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Developer Infidelity has just publicly released his NES to SNES conversion for the iconic game Metroid.  As with his previous DuckTails‚ Zelda‚ Mega Man II and Mega Man IV releases‚ these eliminate slowdown‚ reduce sprite flicker and allow for SNES-related enhancements that aren’t possible on NES hardware.  More info after the link and a livestream of me playing it can […]

Sometimes a person appears who decidedly upends entire systems of thought. They encourage others to reconsider what they thought they knew.  Bobbi Gibb is one of those people. She dedicated over 50 years of her life to battling misogyny in sports and shifting the perception that women are less physically capable than men when it comes to competitive athletics.  Bobbi Gibb runs the 1966 Boston Marathon in a black bathing suit‚ Bermuda shorts and boys’ running shoes. Photo by Fred Kaplan /Sports Illustrated Falling in Love with Running  Roberta ‘Bobbi’ Gibb grew up in the suburbs of Boston during the affluent postwar years of 1950s America. She was always painfully aware of the reality of women’s lives in these years. She watched her mother drink and take tranquilizers with her friends. A coping mechanism used to tolerate the monotony of remaining a stay-at-home mother and wife rather than pursuing her own dreams.  She understood that society saw women as frail and incapable of nearly anything except producing children. From a young age‚ Gibb was determined to avoid living a similar life. She sought to prove that women were capable of more by pursuing her dreams at any cost.  Gibb spent her childhood running around outdoors‚ exploring nature in her local neighborhood. She was filled with a sense of adventure and awe for the world. She developed a love of running at an early age.  Despite her love of running and growing up near Boston‚ she did not attend the Boston Marathon until 1964. But once she did‚ the effect it had on her was profound. She immediately felt a sense of community with the runners and sought to join their ranks.  That summer‚ she took a road trip across the United States in her parent’s Volkswagen van. She stopped to admire various national parks and natural wonders. She ran up to 40 miles daily‚ usually in nurse shoes because they were the closest thing to a running shoe available to women then.  She moved to San Diego but continued training. She started preparing for the day she would return to Boston and take on the marathon. “Not Physiologically Able” Gibb applied to participate in the 1996 marathon‚ after two years of training on her own. In February of 1966‚ she received a response back from the organizers of the race. They denied her application.  The letter stated that women were “not physiologically able to run a marathon.” The letter cited the Amateur Athletics Union’s rule that women were not allowed to run in races over 1.5 miles.  The organization did not want to take on the liability of allowing a woman to run in the marathon. Thus‚ they denied her application. But Gibb was not going to give up on her dream that easily. In fact‚ the denial would inspire her even more.  In the days leading up to the race‚ Gibb formulated a plan.  She rode a series of Greyhound buses across the country to her parents’ house in Boston. She decided that she was going to run the marathon whether she was allowed or not.  Unlike other racers‚ she did not have a trainer or nutritionist to help her prepare her body. She even gorged herself the night before the race (which she later admitted made her stomach hurt after the race).  On April 19‚ 1966‚ her mom dropped her off near the starting line. Gibb hid in some bushes wearing her brother’s hoodie and shorts over a swimsuit to disguise herself. Shortly after the race began‚ she emerged.  She began running alongside the crowd of men‚ doing her best to blend into the runners around her.  Definitely Physiologically Able There were many things about the plan that terrified Gibb. One fear was that upon discovery‚ she would be quickly removed from the race by officials who sought to maintain the integrity of the event.  More directly‚ she feared that the men in the race would be hostile towards her attempt to run alongside them. That fear came to a head quickly. The other runners figured out she was a woman by probably‚ as she says‚ “studying my anatomy from the rear.”  But the fear of hostility quickly evaporated when all of the men in the race began encouraging Gibb. A sense of camaraderie developed between her and the other racers. They were all there to enjoy the sport‚ not enforce gender stereotypes.  She quickly took off the hoodie to avoid overheating. She soon realized she was running to the sound of cheers‚ from participants and onlookers alike.  Along the path was Wellesley College‚ an all-women’s school. Word had reached the crowd there that a woman was running in the marathon. As Gibb approached‚ the crowd roared in support. This reinvigorated her. Her new running shoes were beginning to cut into her feet and the toll of the long race set in.  It would not be much longer before Gibb finished the race in an impressive three hours‚ twenty minutes‚ and forty seconds. This was a faster time than two-thirds of her male competition.  Waiting at the finish line were not officials ready to remove her from the race‚ but the governor of Massachusetts who welcomed her with a handshake and invited her to talk to the press about her historic feat.  Yet when it came time to celebrate with the traditional post-race stew‚ Gibb was denied access. The only reason was a firm “men only” presented to her at the door.  Reshaping Racing Gibb would go on to complete the marathon unofficially for the next two years. In 1967‚ she was joined by another woman named Kathrine Switzer.  Switzer had officially signed up for the race by lying about her gender on her application. She used only her initials and had her coach pick up her number.  A famous picture of the co-director of the race trying to wrest the number from Switzer during the race has led Switzer to gain credit for being the first woman to compete in the Boston Marathon. When the picture hit the news‚ the narrative of confrontation and sexism Switzer faced attracted national attention.  Runner Kathrine Switzer attacked by race official Jock Semple while running in the 1967 Boston Marathon. It aligned with the broader social reform of the period. Gibb’s story was lost in the fray because the racers‚ and even the directors‚ had welcomed her with open arms. Gibb hypothesizes that the only reason Switzer faced backlash at all was that the marathon could have lost its accreditation for “officially” having a woman racing.  Gibb then competed again in 1968 with even more women unofficially joining. It would not be until 1972 that the AAU rule was lifted and women were allowed to participate in races longer than 1.5 miles.  Nine women would compete in the marathon that year‚ with a growing number joining the race every year after. By 2017‚ women would consist of nearly half of all the racers.  Gibb had started a tidal wave of change by refusing to take no for an answer. Still‚ it would be over twenty more years before Gibb was officially recognized for her accomplishments.  In 1996‚ the Boston Athletic Association awarded Gibb a medal for her wins in 66-68. Her name was carved into the Boston Marathon memorial with other winners. The years before women were allowed to race became known as the “pioneer years” with Gibb as the face of change.  Closing the Athletic Gender Gap The question of women’s physical ability to participate in sports is still debated. But proof continues to emerge that women are just as capable as men.  The gap between the fastest male and female marathon completion time is less than 15 minutes. In the last sixty years‚ the fastest women’s time for a marathon has dropped nearly an hour and a half. While in twice that time‚ men’s times have only changed by about an hour.  Women also continue to outperform men in other forms of endurance sports‚ including cycling and swimming. Leveling the playing field and encouraging women to participate in these sports has disproven innate perceptions that women are unable to compete.  As for Bobbi‚ running was not the only place she faced sexist restrictions. She finished premedical school but was denied the ability to become a doctor because she was a woman. Instead‚ she would go on to become a lawyer who practiced intellectual property law and now pursues her passion for art.  She has made multiple trophies for race wins over the years. There is even a sculpture of herself running that was erected at the Hopkinton Center for the Arts‚ near where the Boston Marathon begins.  Gibb continues to be an inspiration. She embodies the hope and dignity that she demonstrated over 50 years ago in Boston.  References Ruhalter‚ Kana and Arun Rath. “Over 60 years later‚ Boston Marathon runner Bobbi Gibb wants us to celebrate life.” WGBH‚ April 14‚ 2023. https://www.wgbh.org/news/local/2023-04-14/over-60-years-later-boston-marathon-runner-bobbi-gibb-wants-us-to-celebrate-life.  Guiberteau‚ Olivier. “Bobbi Gibb: The Boston Marathon pioneer who raced a lie.” BBC Sport‚ August 28‚ 2023. https://www.bbc.com/sport/athletics/66615089.  Ross‚ Ailsa. “The Woman Who Crashed the Boston Marathon.” JSTOR‚ March 18‚ 2018. https://daily.jstor.org/the-woman-who-crashed-the-boston-marathon/. The post How Bobbi Gibb Upended Professional Running first appeared on History Defined.

Norse mythology has persisted in the Western canon for hundreds of years because of its well-crafted stories and intriguing characters‚ many of which have been adapted into other stories. The World Tree‚ Yggdrasil‚ supports the universe on its branches and roots. It has been stylized throughout the ages in different cultures. Ragnarok‚ the prophesied end of the world in Norse mythology‚ is a widely recognized mythological concept. Many of the gods of Norse mythology are still referenced in pop culture and literature today‚ with some even being household names. Thor and Loki have become very well known for their portrayals as characters in the Marvel Cinematic Universe and comics. And much of the pantheon of gods was explored in the recent game God of War: Ragnarok. A recurring character in the game and an important character of note in mythology is Angrboda‚ a jöttun giantess of which there is little mythological record. Loki’s brood; Hel‚ Fenrir and Jörmungandr. The figure in the background is presumably Angrboða Norse Mythological Roots From a historical perspective‚ Norse mythology is largely documented in two collections: Poetic Edda and Prose Edda.  The Poetic Edda‚ most famously documented in the Codex Regius‚ is a collection of narrative poems that document Norse mythology. Composed as a separate volume with more prose-based explanations of events‚ the Prose Edda is a comprehensive collection of Norse mythological stories.  Both trace their roots back to the 12th century when the poet and historian Snorri Sturluson compiled the stories into volumes to teach others mythology and the art of Norse poetry‚ although the stories predate Sturluson’s written copies.  The Norse Pantheon When consulted together‚ these texts collectively document Norse mythology from creation to Ragnarok. They provide details for each god in the Norse pantheon.  One of the most famous is Odin‚ the All-Father. He was the king of Asgard and ruler of the Nine Realms. There is his son Thor‚ the hammer-wielding god of thunder and one of the greatest warriors in Norse mythology. And also Loki‚ the trickster god born of a jotun giant‚ and the goddess Laufey.  A lesser-known character‚ who is introduced in connection to Loki but becomes a key figure in her own right‚ is Angrboda.  Also known as the “mother of monsters” and “she-who-offers-sorrow”‚ Angrboda is mentioned only once in the Poetic Edda‚ although she gets a more robust description throughout the tales of the Prose Edda.  Mother of Monsters: Fenrir‚ Jormungandr‚ and Hel Angrboda is documented in these texts as one of Loki’s two wives‚ with whom he bore three children.  Their first child was Fenrir‚ the great wolf who was destined to kill Odin during Ragnarok and consume the moon. Fenrir was locked away for this prophecy‚ but not before tricking the god Tyr into placing his hand in Fenrir’s mouth‚ where it was bitten clean off.  Their second child was Jormungandr‚ the world serpent. After he was born‚ Odin cast him out from Asgard where he landed in the great ocean surrounding Midgard (Earth).  As he grew‚ he eventually could grab his own tail and wrap around the world and form the edges of the sea‚ gaining the name World Serpent. However‚ it was prophesied that once Jormungandr released his tail then Ragnorok would begin. Notably‚ Jormungandr would develop a rivalry with Thor‚ and the two were destined to fight to the death during Ragnarok.  Their third child was Hel‚ a goddess that Odin banished to rule over a land called Hel‚ a portion of the realm of Niflheim beneath the world tree‚ Yggdrasil. Niflheim was the Norse equivalent of the underworld or afterlife. And Hel was responsible for looking after those who died of sickness or old age. She has become associated with death overall.  The Witch of the Ironwood Little else is known of Angrboda‚ although it is believed she is “the witch of the Ironwood” mentioned in the Prose Edda.  One passage makes mention of a forest to the east of Midgard called Ironwood. This is where trollswives (Iarnvidiur) live‚ and where an ancient giantess breeds giants and wolves. This could be Angrboda‚ as she is both a giant and gave birth to at least one son with Loki who was a wolf.  The backdrop of Ironwood also is used in the game God of War: Ragnarok. It is the location where Atreus‚ son of the main character Kratos‚ meets Angrboda.  A romance buds between the two throughout the game‚ which is reflective of mythology because (spoiler alert) Atreus is revealed to be Loki. Although Angrboda does not give birth to their three children in the game‚ she nonetheless is developed as a character. Many references to her in the game allude to her scarce mythological roots.  With so little to document her existence‚ it is surprising that Angrboda has survived this long in Norse mythology. However‚ it is more surprising that there was so little documentation of her existence in the first place.  As the mother of three monsters‚ two of which play essential roles in Ragnarok‚ the end of all things‚ it seems she would be the perfect candidate for further exploration when elaborating on specific themes while myth-building. Perhaps her nature as a jotunn kept her from being described in more detail. Or perhaps her lack of detail was intentional to promote an heir of mystery around Loki’s mistress and the mother of monsters.  Either way‚ God of War: Ragnarok has the most extensive (albeit with many creative liberties) depiction of Angrboda to date. Although maybe the MCU producers can find a way to include an easter egg referencing Angrboda as Loki explores the multiverse in the latest season of his self-titled television series.  References “Angrboda” God of War Wiki‚ October 7‚ 2023. https://godofwar.fandom.com/wiki/Angrboda.  Pearson‚ Leanbh. “Angrboda: Mother of Monsters.” leanbhpearson.com‚ November 19‚ 2018. https://leanbhpearson.com/2018/11/19/angrboda-mother-of-monsters/.  Skjalden.  “Angrboda is the mother of Jörmungandr‚ the Fenrir wolf‚ and Hel.” Nordic Culture‚ August 11‚ 2020. https://skjalden.com/angrboda/.  Myth and Folklore Wiki‚ January 14‚ 2023. https://mythus.fandom.com/wiki/Angrbo%C3%B0a. The post Angrboda: The Mysterious Mother of Norse Monsters first appeared on History Defined.

Bellerophon‚ whose original name was Hipponous‚ is a mythical Greek character. He became a great hero‚ equivalent to Hercules or Perseus.  He was born of Poseidon and Eurymone‚ the daughter of the King of Megara. Eurymone also married King Glaukos‚ son of Sisyphus.  This ties Bellerophon to another major character of Greek mythology. Sisyphus was cursed by Hades for avoiding death twice and was forced to push a boulder up a hill for eternity. Greek pebble mosaic depicting Bellerophon riding Pegasus while killing the Chimera‚ c. 300–270 BCE. Archaeological Museum of Rhodes‚ Greece. Origins of Bellerophon The name Bellerophon has two competing origins. One is that the etymological roots of the name could be related to the Greek word for projectile. This would relate to a number of Bellerphon’s feats throughout his life.  The other interpretation is derived from the Scholia of Homer. It dictates that Hipponous accidentally killed someone named Belleros in Corinth while practicing knife-throwing. This narrative description explains the rest of Bellerophon’s tale as he changed his name to mean “killer of Belleros.”  He was later exiled from Corinth‚ although some tales claim he killed his brother.  Bellerophon’s First Exile In his exile‚ Bellerophon sought atonement from King Proetus. He granted it to him and welcomed him with open arms.  Shortly after‚ however‚ the king’s wife began to lust after Bellerophon who rejected her advances. Insulted‚ she told Proetus that Bellerophon had tried to make advances on her.  But Bellerophon was protected by the Greek concept of xenia: extending hospitality to strangers. Rather than risk transgressing the societal contract defining hospitality‚ Proetus decided to get rid of his issue in a different way.  Iobates’ Dilemma Proetus wrote a letter and placed it in a sealed tablet. He then gave it to Bellerophon as he exiled him to Lycia.  The king of Lycia was Iobates‚ Proetus’ father-in-law. The letter was asking him to kill Bellerophon for attempting to violate his daughter. However‚ when Bellerophon arrived in Lycia he was accepted with open arms.  The two feasted for over a week together before Iobates read the letter from Proetus. After accepting Bellerophon as a guest under xenia‚ Iobates was subject to the same hesitance that Proetus faced. Therefore‚ he had to find an alternate way to get rid of Bellerophon.  Taming Pegasus and Defeating the Chimera King Iobates decided that if he could not kill Bellerophon himself‚ he would instead task him with a quest that was nearly impossible to survive.  In the nearby state of Caria‚ there was a chimera terrorizing the countryside. In the Iliad‚ Homer describes the chimera as a beast with the head of a lion‚ the body of a goat‚ and the tail of a serpent that could breathe fire.  Bellerophon prepared himself and set out to defeat the beast. On the way‚ he encountered the Corinthian fortune teller Polyeidos. The fortune informed Bellerophon that he would need the assistance of the mythical creature‚ Pegasus‚ in order to defeat the chimera. It also informed him that he must sleep in the temple of Athena for guidance on how to tame Pegasus. As Bellerophon slept‚ Athena approached him in a dream and left a golden saddle next to him with instructions to approach Pegasus as it drank from a fountain in his home city.  Other versions of the tale assert that Athena or Poseidon‚ who was the god of horses‚ brought Pegasus to Bellerophon already tamed. Regardless‚ after taming Pegasus‚ the pair returned to Lycia to defeat the chimera.  Bellerophon riding Pegasus and slaying the Chimera. Central medallion of a Roman mosaic‚ 2nd to 3rd century CE. Musée Rolin‚ Autun‚ France. The creature’s fiery breath kept Bellerophon from easily defeating it until he had the idea of strapping a block of lead to his spear tip. With his newly constructed weapon‚ he waited until the chimera opened its mouth again and swept in‚ shoving the lead into its throat.  As the chimera attempted to breathe fire it melted the block which blocked its airway‚ killing the beast.  Other Great Feats Bellerophon returned to Iobates who was astonished that he had succeeded without being killed. In a second attempt to rid himself of Bellerophon‚ he dispatched him to defeat the Solymi tribe‚ who were historical adversaries of Iobates.  After easily defeating them‚ Iobates then sent him to fight the Amazons. He defeated them by dropping boulders on them whilst riding Pegasus.  Iobates then attempted to send his armies after Bellerophon. But he defeated everyone sent to kill him with help from his father Poseidon.  After this‚ Iobates relinquished his anger and accepted that Bellerophon had the favor of the gods. He offered Bellerophon half of his kingdom and his daughter’s hand in marriage. But this only satisfied Bellerophon for a short time.  Bellerophon’s Fall After his series of mythical accomplishments‚ Bellerophon’s hubris‚ or fatal pride‚ was so powerful that he mounted Pegasus and attempted to fly to Mount Olympus to see the gods himself. Zeus was angered by this attempt and sent a gadfly to sting Pegasus.  The horse bucked Bellerophon and he plummeted back to earth. Some accounts claimed he died in the fall. Others claimed he was blinded when he fell into a thorn bush.  The latter tale ends with Bellerophon blindly wandering the earth in a miserable state‚ depressed at his literal and metaphorical fall. He eventually died of his grief.  The fall of Bellerophon The tale of Bellerophon is a classical Greek tragedy. A young hero achieves great accomplishments before ultimately becoming too prideful and falling prey to his pride. Hubris consumed many great Greek characters‚ such as Oedipus and Icarus. Bellerophon made similar mistakes in believing his own greatness places him on a similar footing as the gods.  Bellerophon was no different. Being born of Poseidon and having tamed Pegasus‚ it was easy to believe he was above mortal men. But the gods prefer those who respect their power. This is why heroes such as Perseus and Hercules are more widely celebrated.  References Shaw‚ Charles D. “BELLEROPHON AND THE CHIMERA: Adapted from Stories of the Ancient Greeks.” Pressbooks‚ 2018. https://pressbooks.pub/iagtm/chapter/story-bellerophon/.  “Bellerophon.” GreekMythology.com‚ April 14‚ 2021. https://www.greekmythology.com/Myths/Heroes/Bellerophon/bellerophon.html. The post Bellerophon: The Lesser Known Hero of Greek Mythology first appeared on History Defined.

The Battle of Teutoburg Forest is perhaps one of the most consequential battles in the history of the Western world. Also known as the Varian Disaster‚ the battle saw Germanic tribesmen led by a Roman-trained general decimate three legions of Roman soldiers.  A group that the Romans deemed barbaric and uncivilized would use guerrilla warfare and insider information to defeat the most powerful military in the world. Their victory would halt Roman expansion and dictate the future of Europe. It would be immortalized in German myth for centuries. “The Victorious Advancing Hermann”‚ by Peter Janssen‚ completed in 1873‚ depicting Hermann (Arminius) at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest An Expanding Empire The Roman Empire was the most powerful force in the world by the 1st century BCE. It rapidly expanded and conquered neighboring regions.  The legions of Rome expanded across far-reaching swathes of land. They encompassed a wider variety of people. The ability to occupy the land and expand further required that non-Roman citizens be admitted into the military forces and trained.  Although non-Romans could not join the Roman legions‚ military forces called auxiliaries were formed so that the military could continue to grow. Roman military forces would provide training to these auxiliary forces. They would then march with the Roman legions or be dispatched to regions outside of their original homeland.  This had the dual benefit of assisting with the process of Romanization by letting other non-Romans help assimilate new people into the multi-ethnic empire.  Auxiliary Training It is through this auxiliary program that Arminius of the Germanic Cherusci tribe first gained his military training.  Arminius was a Cherusci prince who grew up integrated into the Roman Empire‚ even gaining Roman citizenship. He received military training as an auxiliary and became intimately familiar with Roman tactics.  In 4 CE‚ he was given command of auxiliary forces. In 8 CE‚ he returned to Germania to serve under the regional governor Publius Quinctilius Varus.  Varus was a Roman politician and general who had previously ruled over a region of Africa. His strict rule over Roman-deemed heretics defined his political legacy. Emperor Augustus made him the governor of Germania in 7 CE. The emperor encouraged Roman expansion in the region. Perhaps expecting a similar level of cunning and heavy-handedness that Varus had demonstrated in Africa.  By 8 CE‚ Arminius warned Varus of potential revolts from local Germanic tribes. He quickly began to prepare his legions in response.  Arminius’ Betrayal Varus’ fatal mistake in this campaign would be trusting Arminius despite warnings from other Roman and Germanic leaders. Although the truth remains unclear‚ it is rumored that Arminius organized the rumors of rebellion himself by reaching out to the various Germanic tribes.  As prince of the Cherusci‚ he likely wanted to ensure that he would be king of his people. He likely wanted to unite the tribes‚ and he assumed that disrupting Roman advances was a way to prove himself worthy of the title.  So after giving Varus a warning of a rumored insurrection‚ Arminius joined with his men as the Roman forces set out in force‚ an estimated 15‚000 troops in all‚ to put down the Germanic rebellion.  Following Arminius’ suggestion‚ the forces made their way deep into rebel territory‚ miles from any established base or road. The Roman forces slowly made their way through boggy forests as a storm worsened conditions.  This caused the forces to be spread out over nearly eight miles as the normally organized soldiers struggled to keep their footing.  Hermann (Arminius)‚ by Augustus Tholey. 1890s Roman Defeat It was when the Romans were at their least organized that the Germanic forces struck.  Roman legions were used to fighting in open fields. They were typically highly organized. But fighting in the stormy forest caught them off-guard. The Germans descended on the forces. They started with ranged attacks that hindered a number of the Roman soldiers.  Once it became clear that they could do little to assist those who were injured‚ the Germans began closing in on the wounded and attacking the forces at close range. As the Romans were slowly picked off‚ the forces kept pressing on towards a Roman base nearly 60 miles away. They were hoping to reach safety and reinforcements before their forces fell apart.  But by the third day‚ the remaining forces were trapped by Germanic attackers in a narrow passage. They were decimated.  Using Arminius’ knowledge of Roman tactics and guerrilla tactics‚ the Germans easily defeated the Roman legions. They built angled walls to disrupt Roman formations and redirected the forces through dark‚ stormy‚ and boggy terrain.  This allowed the Germans to dictate the terms of the engagement. They were able to destroy the dominant military superpower in the world.  Once they realized that they were defeated‚ rather than risk capture and torture at the hands of Germanic tribesmen‚ Varus‚ and other Roman officers committed suicide by falling on their swords in typical Roman fashion.  Varus’ Legacy Destroyed Very few Roman soldiers managed to escape the massacre. As they made their way back to Rome‚ they delivered the news which rocked Roman society.  The emperor‚ Augustus‚ cast out the Gauls and Germans in Rome out of fear of further disruption. The normally composed leader was said to have torn his clothes and cursed Varus. He demanded that Varus return his legions to him.  The emperor fell into a depression for months following the battle‚ reflecting the anger and grief felt by the families of the soldiers who were felled.  Varus’ reputation was destroyed. Previously an esteemed statesman‚ statues of Varus were vandalized and destroyed in Rome.  His son‚ an aspiring politician‚ had his career ruined. The associates who had assisted him throughout his career were shamed for having supported him.  News of the defeat would also shake the emperor himself. Upon hearing of the defeat‚ Augustus slipped into a depression for months. An astounding statistic is that casualties of the battle were so high that nearly 10% of the entire Roman army was defeated within three days.  Avenging the Legions Roman forces would return to the site of the battle six years later and find a gruesome sight. The Germans had gathered anything of worth‚ such as coins or precious metal‚ and what remained was tragic.  Thousands of skeletons littered the region. They had been picked clean by local wildlife or decayed over time. They were surrounded by broken swords and armor.  Skulls were nailed to trees or split open on the ground where soldiers had been killed. Altars‚ where kidnapped soldiers were sacrificed by Germans‚ were still visible. The Roman general leading the expedition‚ Germanicus‚ had his men inter as many skeletons as they could before chasing Arminius deep into Germanic territory to avenge their fallen comrades.  These excursions resulted in Roman forces locating two out of three legionary standards lost during the battle. The third was recovered during later Roman excursions. As late as 41 CE‚ Roman soldiers would continue to rescue imprisoned legionnaires held in captivity from the battle.  Although the Romans ultimately failed to catch their target during Germanicus’ campaign beyond the Rhine‚ Arminius would be felled by conflict arising from his growing power in 21 CE. His coalition was united in defeating the Romans.  But when other Germanic leaders felt he had accumulated too much power‚ Arminius was killed by those closest to him. Arminius: German Folk Hero The German victory over the Roman legions shattered the perception that the Roman army was invincible. It halted the expansion of Rome into Eastern Europe.  It also served Arminius well. It led to his rule over a new coalition of Germanic tribes in the region for nearly two decades and his eventual incorporation into Germanic national myth.  German histories would tell of the hero who repelled the Roman empire. They renamed him Hermann to align with Germanic naming conventions since his original tribal name was lost to time.  A statue of Arminius was later erected near the battlefield. This would be the largest monument in the world until the dedication of the Statue of Liberty.  The Battle of Teutoburg Forest undeniably changed the way that European borders and cultures developed. It arguably reshaped world history in the process. By stopping Roman expansion at the Rhine‚ the battle delineated a clear line of Roman influence over the continent of Europe.  Within twenty years‚ Rome decided that the Rhine would be the boundary of Roman influence. Everything east of the river would remain Germanic.  Some scholars have argued that the Rhine was a logical boundary for Romans. This was due to logistical needs. Also because that battle did little to shape Roman expansion‚ since excursions continued in later decades.  While Romans still continued to explore east of the Rhine‚ most notably in the Marcomannic Wars‚ full-force Roman expansion ceased. Regardless of the truth‚ the battle is immortalized as an example of Germanic tribes defeating a tenth of the Roman army at the height of its power.  References Bordewich‚ Fergus M.  “The Ambush that Changed History.” Smithsonian Magazine‚ September 2006. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-ambush-that-changed-history-72636736/.  Grout‚ James. “The Battle of Teutoburg Forest.” Encyclopaedia Romana‚ 2023. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/miscellanea/teutoburg/teutoburg.html. The post Battle of Teutoburg Forest: How a Germanic Prince Defeated Rome first appeared on History Defined.