Cleopatra is known to be one of the most beautiful monarchs in history. However‚ it must be noted that she was more than just her beauty.  She was an influential leader and the last Hellenic ruler in Egypt. After her reign‚ Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire.  Cleopatra was both loved and hated in Egypt. One thing that endeared Egyptians was her effort to learn the language while ruling the country.  The other Ptolemaic rulers never did. They ruled Egypt from the largely Greek city of Alexandria.  Let’s look at the remarkable life of Cleopatra‚ a leader known for her beauty‚ dalliances with other powerful leaders‚ and strategic mind.  Cleopatra on the Terraces of Philae. Frederick Arthur Bridgman. 1896 Early Life Cleopatra was born to Ptolemy XII‚ the ruling Ptolemaic pharaoh‚ in 69 BCE (Before the Common Era).  She had an older sister‚ Berenice IV Epiphaneia‚ a younger sister‚ Arsinoe IV‚ and brothers‚ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator and Ptolemy XIV. It is unclear who their mothers were. They were all descendants of Ptolemy I Soter. He was the founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty in 323 BCE and one of Alexander the Great’s generals.  Upon the death of Ptolemy XII‚ also known as Auletes‚ in 51 BCE‚ the kingdom was left to then-18-year-old Cleopatra and her 10-year-old brother Ptolemy XIII. They were designated as joint heirs by their father. They were supposed to be equals‚ but Cleopatra wanted to rule alone. However‚ Ptolemy XIII had very powerful allies and drove Cleopatra out of Egypt. She fled to Syria in 49 BCE.  Cleopatra and Julius Caesar Many would reduce Cleopatra and Julius Caesar’s relationship to that of a seductress and a great Roman general. Cleopatra was more than that‚ as she raised a powerful army during her exile.  Julius Caesar was part of the triumvirate that helped make Rome a superpower in the first century BCE. He and fellow generals Gnaeus Pompeious Magnus (better known as Pompey) and Marcus Licinius Crassus slowly invaded different parts of the world to expand the territories of the Roman Empire.  Portrait of Gauis Iulius Caesar (Vatican Museum) They had set their sights on Egypt next.  The Romans already had some power in Egypt. Cleopatra’s father‚ Ptolemy XII‚ had paid Julius Caesar and Pompey a large sum of money to recognize him as the true ruler.  Egypt became an ally of Rome. Ptolemy XII didn’t bat an eye when the Romans moved into Cyprus‚ which was Egyptian territory. But the Egyptians were furious at the invasion—this began the fall of the Ptolemaic dynasty.  Julius Caesar and Pompey eventually had a falling out. Ptolemy XIII sided with Julius Caesar in the civil war and ordered the assassination of Pompey. Julius Caesar arrived in Alexandria‚ and Cleopatra snuck into the palace to corner the general and plead her case.  In various depictions of Cleopatra’s life‚ one of the most famous scenes was always her seduction of Julius Caesar. She reportedly asked her servant Apollodoros to wrap her in a carpet and present it to the general in his room. This way‚ they evaded suspicion from Ptolemy XIII’s people.  Cleopatra had already raised an army of mercenaries and just needed a strong leader like Julius Caesar to be in her corner. The tandem of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra successfully dethroned Ptolemy XIII‚ who fled Alexandria.  Julius Caesar and Cleopatra settled as unpopular leaders in Egypt. Cleopatra sat on the throne with younger brother Ptolemy XIV‚ who was 12 years old. They were married and served as co-regents.  Julius Caesar stayed in Egypt with Cleopatra‚ who gave birth to Ptolemy Caesar in 47 BCE. He was never confirmed to be Julius Caesar’s son‚ but Egyptians called him Caesarion or “Little Caesar.” Shortly after Caesarion’s birth‚ Julius Caesar returned to rule in Rome.  Reincarnation of Goddess Isis Ptolemy XIV was murdered when Caesarion was just three years old. Many believed Cleopatra was behind the assassination so her son would sit on the throne with her as co-regent.  By this time‚ Cleopatra had fashioned herself after the goddess Isis‚ whose name means Queen of the Throne. According to ancient Egyptian myth‚ Isis and her husband Osiris were the first rulers of the world.  Many Egyptian temples had been erected in her honor. She was always depicted as an incredibly beautiful woman and mother.  Cleopatra would often dress as Isis during important celebrations. Whenever she makes a ruling‚ she would phrase it as something the goddess willed or wanted.  This is why Egyptians said that Cleopatra was the reincarnation of Isis.  Cleopatra and Marc Antony Egypt was enjoying relative peace with Caesarion on the throne. However‚ the country wasn’t doing well economically.  The Nile River would often flood‚ killing crops and resulting in wide-ranging hunger. The country was frustrated with the leadership.  Meanwhile‚ in Rome‚ two factions were courting the support of Egypt by 42 BCE. Julius Caesar‚ who had become a dictator‚ was murdered in 44 BCE. This left behind a second triumvirate (Mark Antony‚ Octavian‚ and Lepidus) to lead on his behalf. The group sought Cleopatra’s support‚ while the other side was led by Cassius and Brutus‚ Julius Caesar’s assassin.  The death of Caesar by Vincenzo Camuccini Cleopatra gave her support to Caesar’s triumvirate. The support led to an overwhelming victory that saw Mark Antony‚ Octavian‚ and Lepidus gain power in Rome.  In return for Egypt’s support‚ Mark Antony promised to protect Cleopatra and Caesarion’s throne. And slowly‚ Mark Antony fell for Cleopatra’s charms.  The two began an affair in 41 BCE when they met to solidify their partnership—Mark Antony was married to his third wife‚ Fulvia. Aside from the affair‚ Cleopatra and Mark Antony also formed the Inimitable Livers‚ a secret drinking society.  In 40 BCE‚ Cleopatra gave birth to twins Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. Mark Antony was not there for the birth. He was forced to return to Rome because of troubles with his then-wife’s quarrel with Octavian over their rule.  Fulvia died of an illness just as Mark Antony waged a full-blown war against Octavian in what is sometimes referred to as Fulvia’s Civil War. Peace was restored‚ but Mark Antony was forced to marry Octavia Minor‚ Octavian’s younger sister‚ to broker peace.  Mark Antony returned to Egypt in 37 BCE to be with Cleopatra. They had a son‚ Ptolemy Philadelphus‚ a year later.  While Julius Caesar and Cleopatra were discreet in their relationship‚ the queen and Mark Antony were not. They would often dress up as Greco-Egyptian god Dionysus-Osiris and goddess Venus-Isis during special occasions.  Their three children were considered legitimate children and heirs to the Egyptian throne.  Their partnership had political repercussions‚ too. Cleopatra found her footing in her country‚ and Egypt became prosperous.  She was able to help fund Mark Antony’s campaign to conquer Parthia. Egypt also saw the return of Crete‚ Cyrenaica‚ Cyprus‚ Jericho‚ and parts of Lebanon and Syria to the realm.  Donations of Alexandria The boldest act that Cleopatra and Mark Antony did is known as Donations of Alexandria in 34 BCE. It was a political act and celebration after Mark Antony’s successful campaign against Armenia.  The Romans thought the triumph was in the name of Rome because Mark Antony was still a Roman leader. It turned out to be a campaign for Egypt.  Dressed in their Osiris and Iris garb‚ the couple awarded territories to their children. Caesarion was declared King of Kings and Cleopatra as Queen of Kings.  The following were the distributed territories: Caesarion – joint ruler of Egypt Alexander Helios – Great King of Seleucid Cleopatra Selene – Queen of Crete and Cyrenaica Ptolemy Philadelphus – King of Syria and Asia Minor Octavian thought Cleopatra had total control over Mark Antony and proclaimed war against them. That was the start of the fall of Cleopatra and the Ptolemaic Dynasty along with it.  Battle of Actium: The End of an Era The Battle of Actium began on September 2‚ 31 BCE. The forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra on one side and Octavian on the other met in the Ionian Sea of Actium (Ancient Greece).  There were reports that Antony and Cleopatra were not keen on fighting and poised to flee. Some of their soldiers deserted after hearing this.  Antony and Cleopatra’s ships turned around and headed back to Alexandria while the remaining forces surrendered to Octavian. This battle is often recognized as the birth of the Roman Empire.  Octavian’s forces arrived in Alexandria in July 30 BCE‚ and Mark Antony sprung into action. Despite a small victory‚ most of his soldiers defected.  He could not escape Alexandria‚ and rumors spread that Cleopatra had committed suicide. Mark Antony stabbed himself in reaction and then was brought to Cleopatra‚ where he died in her arms.  The Mortally wounded Mark Anthony with Cleopatra. Louis Moritz  (1773–1850) Octavian arrived in Alexandria and presented Cleopatra with terms of surrender. Cleopatra agreed and asked for time to settle her affairs. But Cleopatra was smart enough to know she would never be treated well as a Roman prisoner.  On August 30‚ 30 BCE‚ Cleopatra perished when she allowed a venomous snake to bite her.  Dramatic Until the End Nobody ruled like Cleopatra. She has long been one of the most popular leaders in history—she was beautiful‚ intelligent‚ and a brilliant ruler.  She was the embodiment of an empowered woman thousands of years ago. No one can deny the power she wielded and the legacy she left behind. The post The Life of Cleopatra: Seductress and Intelligent Leader first appeared on History Defined.

For over a century now‚ the name Albert Einstein has been synonymous with “genius.” The epitome of super-intelligence.  Every grade school student knows his name and millions of aspiring scientists study his theories hoping to discover a flicker of his brilliance in themselves.  Einstein is credited with presenting seven theories that literally changed our understanding of the universe. While few laymen can explain these theories in terms the average person can understand‚ most people do know that it was Einstein’s E=MC² formula that made the atomic bomb possible.  But what many do not know is that to his dying day‚ Einstein regretted making that discovery. He referred to it as the “One Great Mistake in My Life.” A portrait of Albert Einstein‚ 1947. Early Life  Albert Einstein was born on March 14‚ 1879‚ in Ulm‚ Kingdom of Württemberg (northern Germany)‚ to Hermann and Pauline (née Koch) Einstein. While some biographies refer to Albert as the “middle” child‚ most accounts list only one sibling‚ a sister Maria‚ born on November 18‚ 1881. Einstein’s mother‚ Pauline‚ is said to have been a domineering woman who instilled in her son the drive to succeed‚ but also an appreciation for the arts. She even encouraged him to play the violin.  Einstein’s father‚ Hermann‚ was an engineer and businessman. He is described as “otherworldly‚” even “dreamy‚” which likely inspired Einstein to always look beyond the obvious.    Einstein was described as a “self-sufficient and thoughtful” boy. He spent long hours building houses from playing cards and solving complex mathematical puzzles. The young Einstein particularly enjoyed spending time with his uncle Jakob who was an engineer in business with his father. He sparked his interest in mathematics by lending him a book on algebra and sending him math puzzles to solve.  According to most biographers‚ Einstein first became interested in science at age five. It was when his father showed him a magnetic compass and he became fascinated by the way it continually points in the same direction no matter which way it is held.  This ignited not just a curiosity about “how” things work‚ but “why.”   Education At age six‚ Einstein started attending the Petersschule on Blumenstrasse. This was a Catholic elementary school in Munich‚ Germany—which he immediately took a dislike to.  Having taken a particularly long time to solve basic mathematical problems‚ his teachers initially thought him “slow.” They did not realize that Einstein wasn’t trying to simply solve the problems‚ but trying to discover better ways of solving them.  This spawned a long-held misconception that Einstein couldn’t do simple arithmetic. In reality‚ he was a superior student who found the rote method of education boring.  In 1889‚ at age ten‚ Einstein was accepted into the Luitpold Gymnasium in Munich. This was a highly respected institution that emphasized Latin and Greek over mathematics and science.  Einstein was unhappy with the curriculum. Therefore he turned his attention to independent study.  In addition to his Uncle Jakob’s math puzzles‚ a friend of the Einstein family‚ a 21-year-old medical student named Max Talmud‚ lent him books on popular science and philosophy—which he eagerly devoured. In 1894‚ Einstein’s father’s business‚ Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein &; Cie‚ a factory that manufactured electrical dynamos (generators that produce [DC] direct-current) was on the verge of bankruptcy. This compelled Hermann to move his family to Italy in search of a new business venture.  Einstein remained in Munich to continue his studies. But by December of that year‚ he convinced the school administration to let him leave. He joined his family in Pavia.  A short time later‚ he wrote an essay that provided insight into the direction his mind was taking. It was  called‚ “On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field.” In the summer of 1895‚ at age 16‚ Einstein sat (but failed) the entrance exam into the Swiss Federal Polytechnic school in Zurich‚ Switzerland. Instead‚ he attended the Aargau Cantonal School in Aarau‚ Switzerland.  Einstein at age 16. 1895 While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler‚ Einstein began the first of many sexual relationships‚ with Winteler’s daughter‚ Marie. The following year he was accepted into the four-year mathematics and physics program at Swiss Federal Polytechnic. At this same time‚ a bright and articulate graduate student named Mileva Marić (four years Einstein’s senior) was also enrolled there. “Johnny and Dolly” Instantly attracted‚ Einstein and Marić quickly became inseparable. They kept separate apartments for appearances‚ while pursuing an intense sexual relationship.  Calling themselves “Johnny and Dolly‚” Einstein was so enamored with “Dolly” that he frequently wrote her love letters and poems. They included the passionate‚ “Who then Johnny boy‚ crazy with desire‚ while thinking of his Dolly‚ his pillow catches fire!”  But‚ neither the Einstein nor Marić family thought the relationship prudent‚ considering their ethnic differences. Einstein’s mother was horrified that her son would even consider marrying an “ethnically-inferior” Serbian woman‚ saying‚ “You are ruining your future and destroying your opportunities!”  In 1900‚ Einstein was awarded his teaching diploma. Marić‚ however‚ was denied‚ having failed the theory of mathematical functions portion of the exam.  Having previously renounced his German citizenship‚ that same year‚ Einstein became a Swiss citizen. Marriage and the Pursuit of Greatness In 1901‚ Marić announced that she was pregnant. Her pregnancy immediately put Einstein’s professional and social standing in jeopardy.  Having a child out of wedlock carried a severe social stigma. It could ruin any chances for the career he’d envisioned.  That same year‚ Einstein began his doctorate studies at the University of Zurich to meet the requirements for his Ph.D.  In early 1902‚ Marić gave birth to their illegitimate child. They had a daughter named Lieserl.  Biographers disagree as to the fate of the child. Some insist she was adopted‚ some that she died of scarlet fever at an early age.  In June of 1902‚ Einstein was appointed “Technical Expert‚ Third Class” at the Swiss Patents Office in Burn‚ Switzerland. Although he worked eight hours a day‚ six days a week‚ the schedule allowed him sufficient time to work on his scientific theories. And it gave him the financial security to support a family.  In January of 1903‚ the 24-year-old Albert Einstein married 28-year-old Mileva Marić. In May of 1904‚ the couple’s first son‚ Hans Albert Einstein was born.  Almost immediately‚ Einstein not only began ignoring his parental duties‚ he began distancing himself from his wife. In less than a year‚ their relationship was virtually non-existent. Preferring the solitude of his office‚ he sometimes didn’t come home for days. Albert Einstein and his first wife‚ Mileva. 1912 E=MC² After receiving his Ph.D. from the University of Zurich in 1905‚ Einstein produced four papers that would invariably change the course of known science.  They were: Special Theory of Relativity Establishment of the Mass-Energy Equivalence Theory of Brownian Motion‚ and the  Foundation of the Proton Theory of Light.  These were produced at eight-week intervals. Fellow scholars could barely catch their breath following the first: the iconic‚ E=MC². By 1908‚ Einstein was recognized as one of the world’s greatest scientists by the scientific community. The following year‚ he quit his position at the patent office to become a professor at the University of Zurich. Two years later‚ he became a professor at the Swiss Federal Polytechnic.   This would be followed by a professorial post at the University of Berlin‚ appointment as Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute‚ and induction into the Prussian Academy of Sciences. At this time‚ Prussia comprised almost two-thirds of the total territory of the German Empire. In 1912‚ Einstein began an affair with his cousin‚ Elsa Löwenthal. Three years his senior‚ Löwenthal was a wealthy divorcee with two daughters.  In a letter to her‚ Einstein wrote‚ “I would be so happy to walk just a few steps at your side without my wife‚ who is very jealous. I treat her as an employee whom I cannot sack.”  Soon after‚ Einstein gave Mileva a list of conditions she must meet to remain married: she was to speak to him only when he spoke first. When told to leave his study (where he indulged in his sexual trysts)‚ she was to do so without hesitation. He made it clear that he would not compromise.   In 1914‚ Einstein accepted a professorship at the University of Berlin. His wife and children initially followed but then returned to Switzerland after just three months. A World at War When WW I broke out in July of 1914‚ Einstein made his pacifist beliefs known. He withdrew to his work. Now nearly 10 years since his groundbreaking theories were published‚ they remained unproven.  His personal life was now a series of sexual encounters. His professional life was stagnant. He grew depressed that he hadn’t achieved the renown he’d expected by this time in his life.  Moreover‚ Einstein found the “war fever” his colleagues were caught up in disgusting. He encouraged his influential associates to stop the war.  In reaction to a manifesto published by his fellow scientists in support of Germany’s hostility‚ Einstein initiated a petition seeking peace. However‚ he only received three signatures.  Growing hopeless‚ he reached a point of physical and mental exhaustion.   In 1916‚ Einstein collapsed; left alone but for his cousin Elsa Löwenthal. Content to put her life on hold to nurse him back to health‚ the bond between them intensified. Einstein planned to sever ties with Mileva and their children‚ and make Elsa a permanent part of his life.  Divorce‚ Marriage‚ Vindication‚ Celebrity On June 12‚ 1918‚ Einstein and Mileva divorced. One year later‚ Einstein married his cousin Elsa Löwentha.  Unlike his first wife‚ Elsa was willing to put her personal needs second to those of Einstein and his work. She was happy preparing dinner parties for his friends. She disappeared into the background when necessary. She ignored Einstein’s many sexual dalliances.  In 1919‚ Einstein’s Theory of Relativity was proven correct—and by a relatively rare natural occurrence: a solar eclipse. Now at age 40‚ Einstein was an instant celebrity.  He was the scientific community’s first “superstar.” Overnight‚ he became one of the most recognized individuals on the planet.  In April of 1921‚ the Einsteins embarked on a tour of America‚ visiting New York City. They were welcomed as veritable royalty. Everywhere they went‚ crowds gathered.  Albert Einstein and Elsa Einstein arriving by ship‚ the SS Belgenland‚ upon their arrival in San Diego‚ 1930 While Elsa thoroughly enjoyed the attention‚ Albert found the adulation perverse. The Press camped outside his door waiting for a glimpse or a quick photo; a clever quip or quote for the next edition. The following year‚ the Einsteins began a six-month speaking tour of Asia. They visited Singapore‚ Ceylon (now Sri Lanka)‚ and Japan. They met the Emperor and Empress at the Imperial Japanese Palace.  On his return trip‚ Einstein made what would be his only visit to Palestine. In his travel diary Einstein wrote‚ “Dull-minded tribal companions are praying‚ faces turned to the wall‚ rocking their bodies forward and back. A pitiful sight of men with a past but without a future.” In November of 1922‚ Einstein won the 1921 Nobel Prize for Physics; but not for his work on relativity and gravitation as expected.  The Coming of a Second World War For the next ten years‚ Einstein spent much of his time traveling‚ lecturing on his newest discoveries to throngs of devoted fans (and women wanting to share his bed). He became one of the most popular speakers of the era.  In Germany‚ however‚ a much different backstory was unfolding. There‚ he was not a genius who could benefit the world‚ but a Jew who sought to undermine the German cause.   By 1932‚ Hitler was quickly becoming Germany’s supreme dictator—which meant no Jew was safe. Particularly not one who’d sought to undermine Germany’s efforts to take a major step forward on the world stage.  Referred to by his countrymen as “Einstein the Jew‚” the Nazi Party depicted him as a traitor to both his people and the German Empire. They ultimately placed a bounty on his head.  With Europe becoming an increasingly dangerous place for him and his family‚ in December of 1932‚ the Einsteins (including Elsa’s two daughters) escaped to America. Man Without a Country By February of 1933‚ the Einsteins had established themselves in America. Albert immediately plunged himself back into his work at his new residence in Pasadena‚ California.  Suddenly‚ the scientific leaps he’d made decades before were receiving a great deal of attention. But‚ not for the advancement of humanity they offered—only for their potential destructiveness.  In 1935‚ at the age of 56‚ Einstein accepted a position at Princeton University (Princeton‚ New Jersey) at the Institute for Advanced Studies. He turned his attention to his “Unified Field” theory. This theory was an attempt to explain all the forces of nature in one equation. He pursued what he thought of as “absolute objective truth‚” truth that can only be achieved through mathematics.  In the fall of 1935‚ Elsa fell seriously ill. Uncharacteristically‚ Einstein set his personal affairs aside and tended to her needs. On December 20‚ 1936‚ at the age of 60‚ Elsa died‚ after almost 17 years of marriage.  “The Bomb” Returning to his work immediately after Elsa’s death‚ Einstein prepared to delve full-bore into a number of new theories he’d been envisioning. That work‚ however‚ was soon interrupted. A group of immigrant scientists approached him with news that the German military was developing a devastating new weapon.  Einstein suddenly realized that if his theory led to technology allowing the Nazis to create an atomic bomb‚ world annihilation was almost certain. Though he knew theoretically that his theory could be applied to building a weapon‚ only now did he consider that a world power would actually consider doing that. Europe was on the verge of a second world war and Hitler was in ultimate power. Einstein reasoned that if the Germans built an atomic bomb before the Americans‚ Hitler would be in a position to give the US the ultimatum of accepting his rule–or be wiped out of existence.  He had no choice but to reevaluate his lifelong position on pacifism. On August 2‚ 1939‚ Einstein co-signed a letter to US President Theodore Roosevelt.  He alerted him that it “may become possible to set up a nuclear chain reaction in a large mass of uranium by which vast amounts of power and large quantities of new radium-like elements would be generated [that] would also lead to the construction of . . . extremely powerful bombs of a new type.”  This letter set into motion the Manhattan Project. This was a research and development program instituted by the US‚ UK‚ and Canada to produce the first atomic weapon. The following year‚ Einstein was granted American citizenship.   In August of 1945‚ the US dropped two bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It obliterated more than 200‚000 people.   On July 1‚ 1946‚ Time magazine put Einstein’s likeness on its cover‚ with a mushroom cloud erupting from behind him with E=MC² emblazoned on it. The atomic bomb explosion over Nagasaki 1945 Einstein‚ the Subversive Horrified by the destruction his scientific theory had enabled‚ Einstein used his celebrity to campaign against the future use of weapons of mass destruction.  His outspoken views‚ however‚ ultimately brought him powerful enemies. These included FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover‚ Senator Joseph McCarthy‚ and several members of the US State Department.   In 1947‚ Newsweek ran a cover with Einstein’s likeness under the condemning headline‚ “The Man Who Started it All.”   When interviewed‚ Einstein is quoted as saying‚ “I could burn my fingers that I wrote that letter to President Roosevelt. Had I known the Germans would not succeed in producing an atomic bomb‚ I never would have lifted a finger.” (Ironically‚ Einstein was never invited to work on the Manhattan Project and was‚ in fact‚ intentionally left out of the “loop” so that he’d have no say-so as to its use.) The Death of Genius By 1948‚ Einstein’s overall health was failing. Plagued by chronic stomach pain and anemia‚ doctors discovered an aneurysm in his abdominal aorta.  Although surgery was an option‚ Einstein chose instead to take an extended vacation in Sarasota‚ Florida. By his reasoning‚ he’d lived long enough and had given the world all that he could. On April 11‚ 1955‚ Einstein signed what would become known as the “Einstein-Russell Manifesto.” It was a petition urging the abolition of not just weapons of mass destruction‚ but war itself. It advocated giving power over nuclear weapons to the United Nations in an effort to work towards peace rather than war. In mid-April of that year‚ Albert Einstein collapsed. The aneurysm burst. On April 18‚ 1955‚ he died at Princeton Hospital at the age of 76.  To his dying day‚ Einstein agonized over the theory he’d hoped would change the world for the better—but instead threatened its very existence.  References interestingengineering.com.‚ “7 of Albert Einstein’s Theories that Changed the World‚” Albert Einstein Inventions: Albert Einstein Theories that Changed the World (interestingengineering.com)  sparknotes.com.‚ “Albert Einstein‚” https://www.sparknotes.com/biography/einstein/section1/ albert-einstein.org.‚ “The Albert Einstein Archives‚” http://www.albert-einstein.org/  britannica.com.‚ “Albert Einstein‚” https://www.britannica.com/biography/Albert-Einstein historynet.com.‚ “EINSTEIN HELPED INVENT THE A-BOMB‚ BUT HE WATCHED ITS DEPLOYMENT IN HORROR‚” https://www.historynet.com/einstein-and-the-bomb/ discovermagazine.com.‚ “Chain Reaction: From Einstein to the Atomic Bomb‚” https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/chain-reaction-from-einstein-to-the-atomic-bomb royalsocietypublishing.org.‚ “Albert Einstein‚ 1879-1955‚” https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbm.1955.0005The post Albert Einstein: Women‚ Wars‚ and the Atomic Bomb first appeared on History Defined.

There isn’t much that represents ancient Rome quite like the Colosseum. This iconic architectural marvel is instantly recognizable‚ even in its fractured present form.  Images of gladiatorial battles come to mind when the Colosseum is mentioned. But it was also host to another strange sort of spectacle loved by the ancient Romans–naval battles.  In a feat of engineering genius‚ the ancient Romans were able to fill the massive Colosseum with water and place ships within. There‚ they would battle one another just as if they were on the high seas.  The Roman appetite for entertainment was insatiable. But even so‚ a Colosseum naval battle is hard to imagine. So how did these mock naval battles come about‚ and how did the Romans manage to pull such an event off not just once‚ but multiple times? The Naumachia of Domitian by Giacomo Lauro‚ 1625 Did Romans Have Naval Battles in the Colosseum? Naumachia  Not only did Rome genuinely host naval battles in the Colosseum‚ but they actually used it for one on its opening day! Roman-staged naval battles actually predated the Colosseum by quite some time. These were called naumachia‚ which translates to “naval combat.”  The first mock maritime fights came to be when Julius Caesar made his return to Rome after a major military victory. The first naumachtia was held as part of his celebration.  The naumachia was a roaring success. The tradition continued‚ both in natural bodies of water and basins dug specifically for the sport.  They remained popular throughout the decades. As most Roman forms of entertainment were‚ these mock naval battles were incredibly bloody and violent.  As they did for gladiatorial fights‚ the Romans used prisoners for their fighters. While the setting for the battles was not the open ocean‚ the deaths that occurred were very‚ very real.  Naumachia at the Colosseum  As mentioned earlier‚ the first naval battle in the Colosseum coincided with its grand opening. Thousands of combatants were said to have participated‚ and the setting of the show was intricate and wildly dramatic.  These maritime dramas were used to tell stories of legendary sea battles. Whether the participants liked it or not‚ they were expected to act the part of either the conquering Romans or the enemy they were summarily defeating.  Romans favored drama in their shows‚ so of course the naumachia were no exception. Ancient sources suggest that the Colosseum’s inaugural naumachia might not have been just theatrical‚ but also dangerous outside of the battle itself. This first water battle occurred in 80 AD‚ just after the completion of the Colosseum. Roman Emperor Titus reigned over the grand spectacle‚ and no expense was spared.  Cassius Dio writes that a violent rainstorm came down on the battle. This led to the death of all the participating combatants.  Naval battle between Romans. National Society of Fine Arts in Paris‚ 1894 How Did the Romans Have Naval Battles in the Colosseum? Using an arena on dry ground to host a maritime drama might seem impossible. However‚ innovation was the bread and butter of the ancient Romans.  A lot of different modifications to a normal ship design were needed‚ along with a plan to be able to fill the Colosseum with water without it immediately just pouring out.   Here are some of the amazing innovations that went into the naumachia at the Colosseum: Life-size‚ flat-bottom ships The water inside the Colosseum obviously couldn’t reach ocean-worthy depth. In fact‚ when it was filled‚ the false ocean was only a few feet deep.  To make up for this while also having life-sized battleships‚ the ships had to be constructed with flat bottoms.  It wasn’t enough to have them stationary–the ships needed to be able to be sailed or rowed during the mock battle. The flat bottoms helped accomplish this. Flat-bottomed ships in the Colosseum. Fresco from the temple of Isis in Pompeii. Filling the Colosseum While there aren’t any exact texts describing how the Colosseum was filled‚ experts have been able to piece together a way in which the Colosseum might have become a pool.  A vast system of aqueducts and pipes was present under the Colosseum. The hypothesis is that these chambers and pipes were used to both fill and empty the arena on command.  By this time in history‚ the ancient Romans were already using pipe systems to supply the city with water‚ reminiscent of modern plumping. Forty or more input channels or canals would have run from the Tiber River to the Colosseum‚ which would then be filled when needed.  Since the aforementioned boats were created with a flat bottom‚ they were able to use the smallest amount of water possible to minimize how much effort the endeavor would take. Intricate and elaborate sets It wasn’t just the logistics of the Colosseum naumachia that made it something legendary.  While the area itself was undoubtedly impressive‚ especially when filled with water‚ the sets used for the shows were incredible in their own right. The ships themselves would be crafted down to the finest detail to match true Roman naval ships.  Even more impressive were the islands and ports that would be built to flesh out the naval battles. The fighting itself was all too real for the combatants. While there wasn’t as much room to maneuver inside the Colosseum as there was in the outdoor naumachia venues‚ the carefully crafted ships were still able to ram each other in the spirit of true battle.  The End of Naumachia  Naval battles in the Colosseum were grandiose‚ but they were also incredibly complicated and costly shows to put on. Once the Romans proved that it was possible‚ naumachia in the arena settings slowly fell out of favor. That isn’t to say they stopped altogether‚ though. Purpose-built naumachia basins‚ similar to man-made lakes‚ became the more popular setting for mock naval battles. They were significantly cheaper to maintain. These basins could also be made much deeper‚ allowing for more dramatic battles. Unfortunately‚ the end of the naval battles both in the Colosseum and in other places came about. They just weren’t as exciting as other gladiator competitions and animal battles that the Romans adored.  As impressive as these naumachia were‚ they lacked the one thing that seemed to entertain the ancient Romans more than anything else–graphic bloodsport.  References  “The Naumachiae of Titus and Domitian” https://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/gladiators/naumachiae.html “Romans Once Filled the Colosseum with Water and Staged an Epic Mock Sea Battle” https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/ancient-rome-once-filled-the-colosseum-up-with-water-and-staged-epic-mock-sea-battleThe post Epic Naval Battles of the Colosseum in Ancient Rome first appeared on History Defined.

Elvis Presley‚ the King of Rock‚ is one of the most recognizable characters in history. Every aspect of his life was under a microscope‚ from his love life to his drug use to his family.  Even though he tragically passed in 1977‚ he had one daughter before he died: Lisa Marie Presley.  Following in her father’s footsteps‚ she became a musician‚ although never of the same caliber as her father. She has still benefited from her celebrity though. She married celebrities such as Michael Jackson and Nicolas Cage. However‚ her four children came from her other two marriages to actor Danny Keough and musician Michael Lockwood.  Her children with Keough would become celebrities in their own right. Riley Keough has become a star of the Mad Max series‚ while Benjamin was the spitting image of his grandfather.  Also like his grandfather‚ Benjamin’s life would come to a shocking and tragic end too early.  Benjamin‚ left‚ and Elvis. Page Six Living Under the Presley Name Benjamin Keough lived a life of privilege and burden. He had to carry the weight of his grandfather’s legacy.  Born on October 21‚ 1992‚ Benjamin was the only son of Elvis Presley’s only child. He found himself growing up in a world full of fame and celebrity even without the last name Presley.   The Presley legacy remained strong in both the music industry and popular culture‚ and that loomed over Benjamin in his early life. It applied a pressure few others would ever understand.  To add to the difficulty of handling such a massive legacy‚ Benjamin also bore a striking resemblance to his grandfather.  Everywhere he went‚ Benjamin struggled with his very existence being tied to that of Elvis. People asked for his photograph or joked about Elvis standing just offstage at various events.  His mother recounted a story once of Benjamin being backstage at the Opry in Nashville‚ Tennessee. Anytime the audience noticed Benjamin in the wings their attention was drawn to him‚ and they clambored to get pictures with him.  Lisa also mentioned that the resemblance to her father is so uncanny that she sometimes would become overwhelmed just looking at Benjamin.  While it was nearly impossible for Benjamin to separate himself from his family lineage‚ it was also sometimes a blessing. As he began to explore what path he wanted to take in life‚ he found himself falling into the family industry: entertainment.  Benjamin in 2010. Mark Humphrey/AP It is rumored that as Benjamin began exploring a career in music‚ his talent and family connections landed him a contract with Universal in 2009. At just 17 years old‚ he had a record deal worth $5 million.  The contract had an option of up to five albums. Benjamin recorded some of his songs‚ but none of the music recorded was ever actually released. Universal executives have gone on the record saying that the contract was a rumor.  Either way‚ without a solo career of his own‚ Benjamin continued to live in his grandfather’s shadow.  A Life Cut Tragically Short Any further ambition would sadly be cut short though. On July 12‚ 2020‚ news broke of Benjamin Keough’s heartbreaking death at the age of 27.  He was found in his home in Calabasas‚ California with what was reported as a self-inflicted gunshot wound. As the grandson of a rockstar‚ the news spread far and wide with fans and celebrities joining with their condolences alongside family and friends.  It is unclear specifically what caused Benjamin’s decision to take his own life. Perhaps it was watching his mother face financial stress due to her financial manager mismanaging funds‚ or her impending fourth divorce.  Maybe it was being raised in the Church of Scientology‚ where his parents had met and which Benjamin had actively spoken out against during his life claiming it “messes you up.” It also may have been the result of a long struggle with drug and alcohol problems. Benjamin had only recently completed a stint in rehab for his addiction before that tragic night. Regardless of the reason‚ his death had a tragic impact on his family.  Navigating Grief and Loss Benjamin’s death cast a light on the mental challenges faced by people whose entire lives are lived under the microscope of the public eye.  Even for celebrity families who are dynasties such as the Presleys with three generations of stars‚ the limelight can have adverse effects if not approached carefully. Lisa in particular was devastated‚ as her manager claimed she loved Benjamin more than anything.  She felt guilt around Benjamin’s death. She faced accusations from members of the public in another display of the toxicity of a public presence.  Benjamin’s friends also went on the record to discuss the tragedy. They highlighted the pressure that comes with carrying a family name and the depression he had faced as a result.  Lisa would outlive her son by almost three years‚ passing away in January of 2023. She never fully recovered from his death‚ living life in a haze and regretting the loss.  Lisa Marie Presley and Ben Keough’s graves in Graceland Benjamin’s death adds to and complicates the Presley legacy. Not only does the name represent the stardom of Elvis‚ but it also represents the harsh reality of celebrity life.  Living under a microscope while also having limitless expectations forced upon you from birth is too much for anyone to handle. Let alone a young man trying to find himself in the world.  Hopefully‚ Benjamin’s life and the discussions that followed his death will impact the way people treat celebrities in the future and act as a reminder that every individual is their own person.  References Mazzeo‚ Esme. “Before her death‚ Lisa Marie Presley said she blamed herself ‘every single day’ for her son Benjamin’s death.” Business Insider‚ January 13‚ 2023. https://www.insider.com/lisa-marie-presley-blames-herself-for-son-benjamin-death-2022-8.  BBC Editors. “Benjamin Keough: Coroner says Elvis’s grandson took his own life.” BBC News‚ July 15‚ 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-53415154.  Gill‚ Cassie and Terry Zeller. “Benjamin Keough: 5 Things About Lisa Marie Presley’s Son‚ 27‚ Who Died 2 Years Before Her.” Hollywood Life‚ January 13‚ 2023. https://hollywoodlife.com/feature/who-is-benjamin-keough-lisa-marie-presley-son-dead-4131462/. The post Living in the Shadow of The King: Benjamin Keough’s Tragic Story first appeared on History Defined.

‘Ain Ghazal houses the remains of an ancient culture that thrived there for thousands of years. It is one of the largest Neolithic settlements ever found. The site is in modern-day Jordan and is best known for the Ê¿Ain Ghazal statues that were discovered there in the 1980s. Some of the archeological remains found at ‘Ain Ghazal‚ or ‘Spring of the Gazelle’‚ are over twelve thousand years old.  Ain Ghazal statue The Fertile Crescent ‘Ain Ghazal was a part of the Fertile Crescent. It was that curved region in the Middle East where humans first began to practice agriculture.  Further advances to arise in that region include wheels‚ irrigation‚ writing systems‚ and glass. But each of those developments came after the preliterate civilization whose remains were found at ‘Ain Ghazal. This region was rich in rivers and marshlands that provided the rich soil required for the development of agriculture. It also held greater biodiversity than other areas‚ both because of its many microclimates and because it was a bridge between continents.  The Fertile Crescent was home to the ancestors of modern goats‚ cows‚ pigs‚ geese‚ and sheep. It was also home to wild plants that were used to create modern crops such as wheat‚ barley‚ pea‚ chickpea‚ lentil‚ and flax. ‘Ain Ghazal began as a small neolithic settlement. It may have been home to a culture of semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers called the Natufians‚ which began around fifteen thousand years ago.  The earliest evidence of deliberate cereal cultivation ever found can be traced back to the Natufian civilization. The same goes for humanity’s first bread and beer.  Natufians also had dogs. Dogs were so important to them that they were sometimes buried together with humans over fourteen thousand years ago. Earliest Civilizations  The earliest evidence of civilization at ‘Ain Ghazal dates back to 8‚300 BC. At this time‚ the region was home to small bands of hunter-gatherers. The settlement was built on terraced ground above the Zarqa River‚ which is the second-largest tributary of the Jordan River. This location gave early settlers a view of the surrounding area‚ which was wooded on one side and open steppe on the other. Villagers built rectangular homes out of mud brick covered in lime plaster. They began to cultivate grains and legumes‚ which allowed them to stay in one place. They also kept goats‚ while continuing to hunt wild cattle.  Over time‚ their population grew from two hundred settlers to over one thousand villagers.  Archeologists believe that there was a strong class hierarchy by this point. Some people were interned beneath their houses when they died‚ while many others were thrown into the local trash pit.  This drastic division between classes may have begun when a group of people from the east migrated west. They joined the original Natufian culture at this site. Human statue (Micah‚ named by excavators) from Ain Ghazal city. British Museum in London. Often‚ after a person had been buried for a time‚ they were disinterred and the skull was removed. The lower jaw and the rest of the skeleton were left behind.  This practice was likely a part of rituals revolving around the practice of ancestor worship. As with other Natufian peoples‚ the people of ‘Ain Ghazal sometimes used plaster to recreate faces over the skulls. By 7000 BC‚ ‘Ain Ghazal housed a thriving metropolis of three thousand people. This remained steady for centuries before dropping off sharply after 6500 BC. This was probably due to a global cooling event that caused extreme and long-lasting droughts.  Even so‚ people continued to reside there for another two thousand years.  The Discovery of ‘Ain Ghazal This archeological site was discovered in 1974 during the construction of a new road. The road continued on through‚ and excavation didn’t begin in earnest until 1982.  It remained an active archaeological site until 1989. Another set of excavations was carried out a few years later. Nearly two hundred statues and figurines have been discovered at ‘Ain Ghazal. Many of these depict horned animals‚ mostly cattle‚ and others depict humans. They were made during the height of the civilization situated there‚ between 7200 BC and 6250 BC. The statues of Ain Ghazal‚ at the Jordan Archaeological Museum (Amman Citadel). Many statues were destroyed by construction work‚ and others deteriorated quickly as soon as they were exposed to the elements. The latter excavation in 1985 exercised more care‚ block lifting them still interned and excavating them in laboratories to preserve the delicate plaster. Art and Culture There is evidence that the ceramic figures of ‘Ain Ghazal were used for ceremonial purposes. Some of the animal figurines were stabbed and buried beneath homes. Others were burned.  Some of the larger anthropomorphic statues were housed in ritual buildings. Others were buried in pits. Although the statues were capable of standing without support and often did for a short time‚ they were buried in pristine condition‚ suggesting that they were crafted for that purpose. Two underground caches were discovered to have been created anywhere from a few years to two centuries apart from one another. They contained a total of fifteen statues and fifteen busts representing men‚ women‚ and children.  Three of the busts have two heads each. All of the two-headed statues were found in the second cache‚ which had only six in total.  The bodies were not sculpted in detail. The arms are undersized‚ but a great deal of attention went into the heads‚ especially the oversized white chalk eyes.  The eyes of the later statues are especially large and almond-shaped. Black bitumen was used to draw large pupils and outline the eyes. The heads were probably topped with some sort of wig that has long since rotted away‚ as have the cores of each statue. Many of the mouths curve upwards in gentle smiles.  These three-foot-tall statues were made of white plaster around a core of reeds. They were painted to represent hair‚ clothes‚ tattoos‚ and/or ornamental body paint.  Statues found in the older cache are more unique‚ while those created two hundred years later are more homogenous. Archeologists hypothesize that the early statues represented specific people‚ while the later ones from the much smaller cache may have had a more generalized purpose. The post The Discovery of the Odd Statues of ‘Ain Ghazal first appeared on History Defined.

In the world of academia‚ there is a principle called “Occam’s Razor” (also referred to as the “Principle/Law of Parsimony”). It is the philosophy that when presented with competing hypotheses about the same prediction‚ one should always choose the one that requires the fewest assumptions.  (This is not meant to be a method of choosing between hypotheses that make different predictions.)  In science‚ “Occam’s Razor” is used as a form of “abductive logic” in the development of theoretical models (rather than a strict mediator between contending models). It seeks the simplest and most likely conclusion from a set of observations. It seeks a conclusion that is plausible (“best available” or “most likely”)‚ but does not definitively affirm it.   It is attributed to William of Ockham. He was a 14th-century English philosopher and theologian. The principle is sometimes (inaccurately) simplified as‚ “The simplest explanation is usually the best one.”  In reality‚ Ockham himself did not state this principle verbatim. But he stated it in various other ways including “Entities are not to be multiplied without necessity”). It only became associated with Ockham centuries after his death in 1347.  Nearly three hundred years would pass before Irish Franciscan philosopher John Punch would formally credit the Law of Parsimony to Ockham. This was in his 1639 commentary on the works of John Duns Scotus.  Scotus was a Scottish Catholic priest and Franciscan friar. He was considered one of the four most significant Christian philosopher-theologians of Western Europe in the High Middle Ages (CE 1000 to 1350).    But who was William of Ockham? William of Ockham (1285 – 1347). English philosopher Early Years William of Ockham was born in Ockham‚ in the borough of Guildford‚ in Surrey‚ England‚ in 1287. (His parentage is unknown.)  He was apparently an unremarkable child from an unremarkable family. Little is known of William of Ockham’s childhood other than that he entered the Franciscan order at a very early age. This was one of several related Christian groups within the Catholic Church. This one was founded in 1209 by the Italian saint‚ Francis of Assisi.   Monastic Life  William of Ockham received his elementary education in the London House of the Greyfriars monastery. This was a complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workshops of a number of monks who lived in relative isolation.  It is generally believed that he then studied theology at the University of Oxford from 1309 to 1321.  Records indicate that William of Ockham completed all the requirements for a master’s degree in theology. However‚ for some unknown reason‚ he was never awarded his degree allowing him to teach.  Even so‚ he acquired the honorific title “Venerabilis Inceptor” (meaning‚ “Venerable Beginner”). He was formally admitted to the ranks of teachers by the University of Oxford Board of Advisors.   A Charge of Heresy During the Middle Ages (from the late 5th to late 15th centuries)‚ a treatise written by theologian Peter Lombard called Sentences. It was the standard‚ accepted authority on theology.  As a matter of tradition‚ many ambitious theological scholars wrote commentaries on it. Some of these included Thomas Aquinas‚ Bonaventure‚ Petrus Aureolus‚ Robert Holcot‚ and Duns Scotus. Known even then as a scholastic thinker‚ William of Ockham decided to add his name to this auspicious list.  13th century manuscript with Peter Lombards’ commentary on the Psalms His paper‚ however‚ was not well received by his colleagues or by Church authorities. It challenged Pope John XXII and the Holy Catholic Church. As a result‚ in 1324‚ William of Ockham was ordered to Avignon‚ France‚ to defend his paper before a papal court.   When William of Ockham reached Avignon‚ however‚ he discovered that the theological commission in session to review his Commentary on the Sentences wanted to include him in a debate regarding Apostolic poverty.  The Franciscans believed that Jesus and his apostles owned no property (either individually or shared). They believed that the “Rule of Saint Francis” commanded members of the order to follow suit; to take a vow of poverty.  This‚ however‚ brought them into direct conflict with Pope John XXII‚ who centralized all power and income in the Church. He lived a decidedly lavish life in Avignon.   In 1327‚ University of Oxford chancellor John Lutterell (and five other theologians) questioned William of Ockham about his treatise. William posited that the primary importance of God is to determine the “gratuitous salvation of men.”  He also claimed that God’s saving action consists of giving without obligation. And that it is “already profusely demonstrated in the creation of Nature.”  According to Catholic beliefs‚ the “gratuitous salvation of men” refers to a “free gift conferred on particular persons for the salvation of others‚” or “grace freely given.” It is independent of the personal moral life or behavior of its possessor.  These include such gifts as charismata (prophecy‚ evoking miracles‚ speaking in tongues). Also‚ the priestly power of consecration (the act of transforming a thing from common to sacred use). Absolution (a pronouncement of forgiveness of sins in the name of God). And the hierarchical power of jurisdiction (church governance in which ordained bishops wield primary authority.)   The esteemed panel‚ however‚ found William of Ockham’s reasoning difficult to follow. Unable to justify formal condemnation‚ they instead restricted him to Avignon. They essentially put him under house arrest.   Religion and Politics In May of 1328‚ William of Ockham‚ Italian Franciscan Minister Michael of Cesena‚ and a number of other leading Franciscans fled Avignon. They eventually took refuge in the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV of Bavaria. This region was also enmeshed in a dispute with Pope John XXII. Emperor Louis IV became William’s defender. In return for protection and patronage‚ William of Ockham wrote treatises arguing for Emperor Louis’ supreme control over Church and State in the Holy Roman Empire. In reaction‚ on June 6‚ 1328‚ William was officially excommunicated by the Holy Roman Church (ostensibly). Another reason included leaving Avignon without permission. William countered that Pope John XXII was a heretic for attacking the Doctrine of Apostolic Poverty (and by association‚ the Rule of Saint Francis). This was something that all previous popes endorsed.  Though William of Ockham’s theological perspective was never “officially” condemned as heretical‚ his excommunication (censure) prevented him from participating in certain Church activities until he repented. Which he never did. On the Subject of “Nominalism” The perspective that eluded Church authorities when examining William of Ockham’s treatise was fundamentally based in what is now termed‚ “nominalism.”  In the field of metaphysics‚ “nominalism” denies the existence of metaphysical universals. It believes that abstract objects do not actually exist beyond their names or labels.  This belief opposes‚ for example‚ so-called realist philosophies such as Plato’s “Platonic Realism.” This asserts that universals do exist over and beyond the particulars. In the field of philosophy‚ “nominalism” denies the existence of universals on the grounds that the use of a general word (“humanity‚” for example) does not connote the existence of the general thing named by that term.  Nominalism asserts that there must be some similarity between the particular things to which the general word is applied. In his understanding of the deeper aspects of religion‚ spirituality‚ and being‚ William of Ockham emphatically denied metaphysical universals. He emphasized reducing one’s ontology (the philosophy/science of being) to a bare minimum. This would reduce the number of ontological categories. This is‚ apparently‚ the perspective William applied to the tenets of the Church‚ religion‚ and seemingly‚ everything in his life.  But how does this apply to his famous philosophy? “Nominalism” and “Occam’s Razor” in Modern Times William of Ockham’s version of “nominalism” is generally viewed as having derived from a common perspective. The underlying concern for “ontological parsimony‚” particularly regarding the likelihood of different scientific theories being true‚ the existence of certain particles‚ and the existence of supernatural entities.  This is summed up in his “Razor” and often expressed as: “Don’t multiply entities beyond necessity.” In modern times‚ “Occam’s Razor” is the accepted approach to all research philosophy. It is particularly important to the study of human behavior in the realm of psychology.  This approach is grounded in three primary questions: “What is the nature of reality?” “What can be accepted as knowledge?” and “Which realities are beyond necessary to include in a given context?” But the larger question remains‚ “By what standard or body of beliefs can one answer these questions?”  As William of Ockham was scornfully aware‚ human beings can never know with certainty what is and is not “beyond necessity to include.” This is because necessities are not always clear to us.  His rule of thumb is‚ “One must never deny entities commonly assumed to exist‚ nor feel compelled to posit entities in the absence of known compelling reasons for doing so.”  It should be noted‚ however‚ that for William‚ the only truly “necessary entity” is God. Everything else‚ the whole of creation‚ is solely contingent on that reality.  In his words‚ “ . . . nothing ought to be posited without a reason given‚ unless it is self-evident (literally‚ known through itself) or known by experience or proved by the authority of Sacred Scripture.”  Legacy: Beyond His Famous Principal There is no overstating the importance of William of Ockham’s contribution to modern science and intellectual thinking. The application of his “Razor” to Natural Philosophy‚ Theory of Knowledge‚ Political Theory‚ and Logic is immeasurable. According to the principle of ontological parsimony as it applies to Natural Philosophy‚ William of Ockham held that we do not need to allow entities in the category of quantity‚ as the mathematical entities are not “real.”  As if anticipating modern scientific thought‚ William asserted that mathematics must instead be applied to other categories such as “substance” or “qualities.” Regarding the Theory of Knowledge‚ William rejected the commonly accepted theory of species as unnecessary and not supported by experience. He favored instead the theory of “abstraction.”  He distinguished between intuitive and abstract cognition. Intuitive cognition depends on the existence or non-existence of the object‚ whereas abstractive cognition “abstracts” the object from the existence assertion. As to Political Theory‚ William of Ockham was one of the first medieval authors to advocate a form of separation of Church and State. He was important to the early development of the notion of individual property rights.  His views on Political Theory are today recognized as an important contributor to the development of Western constitutional ideas. Especially those of a government with limited responsibility and power. In terms of the study of Logic‚ William described in words the formula that would later be called “De Morgan’s Law” (an advanced rule of mathematics better known as “Boolean” algebra). This is the law that gives the relation between union‚ intersection‚ and complements in set theory. This formula was about five centuries ahead of the exploration of this area of mathematics.  Additionally‚ William of Ockham’s contributions to semantics (especially to the theory of supposition) are still studied by logicians today. William is credited with being the first logician to treat “empty terms” in Aristotelian syllogistic effectively. He devised semantics that precisely fit the logical argument. He stated‚ “An argument is valid if and only if it is valid according to Prior Analytics” (a text on reasoning written by Aristotle around 350 BCE).  References Britannica.com.‚ “William of Ockham‚” William of Ockham | English Philosopher &; Scholastic Theologian | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-of-Ockham catholicculture.org.‚ Catholic Dictionary: “GRATUITOUS GRACE‚” https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/dictionary/index.cfm?id=33805 plato.stanford.edu.‚ “William of Ockham‚” https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ockham/ research-methodology.net.‚ “Ontology‚” https://research-methodology.net/research-philosophy/ontology/The post The Man Behind Occam’s Razor: William of Ockham first appeared on History Defined.

Tales of life on the high seas have encapsulated people’s imaginations for centuries: overcoming massive storms‚ narrowly escaping pirate attacks‚ and discovering uncharted territories.  But sometimes‚ the reality is even more intriguing than the stories. This is the case with the story of Mary Ann Brown‚ the 19-year-old ship captain who merely fell into the position by accident.  Mary Ann Brown Patten Early Life Mary Ann Brown was married just before her 16th birthday to the young captain Joshua Patten in 1853. He was 25 and still making a name for himself in the shipping world.  After several years of transporting passengers and cargo between New York and Boston‚ Patten was offered a new opportunity in 1855. He was offered the position of captain of the merchant ship Neptune’s Car.  The previous captain of the ship had fallen ill just days before the next voyage. They scrambled to find a replacement to run the ship. Within a day‚ Mary and Joshua were aboard the ship ready to set sail.  Learning the Seas They spent the next year and a half sailing the world together. They delivered cargo to San Francisco‚ China‚ and London before returning to New York.  Mary spent the trip learning all about seamanship from Joshua. She learned how to navigate the ship and assisted Joshua in his duties as captain. In many ways‚ she became more qualified to operate a ship than most of the crew. After a short time in New York again‚ Captain Patten and Neptune’s Car were quickly chartered for another journey. The Neptune’s Car’s Voyage Neptune’s Car had a reputation as a fast ship. This is why it was chosen for a new contract transporting mining gear and supplies to San Francisco in 1856.  During the gold rush‚ speed was essential in the clamber for economic prosperity. Patten bragged that he would be able to complete the journey in just 100 days.  The Intrepid and Romance of the Seas were also carrying cargo to San Francisco. Bets were set up between different sailors to sweeten the pot for whoever could make the trip fastest.  Immediately though‚ Patten was at a disadvantage. His first mate fractured his leg and was unable to join him on the voyage. The company that had chartered the ship refused to delay the trip because it would cut into profits.  So Patten was forced to quickly sign a new first mate and depart from New York. The week of July 1‚ 1856‚ the three ships took off from New York on their long journey‚ with Mary Ann Brown joining her husband once again.  Crumbling Leadership These ships set sail before the construction of the Panama Canal. This meant that getting to the other side of the continent required sailing south around Cape Horn‚ the southern tip of the South American continent.  The trip normally took four months to travel nearly 15000 miles around the continents. Before reaching the cape‚ Patten found that his newly signed first mate was either incompetent or purposefully sabotaging the ship’s progress in favor of a bet.  After catching the first mate sleeping multiple times and slowing the ship by neglecting to set sails properly‚ Patten ordered he be confined below deck.  The second mate also turned out to be incapable of navigating the ship because he lacked the knowledge and was illiterate. Therefore‚ Patten was forced to take on the first mate’s responsibilities as well as his captain role.  The Captain Falls Ill Already ill before departing from New York‚ Patten was not able to handle the pressure of both roles very long.  As the ship approached Cape Horn‚ perhaps the most dangerous part of the journey‚ Patten had been on deck for eight days straight to keep the ship on course. The toll of this work was too much for Patten to bear. He collapsed. The crew diagnosed him with “brain fever‚” although historians state he suffered from tuberculosis.  With no captain and no first mate‚ the ship seemed unlikely to make it to port until Mary Ann Brown stepped up. Unbeknownst to anyone but her husband though‚ the 19-year-old was pregnant with her first child.  Mary Ann Brown to the Rescue Against all odds‚ Mary stepped up to fulfill the role of captain after Patten collapsed. Mary drew on her knowledge from her global escapades with her husband in years prior.  From below deck‚ the first mate saw his opportunity to enact his revenge on the sick captain. After writing a letter to Mary‚ begging her to reinstate him as the one in charge of the ship‚ she responded that if Joshua did not trust him then she would not either.  So he attempted to convince the crew to mutiny and put the ship into port in Chile. Fearing the worst‚ Mary gathered the crew and appealed to each individually. She retained their loyalty and dedication to ensuring the ship would make it to San Francisco.  A Legendary Captain Mary successfully navigated the ship into port in San Francisco through icebergs‚ foul weather‚ and windless seas while also caring for her comatose husband.  Without her constant care‚ Patten would likely have died during the journey. Upon pulling into port‚ dockworkers looked in awe at a six-month pregnant woman leading the ship with her sickly husband beside her.  Her bravery earned her a reward from the shipping company for ensuring the goods were delivered despite bad weather and a mutiny‚ and the ship even beat the Intrepid.  Mary and Joshua returned to Boston‚ where shortly after she gave birth to their son. Unfortunately‚ Joshua would only live for another year. Mary would only live for 4 more years.  But their epic journey is forever ingrained in the lore of the sea.  References “Mary Ann Brown Patten: First Woman Clipper Ship Commander.” womenhistoryblog.com. https://www.womenhistoryblog.com/2015/11/mary-ann-brown-patten.html.  “Women in Transportation History: Mary Ann Brown Patten.” Transportationhistory.org‚ March 1‚ 2017. https://transportationhistory.org/2017/03/01/women-in-transportation-history-mary-ann-brown-patten/.  The post How Mary Ann Brown Patten Saved Neptune’s Car From Disaster first appeared on History Defined.