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The half-man‚ half-horse creature known as the Centaur is one of the most famous beings in Greek mythology.  It is a creature whose lower body and legs are that of a horse. And their torso and upper body are that of a human. They represented the realm between humans and nature.  Indeed‚ the Centaur was often stereotyped by the ancient Greeks as a creature that could not control its internal barbaric instincts. “Battle of Centaurs and Wild Beasts” mosaic‚ made for the dining room of Hadrian’s Villa (120–130 AD) in Tivoli‚ Italy. Altes Museum‚ Berlin The Origin of the Centaur The birth of the Centaurs begins with the human king Ixion‚ king of the Lapiths‚ the oldest tribe of Thessaly. Ixion was the son of the god Ares and the princess Pirene. He was said to be an expert horseman and charioteer.  Ixion married a woman named Dia‚ daughter of Deioneus. The customary dowry which was owed by Ixion for the marriage went unpaid so Deioneus stole a herd of Ixion’s horses for the payment.  Ixion then took revenge for the stolen goods by murdering his father-in-law. He shoved him onto a pyre of wood and coals (essentially burning him to death). For this violent act‚ Ixion was banished from his society.  The only one who took pity on Ixion‚ the god Zeus‚ invited the human to Mount Olympus. It was at Mount Olympus that Ixion‚ again‚ acted poorly after meeting Zeus’ wife Hera‚ and pursuing her.  But Zeus was all-knowing. Before a true affair began‚ Zeus created a cloud in the shape of Hera to trick the human king. When Ixion made love to the cloud‚ what was created was Centaurus‚ who would go on to create the race of Centaurs.  As for Ixion‚ after bragging to the rest of the world that he had been with Zeus’ wife‚ Zeus unleashed his full wrath by tying Ixion to a flaming wheel and sending it into the world to spin for all eternity.  Greek mythology is full of horrible punishments. Many modern-day researchers argue the symbolism of the fiery wheel. Many say that the fire symbolizes the sun god Helios.  But research points to the spinning wheel symbolizing an agonizing ending – a never-ending punishment for all eternity. Many artifacts depicting the event even include snakes that were secured to the wheel‚ torturing Ixion forever. The moral of the story is likely: never double-cross Zeus! The Clash Between Civilization and Barbarians It was said that the Centaurs lived in numerous tribes around the region called Pelion in Magnesia. This was located on the coast of Central Greece. They dwelled in the surrounding mountains and forests.  Writers and poets such as Pindar and Homer included Centaurs in their works. Pidnar gave us the origin story and name ‘Centaur.’ Homer described similar creatures but did not use the term “centaurs.”  What remained the same between the stories was that these creatures were monsters. They were especially violent towards women‚ with many stories of rape and attacks.  It was originally believed that all Centaurs were male. This accounted for all the stories of kidnapping and raping women. But in later mythology‚ especially Roman‚ female Centaurs began to emerge.  The common theme among stories involving Centaurs was of a civilization fighting bravely while triumphantly defeating these barbarians of nature.  Legends of the Uncivilized Man-Horse  The Centauromachy is a story of one such epic battle between civilization and the half-man‚ half-horse creatures. In this story‚ the King of the Lapiths‚ Pirithous‚ was to be married to Hippodamia.  Remember‚ it is believed that Centaurs were descendants of the former Lapith King Ixion. Because the Centaurs were kinsfolk to these people‚ they were present at the wedding ceremony.  As was customary to the behavior of the Centaurs‚ they became drunk and decided to abduct all the women at the ceremony‚ including the bride. An epic battle ensued. The Greek heroes Theseus‚ Peleus‚ and Nestor were present at the wedding and ready to defend their people from the ways of the Centaurs. Many of the Centaur race died that day and the ones who survived were said to have fled Thessaly and created new tribes in Malea and Mount Pholoe.  It was the Lapiths who especially hated the Centaurs and wanted them removed from existence as they recognized the ancestral connection between themselves and the man-beasts. Lapiths knew that the Centaurs represented the idea that they‚ too‚ could become evil‚ vile creatures. The Lapiths were merciless in trying to rid civilization of the Centaurs.  Luca Giordano’s “Battle of the Lapiths with the Centaurs.” Circa 1688 Another such story involved a Centaur named Nessus who worked as a ferryman. He transported travelers across the River Evenus on his back. Hercules and his wife Deianeira were one of those travelers.  When Nessus safely delivered Deianeira to the other side of the river‚ he decided he wanted to have his way with her and ran off into the woods with her still on his back. Holding on for dear life upon the charging Nessus‚ Deianeira screamed and her husband heard her cries.  Hercules took chase and shot his bow with a poisoned arrow into the heart of the Centaur. Some accounts of the story relay that as the Centaur lay dying‚ he plotted his revenge against the hero.  Nessus told Deianeira that if she would take a small vial of his blood‚ a great advantage would one day be hers. He explained that if her husband’s love for her ever seemed to fade‚ a potion made from his blood and poured on her husband’s clothes would revive his love for her.  Years passed. When the wife eventually felt her husband’s love fading‚ she did as the dying Nessus had told her to do. Upon dressing in the clothing that was soaked in Nessus’ blood‚ Hercules’ skin began to burn. The powerful blood‚ which was indeed a poison‚ killed the hero Hercules.  The More Civilized Centaurs There were also two good Centaurs in Greek mythology: Pholus and Chiron.  There is a myth involving the hero Hercules and one of these Centaurs. In this story‚ Hercules visits the Centaur Pholus in his cave on Mount Pholoe.  Pholus was a friend to Hercules. As the hero was passing through the region‚ the Centaur entertained Hercules and made him a feast. Hercules was adamant about opening a jar of wine at the mouth of Pholus’ cave.  Pholus warned his friend that opening the wine would be a horrible mistake if his fellow Centaurs were to smell the sweet aroma from the jar. After Pholus relented to his friend and opened the jar of wine‚ neighboring Centaurs smelled the sweetness‚ as was foretold.  In the mad‚ violent frenzy the smell evoked‚ the Centaurs charged the cave. But Hercules was able to slay many of the charging Centaurs. The Centaurs who survived were chased from the region.  Chiron the Medicine Man The most well-known Centaur was named Chiron. He was a friend to numerous heroes of Greek mythology.  The wisest of all the Centaurs‚ Chiron acted as a tutor to many Greek heroes. The opposite of his savage counterparts‚ Chiron was a civilized‚ well-educated scholar.  To explain this discrepancy between savage Centaurs and this scholar Centaur‚ many believed that Chiron had different parents and did not descend from the failure‚ Ixion. Chiron’s lineage made him a steed and therefore‚ immortal.  Chiron lived in a cave atop Mount Pelion in Magnesia. It was said that he studied many subjects there‚ including medicine and music. It was believed by many in Greek mythology that Chiron was the father of medicine and surgery.  It was said that these intellectual gifts were given to Chiron by the gods Artemis and Apollo. But it was also surmised that he gained his knowledge by learning from these gods.  Chiron married Chariclo‚ a nymph of Mount Pelion. Nymphs were female deities that were mainly responsible for the care of plants and animals. They were not immortal‚ but normally lived a long time‚ and were said to be very fertile.  Even though they were ranked below the gods‚ they were still invited to the assemblies of the gods on Olympus. The marriage between Chiron and Chariclo was said to have brought forth many sons‚ daughters‚ and an unknown number of nymphs as well. The group of nymphs born to the couple were called Pelionides.  Chiron was known as a great teacher and tutor to many gods and heroes including Perseus‚ Theseus‚ Jason‚ Ajax the Great‚ Patroclus‚ and his greatest pupil‚ Achilles. Chiron taught skills that were needed by men including medicine and understanding which plants were useful for healing‚ music‚ archery‚ and hunting. He explained the constellations and the legends behind them.  Achilles and the Centaur Chiron‚ 1746 Although Chiron was believed to be immortal‚ he did eventually meet his death in a unique way.  His death ties into the previous story of Hercules and the Centaur Pholus. Chiron was involved in the great charge when the sweet wine bottle was opened in Pholus’ cave. One of Hercules’ poisoned arrows struck Chiron in the knee.  Although he was immortal‚ the poison still caused excruciating pain in Chiron’s body. He suffered for nine days before admitting that he would rather be dead than live with the agonizing pain forever.  Two versions surround his ultimate demise. One is that Chiron went to Zeus and asked him to remove his immortality. The other says that Hercules was the one who asked his father Zeus to remove immortality and help end his friend’s suffering.  However it was arranged‚ Zeus granted this request. When Chiron died‚ he was placed in the heavens amongst the stars as part of the constellation Centaurus.  Centaurs Outside Greek Mythology  Centaurs are one of the most recognizable characters in Greek mythology. They are still referenced an unlimited number of times in modern culture. Centaurs have been mentioned in novels‚ graphic novels‚ movies‚ television‚ and video games.  Centaurs are usually depicted as wild and uncivilized. In J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series‚ Centaurs do have some skills that are productive to society‚ but are mainly portrayed as barbarians.  The Centaur Firenze teaches at Hogwarts and is known for his intelligence in astronomy and healing remedies. In Rick Riordan’s Percy Jackson series‚ they are wild and reckless‚ except for the educated Chiron.  As in many cases‚ and in stories of Greek mythology‚ although Centaurs were looked at as reckless and wild‚ they also possessed knowledge.  Images of Centaurs have also been seen in ancient art‚ as well as more modern examples. Pottery and paintings from ancient Greek civilizations show well-known characters‚ such as Medusa‚ as a Centaur.  Scientists have discovered a combination of ways to depict Centaurs. There are examples of Centaurs with equine forelegs‚ with human forelegs‚ and with human forelegs but hooves instead of human feet.  There is pottery adorned with Centaurs pulling chariots‚ Centaurs with wings that can fly‚ and Centaurs as females with female bodies atop equine legs.  As Centaurs are very hard to mistake visually‚ examples in art‚ and especially sculpture‚ are easy to identify. Scenes portraying Centaurs were found at The Temple of Zeus in Olympia‚ which was created in the fifth century. They are also found‚ exquisitely carved‚ at The Parthenon.  Lasting Symbolism The line between civilization and nature can be thin. The Centaurs represented animalistic impulses‚ which the Greek gods and heroes knew everyone possessed deep down.  Perhaps this is why the Centaur is still used in many modern cultural references‚ forever linking nature with the human race. In a place where civilized strength and intelligence meet an animalistic urge to drink‚ party‚ plunder‚ and take what we desire‚ we have the Centaur.The post Centaurs: The Line Between Human and Beast first appeared on History Defined.

In the realm of human psychology‚ few names stand out as prominently as Ivan Pavlov.  In the late 19th and early 20th centuries‚ Ivan Pavlov embarked on a scientific journey to understand conditioning and behavior. These experiments led to his discovery of classical conditioning represented by an infamous dog that would drool when a bell was rung.  But that is just a glossing over of the complex life of Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov’s experiments‚ while controversial‚ would revolutionize our understanding of learning and behavior. Ivan Pavlov Background on Ivan Pavlov Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born in Ryazan‚ Russia on September 26‚ 1849. The eldest of eleven children‚ he grew up in a deeply Russian Orthodox household.  Young Ivan initially aspired to become a priest like his father‚ enrolling in Ryazan Ecclesiastical Seminary. However‚ his intellectual curiosity soon led him away from the seminary and toward the world of science. From his youth‚ Ivan Pavlov displayed a strong intellectual curiosity and a drive for research. Influenced by the progressive ideas of figures like Dmitry Pisarev and Ivan Sechenov‚ he turned away from a potential religious career to dedicate his life to science. He enrolled in the University of St. Petersburg in 1870 where he pursued a degree in natural sciences‚ specifically in the fields of physiology and chemistry. As a student‚ Pavlov demonstrated his high intellectual prowess by winning a prestigious university award for his first research project.  As he continued to excel in his studies‚ his interest began to shift towards the realm of human psychology. He became fascinated with what made humans tick and what made them behave the way they do.  In 1875‚ Pavlov completed his course with an outstanding record and received the degree of Candidate of Natural Sciences. Impelled by his overwhelming interest in physiology‚ Pavlov decided to continue his studies at the Imperial Academy of Medical Surgery.  After some time‚ Pavlov obtained a position as a laboratory assistant at the physiological department of the Veterinary Institute. Sometime in 1878 or 1879‚ Ivan met Seraphima Vasilievna‚ a student studying at St. Petersburg’s Pedagogical Institute. They were married on May 1‚ 1881. The first nine years of their marriage were difficult‚ marked by financial struggles‚ and drifting to various homes of friends and families.  Their first child‚ Mirchik‚ was born after a miscarriage‚ but his tragic death in childhood deeply affected Sara. The couple later had four more children: Vladimir‚ Victor‚ Vsevolod‚ and Vera.  Career in Physiology After completing his doctorate‚ Pavlov went to Germany‚ where he studied in the Heidenhain laboratories in Breslau.  At the time‚ Heidenhain was deeply engrossed in the study of canine digestion. In Pavlov’s and Heidenhain’s experiments‚ a portion of the dog’s stomach was surgically brought outside of the body‚ allowing it to be exposed to the external environment. This procedure enabled them to directly observe and manipulate that specific part of the stomach.  Pavlov contributed to the experiment by addressing the challenge of maintaining the external nerve supply to the stomach. This innovation led to the designation of the exteriorized section as the Heidenhain-Pavlov pouch. Ivan Pavlov in his laboratory In 1886‚ Pavlov returned to Russia to look for something new to satisfy his curious mind. He was initially rejected for the position of Chair of Physiology at the University of Saint Petersburg.  But in 1891‚ Pavlov received an invitation from the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg to orchestrate and lead the Department of Physiology. It was here that Pavlov found his calling. He led the department for over 45 years‚ making discoveries that would immortalize his name in the realm of science. It was during his time as director at the Institute of Experimental Medicine that Pavlov carried out his infamous experiments on the digestive glands‚ which would eventually land him the Nobel prize. The Famous “Pavlov’s Dog” Experiment  Even people outside the academic world have heard of “Pavlov’s dog”. The name is actually a misnomer. The term oversimplifies an exhaustive series of experiments that took place over several years and with several different dogs.  While it is commonly believed that Pavlov only used a bell to signal food‚ his documented writings reveal that he employed a diverse array of stimuli. These stimuli encompassed electric shocks‚ whistles‚ metronomes‚ tuning forks‚ and various visual cues. Pavlov’s research began as an investigation into the gastric functions of dogs by externalizing the salivary glands. This was a rather tortuous procedure for the dog as it involved drilling holes into the cheeks and having a small tube surgically inserted into the salivary gland.  As the study continued‚ Pavlov began to take notice of a peculiar phenomenon. He observed that the dogs began to salivate as soon as they saw the technician who fed them rather than salivate from seeing or smelling the food.  He called this strange phenomenon “psychic secretion.” He began to dedicate his time to understanding conditioning and its impact on learning and behavior. The experiments began by placing a dog in a controlled environment‚ typically a soundproof and odorless chamber‚ to eliminate any external influences. The dog was surgically prepared so that Pavlov could measure its salivation rates.  Pavlov learned that if a buzzer or bell sounded before the food was given‚ the dog would learn to associate that sound with food and begin to salivate in anticipation. This demonstrated that the dog had learned to associate the bell with the impending arrival of food.  This meant that new neural pathways could be formed through repeated associations. This allowed organisms to acquire and adapt to novel behaviors based on environmental cues and stimuli.  This experiment not only revealed the concept of classical conditioning but also established that learned behaviors can be elicited by previously neutral stimuli. The implications of this experiment were far-reaching and it netted Pavlov the Nobel Prize in 1901 in recognition of his significant work on the physiology of digestion‚ particularly his research on the digestive gland. Theoretical Implications  Ivan Pavlov’s discovery of classical conditioning was a groundbreaking moment that emphasized‚ if not proved‚ that environmental factors can drastically influence behavior. This challenged long-held notions that behavior was solely a product of innate characteristics. Pavlov’s research laid the foundation for the study of associative learning‚ a cornerstone of psychological theory. It established a model for further exploration and research into how organisms acquire new behaviors and adapt to their environments. Pavlov’s work aligned seamlessly with the emerging school of thought known as behaviorism. Pioneered by figures like John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner‚ behaviorism emphasized the study of observable behaviors and the influence of environmental stimuli.  Pavlov’s demonstration of classical conditioning provided empirical support for the principles of behaviorism. It illustrated how responses could be reliably shaped and predicted through the establishment of associative links with stimuli. Controversies Surrounding Experiments During Pavlov’s era‚ ethical standards regarding animal experimentation were not as well-established or regulated as they are today.  The welfare of laboratory animals was not a major concern during a time when most people were struggling for their survival. Pavlov’s experiments on dogs‚ which involved surgical procedures‚ restraint‚ and sometimes invasive measures‚ would not go over well with audiences today. Several of his experiments did not involve positive reinforcement‚ but rather negative reinforcement techniques. These included measures such as flooding the dogs’ kennels and inducing a sense of impending drowning‚ as well as pushing dogs down flights of stairs to condition them to be afraid of steps. Pavlov’s hunger for knowledge didn’t end there. He also conducted similar procedures on orphaned or homeless children.  These children‚ like the dogs‚ underwent surgical procedures to attach spigots to their cheeks‚ and they were restrained with a mechanism leading directly to their mouths. Pavlov would ring a bell and release a cookie or biscuit down the mechanism‚ which would then be delivered into the child’s mouth. In retrospect‚ Ivan Pavlov’s experiments would be seen as unethical and inhumane by today’s standards. Despite the unethical treatment of his subjects‚ his experiments played a pivotal role in advancing our understanding of learning‚ behavior‚ and the physiological processes underlying them.  The principles of classical conditioning pioneered by Pavlov continue to have a profound impact on psychology and related fields. These discoveries have not only deepened our knowledge of human and animal behavior but also led to the development of modern therapy for conditions such as phobias and anxiety disorders. Pavlov’s Legacy  Pavlov’s work might be ethically questionable by contemporary standards but they have significantly advanced our understanding of learning and behavior. His findings laid the groundwork for behaviorism and influenced generations of psychologists. His work on associative learning continues to inform research on cognitive processes‚ human behavior‚ and clinical psychology.  In his later years‚ he recognized the ethical concerns surrounding animal experimentation and advocated for improved animal welfare in scientific research. References Ivan Pavlov’s Experiments on Men. Archive film 97453https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WLFZ4N9ZaE4&;ab_channel=HuntleyFilmArchives Ivan Pavlovhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov#Legacy Ivan Pavlov and His Discovery of Classical Conditioninghttps://www.verywellmind.com/ivan-pavlov-biography-1849-1936-2795548The post Pavlov’s Dog: The Power of Classical Conditioning first appeared on History Defined.

Baron Samedi is an important spirit in the African diasporic religion of Haitian Voodoo. The Baron is a Loa. In Haitian culture‚ this means that he is a spirit that is responsible for assisting humans in the transition between the human world and the afterlife. Artist representation of Baron Samedi Haitian Voodoo Haitian Voodoo (or Vodou) is a mixture of Roman Catholic beliefs and African culture. It was developed during the French colonial period with influence from the indigenous peoples of Haiti.  Spirits called Iwa could be looked at much like saints or angels in Catholic culture. They are not gods‚ but servants of the Supreme Creator called Bondye. Many of the Iwa spirits come from gods formed in the West African traditional regions.  Following the French-Catholic faith‚ those who believe in Vodou are mainly monotheists – the belief that there is only one God. The Iwa deities are believed to be powerful spirits on earth which humans may interact with.  But their main goal is to bring humans back to the one true god‚ Bondye. Human beings are expected to love‚ respect‚ and fear the Iwa. In return‚ the spirits are expected to provide them with love‚ protection‚ and guidance.  The spirits are divided into three categories: Rada‚ Petro‚ and Ghede. The Ghede Iwa are specifically associated with the dead. Baron Samedi is the head of the Ghede family and is known as the father of the underworld‚ or the spirits of the dead.  Although the other spirits of the Ghede family are just as rambunctious and rowdy‚ they are not nearly as charismatic as their master Baron Samedi.  He is married to Maman Brigitte. She is a spirit associated with fertility and justice. Despite this marriage‚ it is believed that the Baron’s suave personality is to facilitate the chasing of mortal women‚ which he very much enjoys.  The Role of Baron Samedi There are many beliefs revolving around Baron Samedi. Many of his characteristics reveal his role as a spirit of the underworld.  He is considered to be extremely intelligent as he is the all-knowing spirit when it comes to death and the underworld. If humans desire knowledge and guidance about life and death‚ they must cultivate a personal relationship with Baron Samedi.  Baron Samedi always wears dark‚ black clothes – including a tailcoat and top hat – when he leaves the underworld and travels about the land of the living. He must also wear dark-colored glasses so the light does not harm his eyes.  However‚ it is said that he does on occasion remove one lens of the glasses in order to observe humans and their actions. Many drawings and artwork created to represent Baron Samedi often depict a skull for a face‚ grinning beneath his top hat.  It is also said that Baron Samedi has a hearty appetite. His favorite foods are black roosters and black goats. The Baron is often portrayed to be drinking liquor that he made himself. It is concocted of the hottest peppers on earth so that he is the only one who can drink it.  In Greek mythology‚ the gods Thanatos and Hades split the jobs of guiding spirits to the underworld and ruling the underworld. Unlike these gods of mythology‚ the spirit‚ or “angel of death‚” Baron Samedi serves both of these roles. Power Over Life and Death Although he is not a god in the Haitian religion‚ Baron Samedi holds the powerful role of choosing who will live and who will die. He ensures that the line between life and death is never crossed. The dead are never allowed to return to earth to torment the living.  Any human who longs to connect with someone from the underworld must go through the Baron. He decides whether he will allow the dead to communicate with the living.  In certain situations‚ the Baron requires a voodoo ceremony by the living‚ calling him to cross over into the world. Any time this situation arises‚ the Baron will expect a gift or offering from the living – it is said he prefers coffee‚ cigarettes‚ cigars‚ or alcohol.  Although his appearance and expectation for fear and respect are common‚ it is said that the Baron is a kind spirit who has a soft spot for children. He is known to protect children at all costs‚ allowing them to grow and have the chance to live a noble life.  It is also believed that he can cure any disease or injury. As long as the person is honorable and worth saving‚ he will always do so.  As much as the Baron is kind and thoughtful with his decisions‚ he is also known as a trickster. He has a raunchy sense of humor and is known to be very playful and rowdy. He encourages the living to enjoy themselves and never take life too seriously – his biggest pet peeve.  This reverts back to all Ghede spirits who are known for their discourteous behavior‚ cursing‚ and dancing in sexually suggestive ways. In the end‚ the Baron is always quick to remind the living that everyone must surrender to him at the end and on their way to the afterlife.   Traditions and Modern References In many Haitian cemeteries‚ there is a custom. They believe that the oldest grave at the cemetery is to be designated as the grave of Baron Samedi. A cross referred to as “Baron’s Cross” is placed at the crossroads of the cemetery. A black top hat is placed on top of it.  The image and likeness of Baron Samedi has been used in numerous video games such as World of Warcraft‚ Shadow Fight 2‚ and four different versions of James Bond video games. The Baron has been adapted as characters in Marvel Comics as well as in movies such as Live and Let Die and Sugar Hill. Baron Samedi characteristics are also seen in the Disney villain Dr. Facilier in the movie The Princess and the Frog.  Although he does not want the living to take life too seriously‚ the Baron is trusted as the spirit who takes his job very seriously. He is the ultimate guardian of the barrier between life and death‚ and he takes pride in making sure souls are able to pass safely into the afterlife.  The post Baron Samedi: Haitian Father of the Underworld first appeared on History Defined.

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