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The World Health Organization (WHO) has published a new report that provides‚ for the first time‚ a unified definition of what it means when a disease is spread through the air. The WHO worked with four major global health agencies in consultation with dozens of individual experts to compile the report‚ which should help avoid a situation like we had at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic‚ with fraught arguments over terminology.What we mean when we say “airborne”To most people‚ labeling a disease “airborne” would simply mean that you can catch it through the air. But this seemingly straightforward concept has been the subject of a lot of discussion and debate over the years‚ not least in the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic. The problem stems from the fact that there are a couple of different ways that diseases can spread through the air.In the past‚ a distinction was made between two types of airborne particles. “Respiratory droplets” generally referred to the larger particles that are expelled when an infected person coughs‚ breaths‚ sneezes‚ or even just talks. These particles may be breathed in if you have close contact with an infected person‚ or can fall onto and contaminate surfaces. “Aerosols”‚ on the other hand‚ were understood to be smaller – under 5 micrometers in size – and thus stay suspended in the air for longer‚ traveling greater distances. When COVID arrived‚ there was a race to understand the main ways in which the disease was spread‚ so that public health advice could be targeted effectively. Recommendations like the 2-meter or 6-feet rule for social distancing‚ and advice about handwashing and sanitizing‚ make a lot of sense when you’re talking about a disease spread mainly via droplets. But if COVID had the potential to linger as aerosols‚ ventilation‚ air filtration‚ and mask-wearing might be more sensible priorities.What followed‚ as recalled by WHO Chief Scientist Dr Jeremy Farrar in a recent press conference‚ was a highly charged debate on whether to categorize COVID-19 as truly “airborne” under the old definitions. In July 2020‚ the WHO acknowledged for the first time that COVID could spread via droplets. But that was only after a group of experts in aerosol science publicly complained that the agency’s unwillingness to explore the possibility of aerosol transmission was putting people at unnecessary risk. The next few years saw bitter disagreements around mask mandates and continued emphasis on handwashing‚ arguments over what types of masks are best‚ and grassroots campaigns to provide DIY air filters – known as Corsi-Rosenthal boxes – to schools and businesses‚ although some questions remain about the utility of home air purification devices. New definitionsAlmost four years on‚ it’s now clear that COVID-19 particles can spread for much greater distances than many initially realized‚ fitting the traditional definition for aerosol transmission. To avoid the same level of confusion and potential public health risks next time around‚ the WHO began a far-reaching consultation in 2021‚ leading to the new report. It recommends that all respiratory droplets‚ regardless of size‚ be hereafter referred to as “infectious respiratory particles” or IRPs. A disease may now be said to spread “through the air” when its main mode of transmission relies on IRPs.One of two clarifying descriptors can then be applied.Airborne transmission or inhalation is when IRPs travel any distance and are breathed in by another person. This is affected by factors like air temperature‚ humidity‚ and ventilation.Direct deposition is when IRPs expelled by an infected person end up directly on the exposed mouth‚ nose‚ or eyes of a nearby person and can enter their body.  So from now on‚ there'll be no nitpicking about the size of the particles. It’s hoped that this change will bring “airborne” more into line with similar terms that are widely understood by the public‚ like “waterborne” and “bloodborne”. In the press conference‚ Farrar described this current point as “base camp” and explained that the next crucial steps will be for all the bodies involved in the consultation to move forward as one‚ conducting research that will help us better respond to future airborne pathogens in light of this new‚ shared understanding. You can read the full report here. 

NASA’s Juno has recently performed some extremely close flybys of Io‚ the innermost of the four Galilean moons of Jupiter. The natural satellite is the most geologically active body in the Solar System‚ featuring 400 active volcanoes. Members of the Juno team have used data from recent encounters to reconstruct some intriguing features on the surface of Io.Meet Loki Patera‚ the largest volcanic depression on Io. It is an enormous lava lake. On Earth‚ it would be the 13th largest lake in the world. In the middle of the lake‚ there is an island rising from the surface. That in itself is extreme but it’s not even the weirdest feature of the lake. Io is a volcanic hellscape but it has such a thin atmosphere that not even the lava can keep the place warm. The moon’s surface temperature is well below the freezing point of water – cold enough for the sulfur dioxide erupted in its volcanos to snow back down onto the moon. So the lake’s surface alternates between being liquid and being solid. And insights into the solid state came directly from Juno.Unlike the way we often picture lava to solidify on Earth‚ the surface of Loki Patera is not a grizzled black rock. It is as smooth as glass‚ so more like obsidian‚ another volcanic mineral. And the whole surface of the planet might be equally smooth. It is certainly smoother than the other large moons of Jupiter with their cracked icy surfaces.  However‚ there are some outlying features‚ quite literally in the case of the so-called Steeple Mountain. “Io is simply littered with volcanoes‚ and we caught a few of them in action‚” Juno’s principal investigator Scott Bolton said in a statement. “We also got some great close-ups and other data on a 200-kilometer-long (127-mile-long) lava lake called Loki Patera. There is amazing detail showing these crazy islands embedded in the middle of a potentially magma lake rimmed with hot lava. The specular reflection our instruments recorded of the lake suggests parts of Io’s surface are as smooth as glass‚ reminiscent of volcanically created obsidian glass on Earth.”Juno's mission has been extended significantly from the original plans as the spacecraft continues to do amazing work. The mission team has been able to get a bit more daring flying past the moon as well as closer to the north pole of Jupiter than ever before. The observations are solving long-held mysteries about the atmosphere of Jupiter and how its storms move and evolve.Bolton presented these and other Juno results during a news conference at the European Geophysical Union General Assembly in Vienna.

There are few things more appealing than young fluffy animals. From kittens to puppies they are guaranteed to make people say “aww”. However‚ when it comes to the wild version of young animals they are always best admired from a distance. In an incident in North Carolina‚ a group of people were witnessed and filmed pulling two black bear cubs out of the low branches of a nearby tree to take selfies with the animals‚ which is a definite no-no. On April 18‚ the North Carolina Wildlife Agency responded to a call to assist the Buncombe County Sheriff’s Department‚ after a witness filmed the group of six people dragging the bear cubs out of a tree and taking selfies with them. On arrival‚ they were told that both cubs had managed to escape from the group‚ with one cub having reportedly bitten someone. One of the cubs was found and later taken to a rehabilitation center while the other has not been found yet. “The cub appeared to be lethargic and frightened. It looked to be favoring one of its front paws and was wet and shivering‚” said NC Wildlife's Resource Commission BearWise® coordinator Ashley Hobbs in a statement. “Ashley and our enforcement staff searched the area for the second cub but did not locate it. Our hope is it was able to reunite with the mother because it would not survive on its own at this young age‚” added Mountain Operations Supervisor James Tomberlin.                               American black bears (Ursus americanus) are found across pretty much all of North America. Adults can reach over 2 meters (7 feet) when standing and weigh up to 140 kilograms (300 pounds). It is not unusual for a mother bear to leave her cubs to go foraging before returning. However wild animals should never be approached and young animals should never be used as props for social media likes. The wildlife agency stresses you should never approach any wild animal. It could be harmful for both you and the animal. If you come across a cub that you believe has been abandoned in North Carolina then call the NC Wildlife Helpline (866-318-2401). “This time of year‚ mother bears are emerging from their den with their cubs that are experiencing the outside world for the first time and are very dependent on their mother to feed and protect them‚&;quot; said Game Mammals and Surveys Supervisor Colleen Olfenbuttel. &;quot;People who try to capture or handle a cub are not only risking the cub’s safety‚ but their own if the mother bear is nearby‚ as she may try to defend her cubs.&;quot;Female bears often leave their cubs somewhere safe‚ like in a tree‚ while they go to find food‚ coming back for them later. Touching or feeding a cub can cause it to be habituated to people and may cause the mother bear to abandon it. The cub that was captured will stay at the rehabilitation center until it’s old enough to be released into the wild. “The cub’s condition is likely a result of the unnecessary and irresponsible actions of the people involved‚” Olfenbuttel said. The NCWRC has said this remains an active investigation and is sharing the video‚ although distressing to watch‚ to highlight this is exactly what not to do when coming across animals in the wild. A selfie is not worth the irreparable harm you can cause.  

Consciousness in the animal kingdom may be far more wide-reaching than previously thought‚ according to a number of animal cognition experts. In a recent declaration‚ they argue that all sorts of animals – from fish to insects – may be sentient‚ and that this should inform our treatment of such animals going forward.Previous research has hinted that other animals may have complex inner lives. Octopuses are a key example: studies demonstrate that they are incredibly smart‚ are capable of advanced problem-solving‚ and suggest they can feel physical and emotional pain – all of which could be taken as evidence that they have consciousness. Meanwhile‚ crows‚ dogs‚ mice‚ and elephants have all been known to behave in ways that could imply they are sentient beings. Even various creepy crawlies‚ including bees and flies‚ are being investigated as potentially having consciousness. Now‚ almost 40 researchers have signed The New York Declaration on Animal Consciousness – a proclamation on the extent of animal sentience‚ which was presented at a conference at New York University on Friday morning.Although the statement concedes that “much uncertainty remains”‚ it also states that “there is strong scientific support for attributions of conscious experience to other mammals and to birds.”“Second‚ the empirical evidence indicates at least a realistic possibility of conscious experience in all vertebrates (including reptiles‚ amphibians‚ and fishes) and many invertebrates (including‚ at minimum‚ cephalopod mollusks‚ decapod crustaceans‚ and insects).”Consciousness refers to an animal’s awareness of themselves or their surroundings. Sentience‚ on the other hand‚ is an aspect of consciousness that describes an animal’s capacity to experience and feel things.“Sentience refers to an animal's ability to have subjective experiences‚ such as pleasure‚ pain‚ fear‚ and other emotions. While these concepts may be related‚ sentience pertains explicitly to an animal's ability to feel the world‚” Michaella Pereira Andrade and Tatiana Leite‚ members of the Wild Animal Initiative’s octopus sentience investigation team‚ previously told IFLScience’s Rachael Funnell.In the face of mounting evidence that animals may be able to do just that‚ scientists are “taking the topic seriously‚ not dismissing it out of hand as a crazy idea in the way they might have in the past‚” Jonathan Birch‚ a philosopher at the London School of Economics and Political Science and one of the declaration’s signatories‚ told Nature.“What [the declaration] says is there is sufficient evidence out there such that there’s a realistic possibility of some kinds of conscious experiences in species even quite distinct from humans‚” added Anil Seth‚ director of the Centre for Consciousness Science at the University of Sussex‚ and another one of the authors of the declaration.Other researchers are more skeptical and argue that what we’ve found so far is not necessarily indicative of consciousness. But the signatories hope that their statement will spark more research into animal consciousness‚ providing more clarity on the subject‚ and also a rethink regarding animal welfare in lawmaking.“When there is a realistic possibility of conscious experience in an animal‚ it is irresponsible to ignore that possibility in decisions affecting that animal‚” the declaration reads. “We should consider welfare risks and use the evidence to inform our responses to these risks.”