Orichalcum is a semi-mythical metal that was most likely an early form of brass. Its name derives from the ancient Greek words for ‘mountain’ and ‘copper’. Orichalcum was mentioned in several ancient texts‚ including Plato’s Critias. Plato wrote of orichalcum as being second in value only to gold‚ but other writers centuries later used the word to refer to a gold-colored metal of little value.  In the first century‚ Pliny the Elder wrote that the orichalcum mines were exhausted. One of his contemporaries wrote that the substance was “very shiny and white. Not because there is tin mixed with it‚ but because some earth is combined and molten with it.”  The orichalcum described by Plato was reddish-gold. Therefore‚ the word probably referred to different alloys at various points in time.  Bars of the supposed Orichalcum‚ Gela museum‚ Sicily Cadmus and the Origins of Orichalcum According to myth‚ the ancient Phoenician hero Cadmus invented orichalcum. Cadmus was a prince descended from gods. His paternal grandparents were Poseidon and Libya‚ the mythical Egyptian princess. Libya was the daughter of a king and the granddaughter of Zeus. Cadmus was also descended from the River Nile on his mother’s side. It’s an interesting origin story‚ because the legendary Cadmus came from a part of the world that was manufacturing bronze and brass before either became common in ancient Greece. The Island of Atlantis Plato’s Critias tells of how the Earth was divided up by the gods. They each ruled over their own domain. The island of Atlantis belonged to Poseidon. Poseidon fell in love with a mortal woman named Cleito. Their firstborn son was named Atlas. He became the first ruler of Atlantis. Atlas also gave his name to the Atlantic Ocean. Atlantis was a wealthy kingdom rich in orichalcum‚ which “was dug out of the earth in many parts of the island‚ being more precious in those days than anything except gold.” The ancient metropolis of Atlantis was surrounded by a series of walls made of varicolored stone. The outermost was covered in bronze‚ the next with tin. The innermost wall or “the third‚ which encompassed the citadel‚ flashed with the red light of orichalcum.” Within this innermost wall were palaces and a holy temple dedicated to Poseidon and Cleito. The temple was surrounded by and covered in silver and gold.  “In the interior of the temple‚” continues Plato‚ “the roof was of ivory‚ curiously wrought everywhere with gold and silver and orichalcum; and all the other parts‚ the walls and pillars and floor‚ they coated with orichalcum.” The island abided by a set of laws handed down by Poseidon‚ which were “inscribed by the first kings on a pillar of orichalcum”. Plato describes the early Atlantean people as having “true and in every way great spirits‚ uniting gentleness with wisdom”.  Later‚ when their blood “became diluted too often and too much with the mortal admixture‚ and the human nature got the upper hand” the civilization became debased and drew the attention of Zeus.  He wanted to “inflict punishment on them‚ that they might be chastened and improve‚” but the rest of the dialogue is lost to history. An orichalcum sesterce coin from the Roman Empire. An Ancient Shipwreck In 2015‚ archaeologists retrieved a unique metal from a shipwreck off the coast of Gela in Sicily.  The ship sank somewhere around 2‚600 years ago. It probably departed from Cyprus‚ a Greek island that produced many different types of bronze. The island was so rich in copper that the word itself derives from the Greek Kyprios‚ which was the name of the island.  One archaeologist described the area as “a priceless mine of archaeological finds”.  Two bronze Corinthian helmets were also found in the shipwreck. Bronze is much more resistant to seawater corrosion than steel. All of the artifacts are in remarkably good shape despite having spent millennia at the bottom of the sea.  The golden ingots that they found are actually an alloy made of copper‚ zinc‚ and charcoal. Its appearance and makeup are consistent with historical references to the lost ancient metal orichalcum.  This expedition to the sunken ship in 2015 was the first time that this particular alloy had been discovered in any substantial quantities. The metal found in this shipwreck was made through a process of cementation in which copper‚ zinc ore‚ and charcoal are melted together in a crucible. It is one of the earliest copper-zinc alloys ever found. X-ray fluorescence shows that this particular alloy is made up of approximately 75 to 80 percent copper‚ 20 to 25 percent zinc‚ and small amounts of iron‚ nickel‚ and lead. This ratio of copper to zinc was common in early brass. Bronze usually contains a higher percentage of copper‚ about 88 percent‚ with the rest being mostly tin. Brass‚ like this ancient alloy‚ contains a high percentage of zinc – sometimes upwards of forty percent – and small amounts of other metals. The History of Bronze and Brass The earliest bronze artifacts were created in the 5th millennium BC in parts of the Persian Plateau. The oldest copper-tin bronze ever found was created in Serbia around the same time. By the 4th millennium BC‚ bronze was being made in Mesopotamia‚ Egypt‚ and China. The two main components of bronze – copper and tin – are rarely found in the same place. Therefore‚ the creation of bronze required robust trade networks.  Assyrian cuneiform tablets from the 7th and 8th century BC mention a kind of ‘mountain copper’ called oreikhalkon. It was in the 4th century that Plato wrote accounts of this substance being as rare and nearly as valuable as gold. At that time‚ it was still quite rare. As time went on‚ the ancient Greek word oricalcum morphed into the Latin word aurichalcum‚ which means ‘golden copper’ and became the standard word for ‘brass’.  Brass became increasingly common and was first used for coins in the first century BC. This explains why people at this time used the word orichalcum for a metal of little worth.  It was used as coinage in isolated parts of the Roman Empire. It was also used by the government to manufacture military equipment. Roman crucibles used for the production of brass have been found in Germany‚ France‚ and Great Britain. The post Real or Fake? Orichalcum‚ Ancient Metal of Mythical Origins first appeared on History Defined.

In two different parts of the world‚ two different types of warriors took up swords. They have cemented themselves in history as some of the most skilled fighters of all time. The legends of knights and samurais are so incredible that they almost seem more like parts of myths instead of reality.  But knights and samurais were both very real. While they likely never crossed paths‚ their similar statuses have drawn some comparisons.  Knights and samurais were both specialized warriors who fought with swords and did so for the glory of their leaders. So‚ head to head‚ knights vs samurai‚ who would win?  Medieval Knights and Japanese Samurai: Similarities and Differences   To determine who would win in a fight between knights and samurais‚ we first need a quick overview of both.  Medieval Knights  Existed: 500-1500 CE Weapons: Long swords‚ lances‚ maces‚ battle axes Armor: Plate armor  Knights existed during the Middle Ages‚ also known as the Dark Ages. Typically‚ they were members of the nobility and were highly trained‚ not just at battle but also at horseback riding and other court necessities.  Certain rules of etiquette bound knights. They also participated in forms of entertainment such as jousts.  Hand-and-a-half Scottish long sword‚ c. 1400-1420. In Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum‚ Glasgow Japanese Samurai  Existed: 1185-1868 CE Weapons: Katana‚ Naginata‚ Yumi longbow  Armor:  Early armor consisted of kozane‚ or scale armor. Later armor consisted of ito-momo or iron plate armor. The Japanese samurai were members of a military caste. As such‚ they adhered to a strict code known as bushido. Samurai translates to “one who serves.” Similarly‚ bushido translates to “the way of the warrior.”  Honor was incredibly important to the samurai. They were very strict about the ways in which they engaged in battle as well as their actions in day-to-day life. Samurai served daimyos‚ or Japanese great lords‚ and were notoriously loyal‚ even to the point of death.  Knights Vs Samurai: Who Would Win? Now that we know a little more about knights and samurais‚ it’s time to determine which one would win in battle. First‚ let’s look at the advantages that each warrior has. Both knights and samurais were trained from a young age and their training was intense. Each would come out of the other side deadly and strong. As far as their training goes‚ they are rather evenly matched.  Armor and Defense  In full armor‚ the knight would have the advantage in defense. The heavy plate armor would be all but impenetrable by a samurai’s katana or arrows. A knight’s armor. Metropolitan Museum of Art A samurai would also wear armor‚ but their armor was lighter. It was constructed from scales created from either iron or leather. It was arranged in such a way as to ascertain that a samurai wouldn’t lose their speed.  Samurai armor was protective. But since it was crafted to favor freedom of movement over being impenetrable‚ it would leave a samurai more vulnerable to direct strikes by a knight.  Winner: Knight  Speed and Agility  A knight’s plate armor becomes a problem when speed is involved. It may protect them from heavy sword strikes and hails of arrows‚ but a knight’s armor was incredibly heavy.  It could weigh anywhere between 60 and 80 pounds (30-25 kilograms). This would be heavy enough to slow down even the strongest knight.  Add in the weight of a knight’s weapons‚ and they become significantly slower than a samurai. A samurai’s lightweight armor and their focus on the speed of their katana strikes would make them deadly against an unarmored knight. However‚ if their opponent was in full plate armor‚ a samurai would have a difficult time getting a hit in.  This is where the samurai speed would also come in handy. Even a knight’s armor would have a few weak points‚ specifically the neck and joints.  Samurai were known for the precision of their strikes. This could lead to them getting a deadly neck strike or debilitating joint strike on a knight before they even knew what was happening.  Winner: Samurai  Offense and Strength To fairly compare a knight and a samurai‚ we’ll assume they are both fighting with their trademark swords–a longsword for the knight and a katana for the samurai.  Because of the weight a knight carries‚ their style of sword fighting would favor stronger‚ more powerful hits. These would ultimately end up being slower but more debilitating.  A longsword carried by a knight would be a premium blade for the time. But it’s unlikely that even the best longsword could be as sharp as the meticulously crafted katana. Antique Japanese (samurai) katana at the Met Museum Longswords are double-sided blades compared to the katana’s single side. This is negated by the samurai’s way of fighting with the katana. Neither sword comes out superior to the other‚ so it all comes down to the warrior’s skill with their particular blade.  Both knights and samurais were trained for both one-on-one duels as well as full-scale battles. Against one another‚ they would be pretty even.  The knight may have the advantage of sheer strength after years of training and fighting in full-plate armor. In a head-to-head battle of strength‚ we can assume the knight would come out on top.  But we can’t simply give this category to the knight‚ because offense isn’t only about strength. The intense training of the samurai and the deadly precision of their fighting style could make up for being less physically powerful than a knight‚ which leaves this category unknown.  Winner: Tie  Knights Vs Samurai: In Conclusion  After our investigation‚ it has been determined that the winner of a knights vs samurai battle is inconclusive. There are too many variables in a fight like this. Even one simple change could turn the tides of battle in either direction.  In an unarmored battle‚ it seems that the samurai would be the winner. A samurai would be faster and more agile than a knight‚ and this would give them the upper hand.  In a battle in full armor‚ a knight would likely take the win. There is the possibility that a samurai’s speed may help them strike a knight’s weak areas. But a knight’s plate armor is nearly impenetrable and would keep them safe from the majority of a samurai’s attacks.  The only thing that we know for sure is that both of these warriors were incredible fighters and that their legends have carried through history long after they were gone.  References  “The Weapons of an English Medieval Knight” https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1238/the-weapons-of-an-english-medieval-knight/ “Samurai armour” https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/stories/global-arts-cultures-and-design/discovering-japan/discovering-japan/samurai-armour/The post Who Would Win a Fight Between Knights and Samurais? first appeared on History Defined.

Humans have always been fascinated with mythology and folklore. Every culture around the world has its own myths or legends that help to explain the unexplainable.  In ancient times‚ mythological figures were revered as Gods‚ demons‚ or heroes‚ and often taught a moral lesson. Today‚ many of these myths and legends have found their way into modern urban legends and folklore.  One such example is the “Goat Man” of Maryland. In this article‚ we will explore the documented cases and sightings of the Goat Man as we try to shed light on the enigmatic creature that has captured the imagination of Maryland residents.  Representation of the Goat Man. Cryptid Wiki Cryptids and Urban Legends Before we get into the Maryland Goat Man‚ we need to first understand the world of cryptozoology. Cryptozoologists search for and study unknown‚ legendary‚ or extinct animals whose existence is disputed or unsubstantiated.  These creatures are referred to as “cryptids.”  We are all familiar with well-known examples of cryptids such as: The Loch Ness Monster Bigfoot The Chupacabra The Jersey Devil The Goatman Of Prince George’s County The Goat Man of Maryland‚ like many urban legends‚ is a blend of historical accounts‚ reported sightings‚ and unverifiable physical evidence. The Maryland Goat Man is no exception. It borrows traits and behaviors that are often associated with modern cryptids such as: Human-animal hybrid Only comes out at night Eats/kills pets and livestock The first report of a large unknown creature in Prince George’s County may have surfaced in 1957. Several locals claimed to have seen a giant‚ hairy beast in the towns of Forestville and Upper Marlboro.  Nothing ever came of the reports. There were no further documented sightings of the goatman for nearly fifteen years.  In the spring of 1971‚ George Lizama‚ a University of Maryland student‚ turned in her undergraduate research paper. It was focused on the Goatman based on personal accounts from locals.  Lizama’s paper detailed the Goatman’s purported location on Tucker Road in Clinton‚ Maryland. Her paper was later filed into the University of Maryland Folklife Archives where it stayed hidden for just a few months until it was discovered by reporter Karen Hosler. In October 1971‚ Hosler published an article on the Goatman legend in the local Prince George’s County News. Suspiciously‚ two weeks after the article was published a local family dog went missing and was discovered a few days later decapitated.  The locals were terrified. Was the goatman real or was someone trying to make it seem like it was? Hosler followed her first article up with “Residents Fear Goatman Lives: Dog Found Decapitated in Old Bowie‚” The report connected the missing dog story to the stories from 1957 which also included missing and dead dogs.  The article only stoked fears‚ and suddenly more sightings were being reported. Reports from a group of teenage girls including‚ April Edwards‚ the owner of the decapitated dog‚ told of unsettling noises and a sighting of a large creature walking on its hind legs.  Representation of the Goat Man. Cryptid Wiki Whether the girls actually thought they saw something or they were trying to perpetuate the myth of the goatman is up for debate. But what is known is that the report continued to fuel the paranoia felt in Prince George’s County.  Over the following weeks‚ numerous other sightings were reported but never verified. Most of the sightings were centered around a forest behind the St. Mark the Evangelist Middle School in Hyattsville‚ beneath the “Cry Baby” Bridge in Bowie‚ and in College Park.  Some people claimed to have heard devilish screams or the sound of a baby crying. They have even found weapons and bones at these locations.  Most reported sightings of the Goatman seem to happen near Governor Bridge‚ known as “Cry Baby” Bridge to the locals. Legend says that if you park under the bridge after sunset‚ you can hear the sounds of a baby crying which has been interpreted as a goat braying.  The Goat Man Through Time The concept of a half-human‚ half-goat creature is not unique to Maryland or even the United States. These beings actually have their roots in ancient Roman and Greek mythology.  These mythical beings have been depicted in paintings‚ statues‚ carvings‚ and other forms of art. They typically feature the upper body of a human and the lower body of a goat. In both mythologies‚ these creatures were associated with various deities. They symbolized the dualities of civilization and the untamed wilderness. Some examples of goat-human hybrids in mythology include: Satyrs: In Greek mythology‚ satyrs were companions of Dionysus‚ the god of wine and revelry. Satyrs were known for their mischievous and lustful behavior‚ often depicted as wild and free-spirited woodland creatures. Their goat-like features‚ including horns and hooves. Pan: Pan‚ the god of the wild‚ shepherds‚ and rustic music‚ is perhaps the most famous representation of a half-human‚ half-goat figure in Greek mythology. Pan‚ often depicted with goat horns and legs‚ played his panpipes and roamed the forests. Fauns: The Roman equivalent of satyrs‚ fauns were associated with the god Faunus‚ the Roman counterpart to the Greek Pan. Fauns shared similar characteristics with satyrs‚ featuring goat-like legs and an affinity for the wilderness. They were believed to be protectors of the forest and fertility. Goat-human legends exist in various forms and have evolved over time. These versions are often influenced by geography and local culture‚ with minor alterations in details such as the appearance‚ behavior‚ or specific encounters with the creature.  Conclusion The legend of the Goat Man stands as a testament to the enduring allure of urban legends and their ability to weave themselves into the fabric of local folklore.  Whether shared around campfires‚ passed down through generations‚ or perpetuated in the digital age‚ urban legends like “The Goat Man” persist as a vital part of our collective storytelling heritage and create strong bonds within the communities they exist in. References The Goatman–Or His Story‚ at Least–Still Haunts Prince George’s County. https://www.washingtonian.com/2015/10/30/the-goatman-or-his-story-at-least-still-haunts-prince-georges-county/ Inside The Terrifying Legends Of The Goatman That’s Been Seen In Maryland And Texas For Decades https://allthatsinteresting.com/goatman Cryptozoology https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptozoology Pan  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_(god)The post The Legend of Maryland’s Local Cryptid‚ the Goat Man first appeared on History Defined.

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