, Oxford University Press.   Zielinski, T. (2023) “Demetrius Poliorcetes’ Nickname and the Origins of the Hostile Tradition Concerning his Besieging Skills,” Ancient History Bulletin, 37.3-4: 120-141.

  According to Greek mythology, when the cosmos was created, it was initially inhabited by the first generation of beings known as the Primordial gods or Protogenoi (Firstborn). Many of these gods appeared fully formed at the moment of the cosmos’s creation. They personified the fundamental elements and natural forces shaping the universe’s development. Through various unions and betrayals, the Protogenoi set the stage for the next generation of cosmic rulers: the Titans and the Olympians. Read on to learn more about the first generation of primordial gods, the Protogenoi.   What Were the Primordial Gods? The Untangling of Chaos, by Hendrik Goltzius, 1589. Source: Los Angeles County Museum of Art   The earliest references to the Protogenoi are in Hesiod’s epic poem Theogony, composed between 750 and 650 BCE. Hesiod’s Theogony outlines the origins and genealogies of the gods, beginning with the creation of the cosmos and the primordial deities and culminating with the Olympian gods. The names, functions, and characteristics of the primordials established by Hesiod have influenced the popular understanding of these ancient beings. Over the centuries, other Greek theogonies have introduced new members and added details and functions to this original generation of gods.   Unlike the later generations of divinities in Greek mythology, the primordials were typically not depicted with human forms or characteristics. Instead, they personified fundamental natural forces that shaped the cosmos and established essential natural systems. They embodied concepts such as the Earth, the Sky, the Sea, the Air, and Night and Day, among other ideas. While the primordials represented the natural world, they possessed minds of their own, with many exhibiting unique personalities, ambitions, and flaws.   Chaos, the Vast Chasm Chaos, by George Frederic Watts and Assistants, 1875. Source: Wikimedia Commons   At first, there was Chaos. Primordial Chaos was the first being to exist when the cosmos was created. In Hesiod’s original description, the exact nature of Chaos is somewhat ambiguous. While many interpret Chaos as female, unlike other primordial beings, Hesiod does not specify a gender for Chaos. Chaos is likely a formless, nongendered entity. Unlike the contemporary understanding of chaos, primordial Chaos is often regarded as a vast void, abyss, or chasm that serves as a space or canvas for the universe to unfold upon. Chaos is usually described as the vast, endless void, but Hesiod also vaguely places it beneath the earth, above the pit of Tartarus.   Hesiod’s depiction of this formless and mysterious Chaos was later reimagined by others, particularly in the epic poem Metamorphoses by the 1st-century Roman poet Ovid. In this new interpretation, Chaos existed before the creation of the cosmos and combined all the elements that make up the universe. Ovid describes Chaos as an undeveloped mass that contains all the confused and discordant elements in one large, unruly heap. From this primordial “soup,” everything else would emerge.   Chaos is often understood as the atmospheric or lower air filling the great void. This interpretation holds some significance, as this formless deity would eventually asexually give birth to two primordial children: Nyx and Erebus. Together, they would sire the primordial upper air deity, Aether.   Gaia, the Goddess of the Earth Gaea, by Anselm Feuerbach, 1875. Source: Central Institute for Art History   The second primordial entity to emerge after Chaos was Gaia, the personification of the Earth and the first mother. Gaia was revered as the primordial goddess of fertility, and often considered the titular Mother Earth who presided over the creation of life in all its forms. She is frequently depicted as a matronly woman from the torso up, rising from the earth she embodies. Gaia’s deep connection to the earth she embodied led to her strong association with the Chthonic deities of the underworld, and she was often worshiped alongside fertility deities such as Persephone and Demeter.   She became the mother of the next generation of primordial beings, asexually giving birth to Uranus, her husband and the first supreme ruler of the cosmos, and the Ourea and Pontus. Additionally, with Uranus as her consort, Gaia gave birth to many well-known figures in Greek mythology, including the first generation of Titans, Cyclopes, and Hecatoncheires (the Hundred-Handers).   Gaia, by Otto Greiner, 1912. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Gaia plays a significant role in Greek mythology. When her husband Uranus imprisoned their sons, the Hecatoncheires and the Cyclopes, out of fear that they would usurp him, she sought revenge by devising a plan with Kronos to castrate and overthrow him. When Uranus’s blood fell on the earth, Gaia birthed the Erinyes, the Giants, and the Meliae nymphs. Kronos proved as tyrannical as his father. Kronos swallowed his first five children with his sister Rhea to avoid being overthrown. When she had their sixth child, Rhea deceived Kronos with a stone wrapped in a blanket. Rhea then turned to Gaia for help, hiding and raising Zeus until he was strong enough to overthrow Kronos and rescue his siblings in the great conflict known as the Titanomachy.   Gaia would later come into conflict with Zeus and the Olympians. She unleashed her monstrous, multi-headed serpent son, Typhon, to defeat Zeus, but Zeus emerged victorious. Undeterred, Gaia then sent her Giant children to challenge the Olympians, leading to the catastrophic war known as the Gigantomachy. However, the Olympians’ defeat of the Giants thwarted Gaia’s plans for a second time. After this conflict, Gaia became less prominent in myths, appearing only occasionally as the mother of notable figures. These include the giants Antaeus, who wrestled with Heracles; the hunter Orion, whom Artemis killed; and the mortal Ericthonius, the founding king of Athens.   Tartarus, Prison of the Damned Fallen angels in Hell, by John Martin, 1841. Source: The Tate Britain   The next primordial to form after Gaia was Tartarus. According to Hesiod, it would take nine days for an anvil to fall from Heaven to the Earth, and another nine days from the Earth to the depths of Tartarus. This ambiguous Protogenoi was both a deity and a physical location, not described in human form or possessing human characteristics. Tartarus is often said to be the home of many chthonic deities, including Hades, Nyx, and Thanatos. Along with his consort Gaia, Tartarus would father the monstrous Typhon.   Tartarus is often depicted as a murky, gloomy, hellish realm that consistently appears throughout Greek mythology. Its dark halls, enclosed by bronze walls and iron gates, became the prison for the enemies of the ruling gods. When Uranus imprisoned his children, the Hecatoncheires and the Cyclopes, he cast them into the depths of Tartarus. After Zeus defeated the Titans, he imprisoned many of them, including Kronos, in Tartarus.   Over time, Tartarus became the final resting place for some of the most notorious sinners in Greek myths, such as the impious kings Ixion and Tantalus and the man who cheated death, Sisyphus. However, Tartarus represented more than just a resting place; it began to resemble contemporary notions of hell, where these sinners were subjected to endless punishments as atonement for their sins.   Eros, the God of Love, Passion, and Procreation Cupid (Eros), by Johann Liss, 1630. Source: The Cleveland Museum of Art   Eros was the final primordial being to spontaneously emerge at the beginning of the cosmos, who personified passion, love, and procreation. Eros, better known by his Roman name Cupid, is often depicted as the charming winged son and servant of Aphrodite, the goddess of love. Under his mother’s guidance, he uses his golden bow to shoot arrows at mortals and immortals, overwhelming them with love and passion for specific individuals.   Eros is typically depicted as an incredibly handsome young man or a cherubic and mischievous child, and is often said to be the youngest of the gods. Eros was married to Psyche, whose name means “soul.” Their love story has become a popular allegory representing various types of love. In several myths, Eros is depicted as the instigator of love and passion, including making Hades fall in love with Persephone and causing Helen of Troy to desire Paris. While often portrayed as warm-hearted, Eros can also be vindictive, as seen when he made Apollo tragically fall in love with the mortal Daphne after the god of prophecy insulted him.   The depiction of Eros as an agent of love is a later interpretation of one of the oldest primordial forces in the cosmos. Eros, the primordial, personifies sexual desire, love, and procreation, personifying a vast, impersonal cosmic force that ignites the spark necessary for living entities to reproduce and create new life. Without Eros’s intervention, no new life would ever have arisen.   Nyx, the Goddess of Night Night with her Train of Stars, by Edward Robert Hughes, 1912. Source: Wikimedia Commons   With the emergence of Eros, the three primordial entities developed the desire to reproduce. The first to do so was Chaos, who subsequently bore Nyx, the personification of night. Nyx is considered one of the most powerful and respected beings in the cosmos, able to bend gods and mortals to her will, and is even feared by Zeus.   She is often depicted as a beautiful woman adorned in long, flowing black robes covered in stars, wearing wreaths of poppies, and possessing black wings. Nyx rides in a chariot pulled by black horses across the sky, accompanied by Hypnos, the god of sleep, who drives the chariot. Together, they bring the night mist after the sun god Helios has completed his journey during the day.   Nyx and her husband, Erebus, had two children, the primordial deities Aether and Hemera. Nyx would later have many more children by herself, each personifying abstract concepts such as Nemesis (Retribution), the Moirai (Fates), and Eris (Discord). Nyx resided in the depths of the underworld, where she shared her home with her daughter Hemera. The Romans associated Nyx with death, witchcraft, and dangerous magic.   Erebus, the God of Darkness Aeneas and the Sibyl in the Underworld, by Jan Brueghel the Elder, 1600. Source Kunsthistorisches Museum   Erebus was the primordial personification of darkness. He is the son of Chaos and brother and husband of Nyx. Erebus was not depicted in human form or with human characteristics; instead, he was often envisioned as darkness within the cosmos, particularly the deep shadows surrounding the Underworld. Erebus has a minor role in the cosmos, primarily as the father of his two children, Aether and Hemera, with his wife Nyx. He was closely associated with the Underworld, and his name was frequently used interchangeably with Hades and Tartarus to refer to the realm of the dead.   Uranus, the God of the Sky Uranus and the Dance of the Stars, by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, 1834. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The primordial Uranus personified the sky and heavens, and he was the first child of Mother Earth, Gaia. According to Hesiod, Gaia created Uranus to be her equal, covering her on all sides and serving as the heavenly home for the gods. Uranus complemented Gaia, providing her with wind and rain, which allowed her to create new life.   Uranus and Gaia had many children, including the first generation of Titans, the Cyclopes, and the Hecatoncheires. While Uranus was conceived as the embodiment of the sky and was rarely depicted in human form, the Romans later portrayed him as an athletic young man, and later artists depicted him as a bearded older man.   The Mutilation of Uranus by Saturn, by Giorgio Vasari, 16th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Uranus was the first supreme ruler of the cosmos. However, he grew fearful that his children might one day overthrow him. As a result, Uranus became a tyrant and imprisoned his sons, the Cyclops and the Hecatoncheires, in Tartarus to prevent any attempts at usurpation. This imprisonment angered Gaia, who conspired with their youngest son, the Titan Kronos, to overthrow Uranus. Following Gaia’s instructions, Kronos freed his brothers from Tartarus and ultimately succeeded in usurping Uranus after castrating him.   The blood spilled during Uranus’s castration rained down on the Earth, leading to the birth of the Erinyes, the Giants, and the Meliae nymphs. Kronos then cast Uranus’s severed genitals into the foamy seas, resulting in the birth of Aphrodite. Uranus faded into obscurity after being overthrown by Kronos. His final words to his son were a grim prophecy, warning that vengeance would come for Kronos and the Titans for betraying their father. This prophecy comes true when Kronos is eventually overthrown by his son, Zeus.   Ourea, the Gods of the Mountains Mount Olympus from Larissa, Thessaly, Greece, by Edward Lear, 1850-1885. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art   The Ourea were the primordial personification of the mountains. They were Gaia’s second offspring, created after Uranus. In his writings, Hesiod describes how Gaia brought forth long hills, which served as graceful haunts for the goddess Nymphs who dwell among the glens of these hills. Unlike other Protogenoi, people did not conceive the Ourea as deities with personalities and minds of their own; instead, they were literal features of the landscape created by Gaia rather than mythological entities.   Pontus, the God of the Sea Photograph of an ancient Roman mosaic of Pontus in Tunisia, by Dennis G. Jarvis, 2012. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Pontus is the primordial personification of the sea and is considered the last child born of Gaia. He is often envisioned as the literal sea itself, but is typically depicted as an older man with crab-claw horns on his head and a grey beard rising from the waters. Pontus is a minor figure in Greek mythology, recognized as the embodiment of the sea and the father of various sea deities.   Pontus’s first lover was his mother, Gaia. Together, they had several offspring, including Nereus, the father of the Nereids (sea nymphs), Thaumas, Eurybia, Phorcys, and Ceto. Phorcys and Ceto would go on to produce many of ancient Greece’s most infamous monsters. In some traditions, Pontus later marries Thalassa, the female personification of the sea, with whom he fathered all sea life.   Aether, the God of the Upper Air Photograph of Blue Sky, by J Doll, 2008. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Aether was the primordial embodiment of the upper air and light, representing the bright, pure, and clean air found at the highest point of the cosmos. The gods and the heavens resided within the pristine expanse of Aether. Aether does not have a prominent role in mythology and is not depicted in human form. He is the son of Nyx and Erebus, and he is both the brother and husband of Hemera. Aether and Hemera are said to have given birth to the primordial sea goddess Thalassa and, in some accounts, to Eros.   In some traditions, Aether and Uranus are considered to be merged, leading to accounts in which Aether and Gaia give birth to various elemental forces such as Grief, Anger, and Vengeance, as well as the Titans, Tartarus, Pontus, and the Furies.   Hemera, the Goddess of the Day Hemera, the goddess of the daytime, by William-Adolphe Bouguereau, 1884. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Hemera was the primordial personification of day and daylight. She was the daughter of the primordial gods Erebus and Nyx and the sibling of Aether. Hemera was envisioned as daylight itself and was rarely represented in human form. She is sometimes said to be the mother of Eros and Thalassa, with her husband Aether.   Her primary role was to disperse Nyx’s dark mist, allowing the sun to shine and light to illuminate the earth. Although Hemera shared a home with her mother, Nyx, in the depths of the Underworld, the two never resided there simultaneously due to their opposing natures. Every dawn, as Nyx returned home after her journey across the night sky, Hemera emerged, flying into the sky and dispelling Nyx’s dark mist, revealing her consort, Aether.   Hemera is often associated with Eos, the goddess of the dawn, as both personify day and the transition from night. Although Hesiod describes them as two distinct deities in the Theogony, they share many similarities. Eos opens the gates to allow her brother Helios to pass through and carry the sun across the sky.   Other Primordials Ananke, the personification of Necessity, above the Moirai, the Fates, by Edmond Lechevallier-Chevignard, 1857. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the centuries following Hesiod’s composition of the Theogony, several additional primordials were introduced, many of which stemmed from the cult of Orphism. Among them are Ananke, the primordial embodiment of inevitability, compulsion, and necessity, and her consort, Chronos, who personifies time. This couple emerged spontaneously at the dawn of the universe as incorporeal, serpentine beings that intertwined, breaking the world egg and giving life to the primordial god Phanes. They organized the cosmos into its various parts and governed the rotation of the heavens and the flow of time.   Ananke is regarded as one of the most powerful and revered beings in the cosmos, as she controls fate and circumstances. She is typically depicted as a matronly, serpentine woman with wings, holding a spindle. Chronos, the primordial being, and Kronos, the Titan, are often conflated into one entity and are considered alternative representations of the same deity that evolved within different cosmological traditions. Chronos is often portrayed as an older man holding a scythe and is the inspiration for the iconic figure of Father Time.   Phanes is another primordial god from the Orphic tradition, embodying creation and procreation. He was considered the first supreme ruler of the cosmos and had a role similar to that of primordial Eros, serving as the spark of creation and new life in the early days of existence. Phanes is often described as a beautiful, androgynous, hermaphroditic entity, featuring golden wings and serpentine characteristics.   Phanes, by Francesco Salviati, 16th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In addition to the more widely recognized primordial beings, there are several lesser-known entities from later traditions. Among these is Hydros, the personification of all water, who mingled with the earth to create the primordial mud from which all life would emerge.   Another is Physis, the personification of nature, commonly associated with Gaia. Additionally, there is Thesis, a primordial goddess linked to the act of creation, known as the mother of creation within the Orphic tradition.   The Nesoi, who personify islands, are considered the female counterparts of the Ourea, whom Poseidon moved into the sea with his trident. Lastly, Thalassa serves as the primary female personification of the sea and stands as the counterpart to Pontus.   In some accounts, the children of Uranus and Gaia, Oceanus and Tethys, are classified as primordial gods. Oceanus and Tethys personified the vast oceans and fresh water, respectively. In most traditions, they are regarded as Titans rather than Protogenoi.

  The Aztec Empire is among the most talked about Mesoamerican societies. The prominent empire spanned between 1325 and 1521 CE and covered a significant portion of the modern-day regions of central and southern Mexico. While historians refer to the inhabitants as the Aztecs, they did not use this term to refer to themselves. Instead, they called themselves the Mexica. That said, the Aztec Empire utilized a mix of military might and diplomatic deliberations to maintain control over its vast territories.   The Rise of the Aztec Empire Celebrations held for the coronation of emperor Moctezuma II of Mexico in the Durán Codex, 1579. Source: Bibliotexa Digital Hispanica   The Aztec Empire rose in 1428 under the leadership of Itzcoatl. This was after the community formed an alliance with the Tacubans and Texcocans to defeat the Tepanecs, their most formidable rivals in the region. Montezuma was Itzcoatl’s successor. He took over leadership in 1440 and was revered as a great warrior. Today, he is widely regarded as the father of the Aztec Empire.    The Aztecs’ expansion model allowed the empire to rule over 500 small states by the early 1500s. Its population is estimated to have been between 5 and 6 million people at its height with Tenochtitlán, its biggest city, having about 140,000 inhabitants. That said, the Aztec civilization also had highly developed social structures. Its society was based on a strict caste system made up of nobles at the top and slaves and serfs at the bottom.   The Aztec Empire and Its Vast Territories Map of Tenochtitlan from Nuremberg. Source: Library of the University of British Columbia   While the Aztec Empire grew due to its conquest of neighboring regions, the expansion came at a cost. This is because the Aztec military gained power by adding men supplied by allied and defeated states. The large numbers of warriors allowed the Aztecs to easily subdue their enemies and gain new territory. With each victory, Aztec rulers demanded payment from defeated populations and took prisoners back to Tenochtitlán to be used as human religious sacrifices. The religious sacrifices angered other tribes and caused numerous uprisings. Although Montezuma squashed many of the rebellions, the constant conflicts weakened the empire.    This problem enabled Spanish invaders led by Hernán Cortes to form partnerships with other native people, most notably the Tlaxcalans, who were enemies of the Aztecs. The Tlaxcalan army contributed to the Aztecs’ downfall by helping Cortes attack the Aztecs.   European Invasion of the Aztec Empire The Meeting of Cortés and Montezuma by Unknown, ca. 1650. Source: The Library of Congress   The first European to visit Mexican territory was Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba. He arrived in Yucatan from Cuba with several ships and about 100 men in early 1517. Cordoba’s accounts of the Aztec region on his return to Cuba are believed to have compelled Diego Velasquez, the Spanish governor, to send a large contingent of soldiers back to Mexico under the command of Hernán Cortes. Subsequently, in March 1519, Cortes arrived at the town of Tabasco with about 500 soldiers. It was while there when he learned from the natives about the great Aztec Empire ruled by Moctezuma II.   After the Spaniards gained the support of the local Indians, Cortes was able to create a base at La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, now Veracruz, Mexico. He then moved west toward the Aztec capital. Initially, the Spaniards were welcomed and met with gifts from Montezuma. However, Cortes’ intention was to take over Tenochtitlán due to its gold and rich economy.   The Empire’s Downfall Artist’s rendering of the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlan, unknown artist, 1900. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Unfortunately for the Aztec people, the Spanish invaders brought with them some deadly diseases when they arrived such as smallpox, and the Aztecs had no resistance to many of the European diseases. As a result, smallpox spread among the indigenous people and with time devastated the population. It is estimated that half of Tenochtitlán’s inhabitants died from the disease.    Illustration of smallpox from Dr. John D. Fisher’s “Description of the Distinct, Confluent, and Inoculated Small Pox, Varioloid Disease, Cox Pox, and Chicken Pox,” 1836. Source: Connecticut Explored or Google Books   As such, when the Spanish first attacked the Aztecs in February 1519 following a series of misunderstandings, the kingdom was greatly weakened. The lack of superior weaponry also contributed to the downfall of the Aztec Empire. While the Aztecs outnumbered the Spaniards, their weapons were no match for Spanish arms. The Spaniards possessed guns and cannons while the Aztec warriors fought using wooden shields, bows, and spears. The situation put the Aztecs at a great disadvantage in times of conflict.   Eventually, Cortes made Montezuma his prisoner and forced him into the role of a puppet king. Montezuma later on died in captivity on June 29, 1520. The Spanish led by Cortes shut down the Aztec resistance on August 13, 1521. About 240,000 people are believed to have died in the Battle of Tenochtitlan which ended the Aztec Empire. After his victory, Cortes burned down Tenochtitlan and built Mexico City where the city once stood.

  Among the kings of England there have been eight Henrys, eight Edwards, and six Georges but there has only ever been one John. His successors did not want to be associated with the stain the name had in the minds of the English people. Considering what the monk Matthew Paris penned (writing decades after John’s death) it is perhaps easy to see why. “Foul as it is, Hell itself is made fouler by the presence of John.” Is this a historical hit job, or was John really that terrible?   Succession Richard I, the Lionheart, King of England, by Merry-Joseph Blondel, 1841 Source: Westminster Abbey   John was never supposed to be king. The youngest son of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine, there were many in front of him in the line of succession to sit on the throne. But, in 1183 Henry “the Young King” died of dysentery. This was followed by his brother Geoffrey dying in 1186. Suddenly, only his brother Richard and his nephew Arthur were ahead of him in line to the throne.   While Richard “The Lionheart” was away crusading, it was an open question of who would succeed him if things went south for the warrior king. Arthur was the son of John’s elder brother Geoffrey and, according to primogeniture inheritance, he had the stronger claim. However, he was still only a young child. The realities of child kingship being what they were, John was able to convince and strong-arm his way to being named as the heir apparent.   Then, on a fateful day in 1199, a crossbow bolt struck down Richard in France. Suddenly, the man who was so far away from the throne for much of his life, found himself being anointed with the holy oil and crowned king of England.   Softsword Arthur I of Britain doing homage to Philip II Augustus of France, 14th century. Source: British Library   John inherited Richard’s war in France against the formidable King Philip II “Augustus.” It is important to remember that at this point England controlled much of the west of modern-day France. It had been a long-term project of Philip Augustus to regain control over the lands he saw as rightly his. However, rather than continue to fight over his French lands, John sought to make peace.   In 1200 the treaty of Le Goulet was signed, bringing an end to the open hostilities between the two realms. The war ended on terms that were seen as more favorable to Philip than they were to John. John received recognition that he was the rightful heir to Richard over Arthur and Philip gained a promise that the traditional Plantagenet policy of encircling France through alliances with neighboring realms would cease and that Philip was formally recognized as the true feudal overlord of John’s French lands.   Signing an unfavorable treaty rather than continuing the war earned John the nickname of “Softsword.” This was a not-so-subtle dig at John’s perceived lack of military prowess but also his masculinity. The medieval world had a much different relationship to war than we do in the modern world but even today leaders can be seen as weak when signing treaties and resolving issues diplomatically.   The Disappearance of Arthur King John hunting, 14th century. Source: The British Library   Arthur led a rebellion against his uncle to press his claim to the throne but was ultimately unsuccessful in his attempt. After his defeat and capture by John, the fate of Arthur of Brittany becomes murky. It is not known for sure what happened to him, but rumors abound that there was foul play.   In the Annales De Margan, John is alleged to have gone to see Arthur after dinner the Thursday before Easter. John had been drinking heavily and was quite drunk. The chronicle is sparse on specific detail but it says that John became possessed by the Devil and slew Arthur with his own hand. Then, he tied a heavy stone to the body and dumped the boy’s body in the Seine River, only for it to be discovered by a fisherman sometime later.   Did this actually happen? The only person who knew for sure was John, and he didn’t write on the matter. However, one can see how it might have occurred. Arthur was a threat to John’s power. He’d already rebelled once and as he had a strong claim to be the rightful heir there was a chance it could happen again. On a more speculative, personal level, Arthur was beloved by the people of Brittany. Perhaps, if John really did drunkenly wander down to Arthur’s cell that fateful night, jealous rage guided his hand rather than the calculated removal of a political rival.   Taxation Battle between Philip II August and John Lackland, 14th century. Source: The British Library   In 1204, after a series of devastating military campaigns by Philip II, John lost control of Normandy, Anjou, and Poitou—the majority of his holdings on the mainland. This was a loss to John’s prestige as well as his treasury. He wanted to regain the rich lands he had lost but war was very expensive and he would need an enormous amount of money to be able to raise the army he needed to do so. After 1204, he turned his royal power toward extracting as much money as possible from his vassals and subjects.   One of the main areas that John had direct control over was royal forests. Use of these required royal approval, and they were governed under forestry law. John hiked up the fees associated with gaining approval to use forest lands and raised the penalties for those caught illegally using the forests to extortionate amounts. One of the reasons that Sherwood Forest plays a large part in the Robin Hood legend is precisely due to the impact of forestry laws on the general population.   Portrait of King John, 1620. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Scutage was a tax that could be levied on nobles and knights as a substitute for military service. John utilized this tax eleven times during his 17-year reign. As a point of comparison, scutage had been utilized only eleven times over the preceding 40 years. The noblemen hated this constant imposition. John’s brother and father had been politically astute enough to know that imposing too many taxes too fast would be counter-productive but John didn’t have the same sense the rest of his family did.   John, still needing more money, imposed a 13% tax on all goods within the country. This was an unprecedented expansion of royal power. Never before in English history had a king imposed a tax on nobles and commoners alike. The burden of taxation created a simmering resentment against the king across the land.   Papal Sanctions Pope Innocent III, 13th century fresco, photo by Carlo Raso. Source: Flickr   John continued to make everyone who mattered angry at him when the Archbishop of Canterbury died in 1205. John’s preferred candidate was loyal to him, but word came from Pope Innocent III in Rome that Stephen Langton was to be appointed to the archbishop’s throne in Canterbury. Like many secular rulers in the Middle Ages before and after him, John bristled at being told who to appoint to such an important position and he refused.   Unfortunately for John, Innocent III was perhaps one of the most formidable occupants of the chair of St Peter in the long history of the Papacy. The project of his pontificate was to increase his control over all aspects of the Church and to place popes firmly above kings in the power structure of the medieval world. Innocent would not tolerate such insolence from John, and in retaliation, he not only excommunicated the king but placed the entirety of England under Interdict.   As long as the interdict remained in effect John’s subjects could not attend mass, could not receive sacraments, and could not bury their dead in churchyards. Services deemed absolutely essential such as baptism and the last rites for the dying were permitted but the greatly reduced spiritual life of England would have been keenly felt by those affected.   In this calamity though, John saw opportunity. Like a 13th-century Henry VIII, he confiscated vast sums of wealth from the churches that sat empty and unused, infuriating priests and monks. When John finally relented and submitted to papal authority, six long years had passed.   Magna Carta The Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties), 1215. Source: The British Library   After years of ruinous taxation, John finally had enough money to launch a campaign to retake the lands he lost in 1204. However, disaster struck when he suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214. Following the defeat, the nobility of England had had enough of John. He had nothing to show for his trampling of feudal custom in his quest for more money. In 1215 the barons demanded that John sign a document known as Magna Carta (Great Charter in Latin) that would reign in his power.   The Magna Carta is remembered today for clauses 39 and 40.   “(39) No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, or stripped of his rights or possessions, or outlawed or exiled, or deprived of his standing in any way, nor will we proceed with force against him, or send others to do so, except by the lawful judgment of his equals or by the law of the land.   (40) To no one will we sell, to no one deny or delay right or justice.”   However, much of the rest of the document is related more to protection of feudal rights from royal overreach than lofty ideals about justice and the rule of law. Those drawing up the Magna Carta were concerned with protecting themselves from John’s tyrannical rule.   When John immediately wriggled out of having to obey the Magna Carta thanks to intervention from, of all people, Pope Innocent III, the barons rose up in rebellion against John. They went so far as to invite the French prince Louis to land in England and take the throne for himself.   John’s reign ended in the midst of that catastrophic rebellion. In 1216 John died of dysentery, putting an end to 13 years of turmoil. He was succeeded by his nine-year-old son Henry.   The Verdict Herbert Beerbhom Tree as King John, by Charles A Buchel, 1900. Source: The Folger Shakespeare Library   When looking at a historical figure that is almost universally reviled, it is always good to examine the bias of the sources. During the Medieval Period, much of the history was written by churchmen, which can be problematic for historians when the subject they were writing about was actively hostile to the Church. It can be argued that John’s terrible reputation is due in large part to his six-year feud with the pope, leaving the Church in England reeling and much of their wealth confiscated.   While there may be an argument for exaggerations of John’s own personal moral failings, it is hard to look at the objective facts of John’s reign and come to a conclusion other than that he was a bad king. He managed not only to lose a huge chunk of his land to the French but was then so egregious in his collection of taxes that his own nobles preferred to invite a foreign prince to take his throne rather than suffer his incompetence and tyranny any longer.   Being a medieval king was a delicate balancing act. Kings had to weigh their own needs against the needs of their nobility, the clergy, other royal houses, and even other members of their own families. It was a difficult job at the best of times. John certainly found himself up against some of the toughest challenges the Medieval Period could throw at a monarch, and he was found wanting.   “Bad” King John certainly seems to deserve the moniker. He proves that one does not need to be great to change history. Monumental incompetence can be just as powerful a force for change.