The Sengoku Jidai was by far the most turbulent period in Japanese history. The country was split into dozens of separate domains. Various daimyo had their own ideas on how to rule the country and were willing to wage war for it. Some, like Hattori Hanzo Masanari, would be in command of shinobi and would help the up-and-coming Tokugawa clan to stabilize the chaos of the time. His skill and the exploits associated with the shinobi made him the subject of hundreds of stories and rumors. So who was the real Hattori Hanzo and why was he such an influential figure in history?   Iga: Home of the Hattori Iga: Sixty-Odd Provinces, by Utagawa Hiroshige, 1853. Source: Ukiyo-e.org   The Hattori historically made their home in Iga province, an especially mountainous and forested expanse of land that was often difficult for larger armies to traverse. Therefore, Iga was an almost independent province. As a loose confederation of peasants, the province was considered a threat by its neighbors who felt it might give rise to widespread unrest similar to how the Ikko-ikki were operating, possibly undermining samurai rule.   The relative inaccessibility of Iga allowed the ninjas to have bases of operation and training there; many hidden forest and mountain communities served this purpose. Some samurai, in an effort to increase their effectiveness for their daimyo, sought training (or were ordered to seek training) in the arts of ninjutsu. This leads us to Hattori Hanzo Masanari, the archetypal shinobi-samurai hybrid.   Hattori Hanzo’s Training Ninja, by Utagawa Kunisada, 1830. Source: Ukiyo-e.org   Although Hattori Hanzo was trained in the conventional fighting arts of the samurai (fencing, archery, horseback riding, etc.) during his ample time in Iga, he picked up some more unconventional tactics, such as nighttime movement, guerilla tactics, and espionage. He would use these tactics, as well as his knowledge of Iga’s terrain, to help Tokugawa Ieyasu on several occasions.   When Hattori Hanzo was young, he trained and studied at a Jodo Shinsu (True Pure Land) Buddhist temple. There is little historical evidence to show exactly who trained Hanzo (various fanciful accounts describe him as being taught by tengu, or mountain spirits), but this is a situation that happens frequently in Japanese martial arts folklore. Rather than being seen as deviating from the social norms of the time, many teachers who developed tactics out of the ordinary passed their knowledge off as being divinely inspired, lending an air of legitimacy, especially if they went into seclusion to hone their skills.   Hostage Rescue at Kaminogo and Servitude to the Tokugawa Tokugawa Ieyasu, by Kano Tan Yu, early Edo Period. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Hattori clan hailed from Iga, their ancestral lands but during the time of Hattori Hanzo’s lifespan, they lived in Mikawa, serving as retainers to the Tokugawa—formerly called the Matsudaira—clan. One of the first actions that earned him the trust of Tokugawa Ieyasu was his valor at the Siege of Kaminogo Castle.   At the time, the Tokugawa clan was under the control of the Imagawa clan, though with their defeat at the hands of Oda Nobunaga at Okehazama, they were significantly weakened. To secure the Matsudaira clan’s allegiance, they took several daughters and other family members hostage.   Hanzo took a small group of Iga ninjas and obtained clothing to match the uniforms of the guards at the gate, bearing a lantern with the mon (clan symbol) of the occupying general, Udono Nagateru, who was a vassal of the newly-fractured Imagawa. The guards, rather than verifying the identity of the men, allowed Hanzo and his group through the castle gates, where they spread out and started small fires, which quickly spread.   Most Japanese buildings were made of wood, which meant that any fires had to be put out as soon as possible. During the confusion, Hanzo’s group was able to locate and escort the hostages to safety, helping to free Tokugawa from the demands of the Imagawa.   Anegawa and Mikatagahara Battle of Mikatagahara, by Toyohara Chikanobu, 1886. Source: Ukiyo-e.org.   Hanzo, as mentioned, was a samurai who fought in several open battles, the most famous of which were Anegawa and Mikatagahara. These two battles are known for having helped Tokugawa solidify his power base. The Battle of Anegawa marked the first time that the two daimyo had fought alongside one another. Tokugawa had always been known as a patient commander; he almost never committed his forces fully as some of his contemporaries did. Tokugawa did not enter the battle until later because it was speculated that Hanzo was attempting to scout a clear route for the advance of the army. It is said that he fought valiantly to keep Ieyasu alive.   The Battle of Mikatagahara in 1573 saw a decisive defeat for Ieyasu at the hands of Takeda Shingen. Takeda’s forces converged upon Ieyasu’s position, and he was forced to retreat to Hamamatsu Castle and endure a siege. Hattori Hanzo once again demonstrated his penchant for nighttime attacks, taking a force of 30 Iga shinobi (ninja) and harassing the advancing Takeda forces using guerilla tactics and delaying their advance.   Hanzo’s exploits, many of which are mentioned in the Kansei Choshu Shokafu revolved around asymmetrical warfare, and many of his supposed supernatural powers were the result of clever misdirection and striking at the opportune time. As it stood, Hanzo’s actions were able to give Tokugawa the advantage against numerically superior forces.   Escort to Mikawa Iga no Yuki (Snow of Iga), by Nishijima Katsuyuki. Source: Ukiyo-e   Hanzo’s most well-known and arguably most important service to Ieyasu took place after the assassination of Oda Nobunaga at the hands of Akechi Mitsuhide. In 1582, at Honno-ji, Mitsuhide launched an attack as vengeance for Nobunaga’s massacre of the Buddhist population, and Nobunaga retired to a back room of the temple to commit seppuku. Mitsuhide’s plan was to then eradicate Nobunaga’s surviving supporters.   At the time, Ieyasu was in Sakai province with a small group of companions, Hanzo among them, dangerously close to Mitsuhide’s position. Rather than face capture and likely execution, he chose to retreat to his home province of Mikawa.   Because of how quickly they needed to act, Hanzo suggested that the group travel through Iga. It was the shortest path to Mikawa, but fraught with peril. The Iga had been the target of one of Nobunaga’s purges and were hostile to any outsiders for the most part. So-called “samurai hunting gangs” or ochimusha-gari took refuge in the forests and mountains, waylaying any samurai they encountered, taking their gear, and killing them.   Hanzo and a small group of Iga men loyal to him escorted the Tokugawa retinue through the mountain passes of Iga up to the borders of Mikawa. Hanzo would serve Ieyasu in several other important engagements, including the Siege of Odawara against the Hojo and the Battle of Nagakute against Toyotomi Hideyoshi.   Shinobi no Hiden, Hanzo’s Manual of Ninjutsu Sketch of Ninja Climbing Down Rope, Hokusai-Katsushika, 1817. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Although ninjutsu is a secretive art, to say the least, there are three comprehensive manuals on their various teachings and experiences: Bansenshukai, Shoninki, and Shinobi no Hiden. The last one was written by someone named Hattori Hanzo. Separated into five volumes, it has varying dates of commonly accepted authorship, but the most commonly accepted one is sometime in 1560. Hanzo Masanari would have been studying ninjutsu and in the thick of fighting battles for the then-Matsudaira at this time, around the age of 18. However, because the Hattori clan passed the name “Hanzo” down, it is likely equally to have been penned by his father Hattori Yasunaga.   The first volume is an introduction, listing an account of how the shinobi originated in China and later came to Japan, along with a list of tools and techniques, but no elaboration. The second volume contains illustrations of shinobi tools such as fire-carrying devices, lockpicks, and even a diagram for a primitive diving helmet, but there is no documented use of the last.   The third volume explains the use of the various tools and the fourth volume deals with the more social aspects of infiltration, or the yo-nin skillset such as finding potential informants. Finally, the fifth volume tells what skills shinobi should practice in peace and in war.   The Fate of Hattori Hanzo Sainen-ji, the Burial Site of Hattori Hanzo. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Hattori Hanzo Masanari led a life shrouded in secrecy and intrigue befitting a legendary shinobi–trained general. The exact circumstances of his death are also heavily disputed with some saying that he died in a naval battle at the hands of rival shinobi clan leader Fuuma Kotaro. Although the Fuuma shinobi were experts in naval tactics, the anecdotal tales tell that there was a battle between the two in the Seto Inland Sea.   However, Hanzo at the time was said to have been living a monastic life at Sainen-ji. The temple, located in Tokyo, was one he had built to honor the memory of Ieyasu’s son Nobuyasu, who had been ordered to commit seppuku by Ieyasu as a show of loyalty to Oda Nobunaga.   Hanzo is said to have died in 1597 at the age of 54 from illness, but no public sources specify the nature of that illness. The Iga shinobi who served under Hanzo were appointed as the guardians of Edo Castle, where the Tokugawa shogunate was headquartered and later became the capital of the country. Hanzo himself was buried at Sainenji.

  In an age when the exercise of power was largely personal rather than corporate, the machinations of and rivalry between three great monarchs (Charles V, Henry VIII, Francis I) could and did have an enormous impact on the events of the time. Nearly every war, alliance, scandal, or land swap that occurred in Western Europe in the first half of the 16th century involved some combination of these three men. Here we will take a look at a few of these interactions.   Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain Charles V at Muhlberg, by Titian, 1548. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Born in 1500 to Philip “the Handsome” and Joanna “the Mad,” Charles V would grow up to inherit a vast and diverse congeries of land, unparalleled in European history, including the Netherlands, Spain, various territories in Italy, and the Spanish colonies in the Americas.   After being elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1519 (the votes for which cost him a staggering amount of money), he controlled lands and resources on a scale far beyond any other monarch in Europe, perhaps rivalled only by the Ottoman sultan. However, these far-flung holdings involved him in nearly every political situation that developed in Europe during his reign, and his machinations involved nearly every other ruler of the age on some level.   His main rival was Francis I of France, against whom he fought in Italy during the Italian Wars and elsewhere. He had no scruples about allying with Henry VIII of England against France or thwarting Henry’s ambitions as it suited his needs. But despite the seemingly endless political intrigues in which he was engaged, Charles always saw himself as the rightful defender of Christian Europe, whether against heretic Protestants or the infidel Ottomans.   Charles and Henry Sack of Rome in 1527, by Johannes Lingelbach, 17th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In August 1521, just over a year after Henry VIII and Francis I had so grandiosely expressed their eternal amity at the Field of the Cloth of Gold (see below), Charles V and Henry VIII signed a secret anti-French alliance known as the Treaty of Bruges. The terms of this agreement required Charles and Henry to commit significant military forces, both on land and at sea, to a joint attack on Francis I no later than 1523. To further cement the alliance, Charles was to marry Henry’s daughter, Mary (as this did not come to pass, however, Charles’s son Philip eventually did marry Mary).   Although England did engage in some small-scale military activity in France, the joint invasion never came to fruition. After France was soundly defeated at the Battle of Pavia in 1525 and Francis found himself the prisoner of Charles (see below), Henry became worried about Charles’s seemingly unstoppable successes. The balance of power was becoming unbalanced. After Francis’s release from imprisonment under the terms of the Treaty of Madrid (1526), he quickly set about forming an alliance against Charles, which became known as the League of Cognac.   Although Henry did not join the League, he did give it his tacit approval and went on to formally ally with France against Charles after the sack of Rome by Imperial troops in 1527. The back-and-forth nature of these machinations would characterize relations between Charles V and Henry VIII throughout their reigns.   Charles and Francis The Battle of Mohacs 1526, Bertalan Szekely, 1866. Source: Hungarian National Gallery   In September 1544, after a joint assault on France by Charles V and Henry VIII (they were once again on good terms), the Treaty of Crépy was signed by Franis I and Charles V. Francis agreed to vast territorial concessions, but Charles also agreed to return the significant gains he had made on French soil.   One might ask why Charles, after decades of intermittent warfare against Francis, would give up such prizes. However, Charles, consistent with his self-image as protector of Christendom, had a two-fold purpose in agreeing to the treaty. Firstly, he sought to unite the Christian kingdoms of Europe against the growing power of the Ottomans, who had been steadily advancing in Hungary (especially after the Battle of Mohacs in 1526) and the Balkans. A weakened and hostile France could not be counted on for support against the Ottoman Empire.   Secondly, peace with France freed Charles’s hands to deal with the spread of Protestantism in his German-speaking lands (Protestantism had never spread very widely in Spain). In the treaty, Francis also agreed to aid Charles in the suppression of heresy. This suited Francis as well, as Protestantism, especially Calvinism, was already making serious inroads in predominantly Catholic France. Thus, Charles found ways of dealing with Francis which, at least theoretically, balanced his various interests and ambitions.   Francis I, King of France Portrait of Francis I, King of France, by Jean Clouet, 1525-30. Source: RKD Images   Francis I, cousin of the previous king, Louis XIII, ascended to the throne of France in 1515, at the age of 21. Before Charles V accumulated his vast territories in the following years, Francis could rightly claim to be king of the most powerful realm in western Europe. A military man of action with a head full of chivalric ideals, he enthusiastically dove into the Italian Wars, which had raged intermittently since 1494, winning a stunning victory at Marignano in his first year on the throne. However, he could also be quite Machiavellian, as evinced by his scandalous alliance with the Ottoman Turks, when he went so far as to allow an Ottoman fleet to use a French port.   Francis’s primary enemy throughout his reign was Charles V, whose lands nearly surrounded France. But he could never ignore the threat from the north either, as Henry VIII of England saw Francis as his primary enemy.   Francis and Henry Mary Queen of Scots, 1542-1587, ca. 1610-1615. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As was the case with several of his royal forbears, one of Francis I’s main strategies for dealing with England was to force the English to look both south and north by allying with and supporting Scotland, England’s traditional enemy. This was accomplished primarily through marriage alliances revolving around the powerful Guise family.   In 1537, Mary of Lorraine (Guise) married King James V of Scotland, tying Scotland closer to France. Their child, Mary (“Queen of Scots”), inherited the Scottish crown, making her an extremely valuable asset to both Francis I and Henry VIII. The Treaty of Greenwich (1543) between England and Scotland stipulated that Mary would marry Henry’s son Edward. However, when the Scots repudiated this agreement, it led to England laying waste to the lowlands in what became known as “The Rough Wooing.”   Mary was eventually brought to France, where she was raised at court, marrying Francis I’s grandson, Francis, who became King Francis II in 1559, making Mary queen of both Scotland and France. Francis’s plans to bring France and Scotland into a lasting alliance ultimately came to naught, as Francis II lived less than a year as king, and upon her return to Scotland, Mary wasted little time in alienating her subjects, ultimately resulting in her flight to and imprisonment in England.   Francis and Charles Battle of Pavia, after 1525. Source: RKD Images   At the Battle of Pavia in 1525, France suffered perhaps its worst defeat since the Battle of Agincourt over 100 years earlier. This was another battle in what came to be known as the Italian Wars (1494-1559), which were fought primarily between the French Valois dynasty and the German/Spanish Habsburg dynasty.   The Battle of Pavia was particularly disastrous for the French—beyond the sheer loss of life, including many nobles—because Francis I himself was taken prisoner. Initially imprisoned in Italy, he was eventually transferred to Spain, where Charles V pressured him to accept crippling terms in order to secure his release. Ultimately, Francis agreed to Charles’s terms in the Treaty of Madrid in January 1526. France was to renounce its claim to various lands, especially in Burgundy, as well as a slew of other stipulations. To guarantee Francis’s good faith, two of his sons would be held captive by Charles V until the treaty was ratified in France.   However, upon returning to France, Francis wasted no time in repudiating the terms, leading to the absurd situation wherein Emperor Charles actually challenged Francis to a duel as a matter of honor. By releasing Francis before the terms of the treaty were fulfilled, Charles missed an opportunity to perhaps bring the Italian Wars to a much earlier conclusion. But one of Francis’s sons, the future King Henry II, never forgot his time as Charles’s prisoner and bore a grudge until the emperor’s death.   Henry VIII, King of England Portrait of Henry VIII of England, by Joos van Cleeve, ca. 1532-1535. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Although associated in the popular imagination mostly with his six wives and their varying fates, there is much more to the story of Henry VIII. Neither destined nor educated to be king (his brother Arthur was heir to the throne until his untimely death in 1502), Henry VIII succeeded to the English throne in April of 1509, becoming only the second king of the Tudor Dynasty, created after Henry’s father, Henry VII, defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth and subsequently married Elizabeth of York, thus uniting the houses of York and Lancaster and (it was intended) ending the Wars of the Roses.   Henry VIII was aware, as was his father, that the Tudor Dynasty was still on shaky ground and that at any moment another claimant to the throne could appear and launch a campaign to usurp the kingship. He was also aware that of the three great monarchs of the time, he ruled over the weakest kingdom, and thus strove to strengthen England (especially its navy) and to insert himself, often as a sort of wild card, into the power politics of the continent.   Henry and Francis The Field of the Cloth of Gold, Unknown artist (British School), ca. 1545. Source: The Royal Collection   By far the most famous event involving Henry VIII and Francis I has gone down in history as the Field of the Cloth of Gold. For over two weeks in June of 1520, Henry and Francis, as well as most of their courts, met at a field outside of Calais for an unthinkably expensive series of tournaments, banquets, and entertainment, intended by both monarchs to overawe and impress the other with their magnificence. The number of tents bedecked with cloth of gold gave the event its name, and also gives an idea of its lavishness.   The two kings sought to outdo each other in chivalric courtesy, gift-giving, praising each other’s qualities, and generally showing off their extreme wealth. Promises were made of eternal amity between the two, even though Henry was already negotiating an alliance with Charles V—the archenemy of Francis—and Francis was already scheming to renew and strengthen the “auld alliance” between France and Scotland—Henry’s enemy to the north.   In less than two years, England and France were once again at war, but the legendary extravagance of the Field of the Cloth of Gold is remembered as one of the most iconic events of the 16th century.   Henry and Charles Portrait of Katherine of Aragon, ca. 1520. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Although Henry VIII played no role in the Imperial sack of Rome in 1527, the event had indirect but serious repercussions for England. The unplanned attack on Rome by Charles V’s army put Pope Clement VII firmly under the power and influence of Charles. The timing of this could not have been worse for Henry, who soon sought a way to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon, so that he could marry his new favorite, Anne Boleyn. Only the pope could grant such a dispensation (which was not unheard of). However, Catharine of Aragon was the aunt of Charles V and, not wanting to see his aunt abandoned and also not wanting to offend his Spanish subjects, Charles used his influence over Pope Clement VII to ensure that the divorce did not occur.   With no option left within the church, Henry took the drastic step of separating England from Rome, thus securing his much-desired divorce and laying the foundations for the autonomous Church of England. Thus Charles V was unintentionally a major contributor to Henry’s break from Rome (which would have horrified Charles if he could have seen the future).   Impact on the Rest of the 16th Century The Empire of Charles V, c. 1544. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The political maneuverings of Charles V, Francis I, and Henry VIII set the stage for the second half of the 16th century. Francis I and Henry VIII both died in 1547, and Charles V died in 1558 after abdicating in 1556. The Italian Wars, which had consumed so much of Charles’s and Francis’s time and resources, finally came to an end with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559. When Charles abdicated in 1556, his lands and titles were divided between his son, who became King Philip II of Spain, and his brother Ferdinand, who became Holy Roman Emperor.   France would be plagued by religious strife for much of the rest of the century. After Henry VIII’s death, England had its own share of religious strife as the pendulum between Catholicism and Protestantism swung back and forth during the short-lived reigns of Mary I (“Bloody Mary”) and Edward VI, before stability was gradually reestablished during the reign of Elizabeth I.   The pattern of secret treaties and shifting alliances that typified the era of Charles V, Francis I, and Henry VIII would continue throughout the 16th century and into the next, right up until 1618 and the outbreak of the Thirty Years War, which would drastically reshape the European political landscape.

  The Celtic Revival, which began in 19th-century Ireland, was a resurgence of popular interest in a variety of Celtic and medieval Irish traditions, including art, language, and mythology. The movement held great significance for Irish art history and archaeology, as well as for the preservation of the Gaelic language. Renewed interest in Ireland’s past during this period was a direct catalyst for the reintroduction of Gaelige (Irish language) in primary and secondary school curricula in the Republic of Ireland. But what exactly happened during the Celtic Revival, and why?   When Was the Celtic Revival? The Riders of the Sidhe, by John Duncan, 1911. Source: Dundee Art Galleries and Museum Collection   The Celtic Revival took place during the 19th and 20th centuries. The various movements that made up the Revival took place primarily in Ireland. However, there was also significant interest in the Celtic Revival in England, particularly among the English aristocracy.   The Celtic Revival and interest in Britain and Ireland’s pagan past had precedent as early as the 12th century. This is when Geoffrey of Monmouth, a medieval Welsh cleric famous for his contributions to British historiography and the development of the tales of King Arthur, wrote his History of the Kings of Britain. This text, though largely inaccurate, traced Britain’s “noble and glorious” roots to the pagan Bronze Age.   Scholarly interest in the Celtic past began to pick up in the 16th and 17th centuries with the publishing of George Buchanan’s Rerum Scoticarum Historia and William Camden’s Britannia, as well as the emergence of visual depictions of Britain’s ancient people by John White and Theodor de Bry. An increase in archaeological excavations and inquiry took place in Britain in the 18th century, and this interest spread to Ireland by the early to mid-19th century.   Political Conditions Surrounding the Celtic Revival Seachtmhain na Gaedhilge, broadside poster by Frances Georgiana and Chenevix Trench, 1913, Dublin, Ireland. Source: National Library of Ireland   While the Celtic Revival had a great influence on art and literature, it was also a politically charged nationalist movement. The 19th century has often been called “the age of nationalism.” Inspired by the French Revolution, many countries, particularly in Europe, underwent nationalist movements that emphasized looking back to the past, the pursuit of and return to the nation’s “roots,” independence, and self-government in accordance with the way ancestors governed themselves.   One reason that the Celtic Revival took root so strongly in Ireland was because of the country’s history of being subjugated under British rule. England first invaded Ireland in 1169, and by the early 18th century, nearly a third of Ireland’s population were either immigrants or their descendants. English colonists brought the English language, fashions, and commercialism to Ireland, whilst simultaneously outlawing Irish language, dress, and agricultural, social, and cultural practices. At the same time, the Irish people were subject to racism and dehumanization in British media during this period.   It should be noted that Ireland did not gain independence from Britain until 1921, when the Anglo-Irish treaty split Ireland into the sovereign Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, which is retained by the United Kingdom.   The rediscovery of art and other traces of Ireland’s Celtic and early medieval past, which was considered a “golden age” of their history when Ireland was ruled by its legendary High Kings, was, therefore, very attractive for 19th-century Irish historians, archaeologists, and antiquarians. These discoveries aided in the development of Irish historiography, which emphasized a return to Irish traditions that had been wiped out by British colonization and occupation.   However, the aristocracy and upper class in Victorian England, particularly Queen Victoria, took an interest in the archaeological discoveries coming out of Ireland and popularized wearing reproductions of the art. Why? As discussed above, British historiographers had a long history of assimilating a Celtic past into their own roots, as there were several Celtic tribes that lived in Britain. The Celts, their customs, art styles, and religious practices, were also fundamentally seen as a part of Britain’s history. Therefore, as important as the Celtic Revival movement was for Irish history and culture, the rediscovery and reproduction of these objects were popularized in Britain for very different reasons.   Art During the Celtic Revival Reproduction of the Ardagh Chalice, c. early 20th century, Ireland. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   A major aspect of the Celtic Revival movement was art production. Two major trends in artmaking during this period were reproductions, which were objects designed to look like the early medieval artworks rediscovered through archaeological excavations, and art inspired by Celtic history, mythology, and symbolism. Some of the most famous direct reproductions of early medieval art during the Celtic Revival include copies of the 8th-century Tara Brooch and copies of the Ardagh Chalice, believed to have been made during the 8th or 9th century.   The Tara Brooch, c. 7th/8th century CE, County Meath, Ireland. Source: National Museum of Ireland   The Tara Brooch and its reproductions encapsulate the spirit and nationalist fervor of the Celtic Revival movement. Its discovery acted as a partial catalyst for the movement in Ireland. A woman and her child discovered it on a beach in Bettystown, County Meath, in 1850. They brought it to Dublin jeweler George Waterhouse, who gave it the name “Tara” after the Hill of Tara, the legendary seat of the High Kings of Ireland, tapping into a mythologized aspect of Ireland’s past. He then began to produce reproductions of the brooch, which were sold amongst elite members of Irish and British society. Queen Victoria owned multiple Tara Brooch reproductions, and the wearing of such brooches became a fashion trend in Victorian England.   Tara Brooch Reproduction, by Waterhouse & Co., 1851, Dublin, Ireland. Source: Victoria & Albert Museum   Artworks inspired by the pagan Celtic past include John Duncan’s The Riders of the Sidhe (1911) and George Henry and Edward Atkinson Hornel’s The Druids: Bringing in the Mistletoe (1890). Paintings like these played into the Revival’s Romantic reconstruction of the ancient past, utilizing a color palette reminiscent of medieval insular manuscripts and recognizable iconography such as serpentine imagery and spiraling triskele symbols from Celtic art. These paintings mythologize the past, depicting it as an ethereal time filled with magic and glory.   Literature During the Celtic Revival The Druids: Bringing in the Mistletoe, by George Henry and Edward Atkinson Hornel, 1890. Source: Glasgow Life Museums   Another important aspect of the Celtic Revival was the literature produced in Ireland. Celtic Revival literature is notable for its references to Gaelic history and folklore. The most notable literary figure from the Celtic Revival and a huge contributor to the movement as a whole was William Butler Yeats. Popularly known as W.B. Yeats, his 1893 work The Celtic Twilight, which gave the Revival its nickname, was a collection of lore and reminiscences from the west of Ireland. Some of his most famous poems include The Second Coming, The Lake Isle of Innisfree, and Easter, 1916. In 1892, Yeats established both the Irish Literary Society in London and the National Literary Society in Dublin.   Some of Yeats’ contemporaries include Douglas Hyde, John Millington Synge, and George William Russell. Yeats, alongside Lady Gregory and Edward Martyn, also made strides in establishing a national theatre for Ireland in 1899 with the founding of the Irish Literary Theatre. In 1903 Yeats, Lady Gregory, Russell, Martyn, and Synge collaborated in founding the Irish National Theatre Society, which coalesced in the establishment of the Abbey Theatre the following year. The Abbey Theatre remains an important cultural institution in Ireland today.   The Great Exhibition of 1851 Interior of the Crystal Palace during the Great Exhibition of 1851, London, England. Source: Historic UK   Coinciding with the nationalist fervor that swept Europe during the 19th century, Prince Albert, along with public record keeper Henry Cole, organized the world’s first international exhibition. The Great Exhibition of Products of Industry of All Nations, often abbreviated as the Great Exhibition or London’s Great Exhibition, was held at Joseph Paxton’s Crystal Palace in Hyde Park in the summer of 1851. The Crystal Palace was an architectural feat and offered 990,000 square feet of exhibition space. The event ran from May to October of that year and saw around six million visitors.   The Great Exhibition was meant to celebrate world industry, showcasing works from all over the world. The exhibits included artwork, ironwork, furniture, firearms, steam hammers, hydraulic presses, and more. However, the Great Exhibition ended up placing far more of an emphasis on British manufacturing, as more than 100,000 of the exhibits were from Britain or the British Empire.   With the onset of archaeological discoveries and the incorporation of Celtic Revival styles in fashion and jewelry, furniture, and more at the time, the Revival movement was represented at the Crystal Palace. The Tara Brooch and several Waterhouse reproductions were exhibited there, alongside other key objects. The Great Exhibition prompted a slew of World’s Fairs throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, and Celtic Revival objects were similarly represented at the Great Exhibition in Dublin in 1853. With her interest in brooch reproductions already established, Queen Victoria was presented with a copy of the 9th-century Cavan Brooch, the “Queen’s Brooch,” at the Dublin Exhibition.   These exhibitions were highly impactful for the artists and antiquarians who attended them. The influence of the exhibition of Celtic and early medieval antiquities soon became evident, particularly in Irish sculpture.   Cultural Impact of the Celtic Revival Stained glass window at St. Cathal Cathedral, c. 19th century, Lismore, County Waterford, Ireland. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While the Celtic Revival thrived during the 19th and 20th centuries, its impact had a long tail, reverberating into modern-day popular perceptions of the Celtic and medieval periods. Modern interest in using Celtic imagery to speak to Irish ancestral ties through tattooing is one such example.   The movement certainly had its most significant impact in Ireland, where the reintroduction of the Irish language into school curricula revitalized the language’s use after it had been forced out under British rule. According to the 2022 census in Ireland, approximately 40% of the population over the age of three say that they can speak Irish. The Celtic Revival as it took place in Ireland, in short, led to a reclamation of an Irish past that had been partially lost after centuries of conquest and colonization.   Boadicea and Her Daughters, by Thomas Thornycroft, 1893, London, England. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Revival’s impact was also felt in Britain, as it led to the integration of ancient Celtic history into more popularly accepted versions of Britain’s past, as well as the introduction and valorization of Celtic figures like Boudica as national heroes. There, the movement added to a complex project of British historiographic work that had roots as far back as the medieval period. The Celtic Revival, therefore, had a strong hand in Irish and British nationalism and shaped modern Irish and British perceptions of their historical roots.

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