A Non-Toxic Candle Made For Pet Parents | The Pack

Puppy Abandoned At Food Market Gets Rescued In A Shopping Bag | The Dodo

You won't find anything like it at a restaurant. READ MORE...

A new way to love Caesar salad. READ MORE...

  From the Romans to the Greeks, the Persians, and the Chinese, the ancient world was a place of great cultural diversity and varied ways of life. Civilizations had their own technologies and their own preferences for what became the norm. A significant concern was the scope of warfare and the options available for training and equipping soldiers who had to fight.   Armor was a primary factor, and the ancient world had many types of armor from which to choose. Here are 5 different kinds of armor in the ancient world.   Ancient Armor in an Age of Bronze and Iron A bronze relief of a Roman soldier and a barbarian, ca. 200 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   An alloy of copper and tin, bronze was obviously a key substance in the Bronze Age. Around 3300 BCE, the Middle East began to transition from copper tools, weapons, and armor, to bronze. It was harder and stronger, with a lower melting point, meaning it could be cast into various shapes more easily.   Although bronze continued to be used well past the Bronze Age Collapse around 1200 BCE, it fell out of favor in many areas as the availability of iron, and the ability to work it became more prevalent. In some areas, the difficulty in finding tin, a key component of bronze, led to a shift towards using iron.   As such, the Bronze Age ended, and the Iron Age began. But this was certainly not the end of the Ancient Era! When exactly the Ancient Era ended is subject to regional interpretations, such as the fall of Rome in Europe (5th century CE), or the rise of Islam in the Middle East (7th century CE).   Of course, armor was made from bronze and iron, but they weren’t the only materials used. Leather was always popular, as it would be, far into the future. Bone, shell, and various other exotic materials were also used. In China, for example, the earliest evidence of armor comes from the Shang dynasty (ca. 1600 BCE to ca. 1046 BCE) and was usually made from shell or rawhide, while helmets were made of bronze.   The ancient world stretched far and wide, however, and ancient armors varied greatly in their design and the materials used to construct them.   1. The Greek Linothorax (Left) A 5th-century BCE vase depicting a Greek warrior wearing linothorax armor. Source: Museo Archeologico Regionale Antonio Salinas; (Right) A 5th-century BCE vase depicting an Amazon wearing a linothorax. Source: British Museum   Occupying a legendary place in the minds of those who imagine Ancient Greece, armor forms an iconic part of this visual. During ancient times, armor could be made from many substances, from metal to bone, and even wood. The Greeks were no exception to using the full gamut of what was available. Linen was an unusual, yet efficient choice for the armor that many Greeks wore.   Not much is known about the construction of the linothorax, and while many cultures have used linen and other fabrics, the construction of these armors is done by quilting and then stuffing the quilt with loose fabric, creating a padded armor. This runs contrary to typical depictions found in ancient art where the linothorax is depicted looking similar to tailored leather.   Controversially, there has been the belief that the linothorax was created by gluing layers of linen together, but this stems from a mistranslation of a book from 1869, and there is no historical evidence to support the belief. With that being said, however, linen is biodegradable and all ancient examples have perished. Evidence for the armor comes from ancient texts and visual depictions.   While other cultures, notably, the Romans, did employ linothorax, it was likely not done to the same degree as in Greece, and whatever it was, and however it was constructed, remains a somewhat mysterious subject.   2. Lamellar Armor (Left) A reenactor wearing lamellar armor; (Right) A terracotta warrior from the Qin Dynasty (221 BCE to 206 BCE) wearing lamellar armor. Sources: Wikimedia Commons   Appearing in the first millennium BCE, lamellar armor utilized hundreds, and even thousands of small metal plates, called lamellae, which had holes punched in them and were laced together to form armor that could cover various parts of the body. They could be made to cover just the chest and back (cuirass), or the entire body from the neck to the shins. Unlike scale armor, lamellae were not sewn onto a leather or cloth backing. The increased mobility that lamellar armor offered led it to become extremely popular in China where it saw widespread use.   Lamellar armor offered high flexibility and significant defense against a variety of weapons, depending on what was used in its construction. During ancient times, there were a number of options for making lamellae. Bronze, iron, and later, steel, were used. Leather was also a popular choice, while there is evidence that bone was also used.   Archaeological evidence suggests the armor first appeared with the iron-age Assyrians, while Sumerian and Egyptian bas-reliefs from the 17th century BCE suggest the armor may have been in use much earlier. Lamellar armor appeared in China in the 5th century BCE and was also used in the construction of helmets, replacing the single-piece bronze helmets that were in common use.   Lamellar armor continued to be used right up until the early modern era when gun use was the norm on the battlefield.   3. Scale Armor Assyrian scale armor from the first millennium BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Another popular form of armor in ancient times was scale armor, or scale mail, which consisted of metal scales sewn into a backing of leather or cloth. The scales overlapped, as they do in fish and reptiles, thus replicating the natural defenses that evolved in nature. They could be made from many materials such as bronze, iron, leather, and even horn and pangolin scales.   The earliest known example comes from Ancient Egypt from around the time of Amenhotep II ( r. 1425-1400 BCE), while the Chinese Shijing ancient book of poetry dating from the 11th century BCE to the 7th century BCE, mentions horses being covered in scale armor. Scale armor for horses was also found in the Middle East dating to the 3rd century CE.   Archaeological evidence suggests the Scythian horse warriors used scale armor In the first millennium BCE, while Herodotus notes that the Persians used it as well. The Sarmatians are also known to have used the armor.   The Romans adopted scale armor which they called lorica squamata. It found widespread use, however there is much debate as to when it was adopted. It is not known for certain when it was introduced, but it featured predominantly in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.   4. Chainmail A reenactor wearing late-era Sassanid chainmail (augmented with other types of armor). Source: Wikimedia Commons   Consisting of small metal rings linked together to form a mesh, chainmail was a popular form of armor that has been in use from ancient times all the way through to the present, and was most commonly used between the 3rd century BCE to the 16th century CE. It is believed to have originated from the Celts in Europe who exercised a high proficiency with metalwork and was adopted by the Romans who ensured its widespread use across the republic and the empire that followed. Contrary to popular depictions of Romans wearing banded lorica segmentata armor, chainmail was likely the most widespread armor used amongst the legions and their auxiliaries.   The Sassanid (or Sassanian/Sasanian) Persians in the Middle East adopted chainmail in the 3rd century CE after contact with the Romans who wore it. It was introduced to China in the 4th century CE and to India in the 12th century CE.   Chainmail was versatile and offered decent protection, especially against slashing attacks. The metal rings were able to effectively distribute the force of an attack, reducing the effect of the impact. It could also be used with other forms of armor, increasing its efficacy. Underneath chainmail, warriors and soldiers wore padded garments.   Chainmail is still used today in a number of niche areas, such as in the butchery and meatpacking industries, and it sometimes finds use in stab-resistant vests used by law enforcement. Divers in shark-infested waters also make use of chainmail to protect against shark bites.   5. Laminar Armor (Left) The Dendra Panoply. Source: Archaeological Museum of Nafplion/Wikimedia Commons; (Right) A reenactor wearing lorica segmentata. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Not to be confused with lamellar armor, laminar armor consisted of horizontal bands or strips called lames. The most famous example of this type of armor is encapsulated in the common image of the Roman soldier wearing what the Romans called lorica segmentata—their specialized version of laminar armor.   Predating the Romans by almost a thousand years, the Mycenaeans in ancient Greece were known to have used laminar armor made of bronze, although only one complete suit has been found, along with fragmented remains of others. The particular example, known as the Dendra Panoply, is a subject of great interest. It is made of fifteen pieces of bronze and is dated to around 1500 BCE. As bronze is heavier than iron, the Dendra Panoply would have been exhausting to wear in addition to it limiting the wearer’s mobility.   Laminar armor was also used by many other civilizations in the ancient world, likely including the Sarmatians, Dacians, Scythians, and Parthians. The concept of laminar armor was indeed extremely old long before the Romans adopted it.   Combining Armor Mosaic of Alexander the Great wearing a linothorax with added elements from other armor styles. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Armor often wasn’t just a single type of design, and incorporating two or more styles was a widespread practice. A common combination was mail and plate, which was a suit or a cuirass of mail, with metal plates sewn into it. This type of armor originated in ancient times and saw use across many regions well into the Late Medieval Era and beyond. The design of mail and plate wasn’t singular, as there were many different ways of joining the plates to the mail, representing a host of design philosophies from many regions.   Mail and plate, of course, wasn’t the only combination either. Vase paintings from Athens show that the linothorax was a prime candidate for being combined with other armor types, and depictions often show scales covering part of the armor.   Bas-relief of Assyrian archers, ca. 700-692 BCE. Source: British Museum   From copper and bronze to iron and steel, eventually, the ancient world passed into history, and battlefield fashion went through dramatic changes. Many design features survived the changing times and were incorporated into medieval designs, while others underwent little evolution and still found great popularity.

  Revolutionary leaders are known for their willingness to display ruthlessness and charisma when seeking to accomplish their goals. The most successful ones mix pragmatism with determination. Read on to learn more about six revolutionary leaders who did just that, often overcoming odds that doomed less fortunate individuals.   1. Oliver Cromwell Oliver Cromwell by Samuel Cooper, 1656. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In 1641, members of the English Parliament attempted to restrict the powers of King Charles I, who demanded that Parliament subsidize his wars. Tensions between King and Parliament had been simmering for over a decade over Charles’ autocratic tendencies and his marriage to Queen Henrietta Maria, a French Catholic princess.   Amid rising tensions, on January 4, 1642 Charles stormed into Parliament to demand the arrest of five MPs whom he regarded as the ringleaders of the opposition against him. The five men had already escaped, but the King’s actions encouraged further parliamentary opposition, leading to the outbreak of the English Civil War.   Amongst the ranks of the parliamentary faction was Oliver Cromwell. He took control of a regiment that eradicated the Royalists in East Anglia and steadily rose up the ranks as an effective cavalry general. By 1648, he took full command of the New Model Army, the most effective parliamentary force.   In 1649, Charles was arrested and sentenced to death by Parliament. Cromwell became a leading member of the Rump Parliament, set up after Charles’s execution. In 1653, he became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland.   Although he refused a royal title, Cromwell was king in all but name, and often disregarded parliamentary opposition. By giving English generals governing authority, he effectively established a military dictatorship. However, his government allowed some tolerance: for instance, English Catholics were generally treated well and Jews were allowed to return for the first time in 350 years. However, he remains vilified in Ireland to this day for his aggressive policy towards Irish Catholics.   When Cromwell died in 1658, he was succeeded by his son Richard, who lacked his father’s abilities and was overthrown when the Stuart monarchy was restored in 1660. Oliver Cromwell’s corpse was exhumed and hanged. Cromwell’s legacy was mixed, seen as a dictator by some while celebrated as a revolutionary hero by others.   2. Simón Bolívar Statue of Simón Bolívar in Central Park, New York City, 2022. Source: Central Park NYC   Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan military and political leader who played a key role in Latin America’s successful struggle for independence from Spanish colonial rule. Born into an aristocratic family in Caracas, Bolívar was educated in Europe, where Enlightenment ideals and the spirit of the French and American Revolutions profoundly influenced him. Returning to Venezuela in the early 1800s, he became a leading advocate for independence.   Bolívar began his military campaigns in 1810, initially facing defeats and exile. However, his resilience and leadership helped rally revolutionary forces across northern South America. He took advantage of the French occupation of Spain during the Napoleonic Wars to lead campaigns in Venezuela and Colombia. By 1821, he had liberated Venezuela and played a pivotal role in the creation of Gran Colombia, a short-lived republic encompassing modern-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. He later led campaigns that secured the independence of Peru and the creation of Bolivia.   Despite his military triumphs, Bolívar struggled to maintain unity among the newly independent states. His vision of a united Latin America proved difficult to realize due to regional rivalries, political instability, and resistance from local elites. He briefly served as president of Gran Colombia but faced growing opposition and resigned in 1830. His rule was marked by both authoritarian tendencies and a desire to promote freedom and equality for all Latin Americans regardless of racial or ethnic background. He is considered the most well-known Latin American revolutionary to this day.   3. Józef Piłsudski Marshal Piłsudski, seen here on horseback on parade, helped found the Polish 2nd Republic after World War I, 1933. Source: TVP World   Józef Piłsudski was a Polish military leader and statesman who played a central role in the reestablishment of Poland as an independent nation after World War I. Born in 1867 in what is now Lithuania, Piłsudski grew up in Congress Poland. Early in life, he idolized Polish revolutionary Tadeusz Kościuszko and became involved in socialist and nationalist movements in opposition to Russian control.   In 1904, he began organizing paramilitary groups to fight for Polish national liberation. During World War I, he formed the Polish Legions to align with Austria-Hungary against Russia, hoping it would lead to national liberation.   Following the war and the collapse of the partitioning empires, Piłsudski returned to Warsaw in 1918 and assumed control of the newly independent Polish state. As Chief of State, he led the country through its early years, including the Polish-Soviet War, the Polish-Ukrainian War, and the invasion of Lithuania. His most successful victory was the 1920 Battle of Warsaw, where the Red Army was forced back from the gates of the Polish capital.   After stepping back from politics in the 1920s, Piłsudski returned to power in 1926 through a military coup, establishing an authoritarian regime while maintaining the trappings of democracy. Though controversial, he emphasized military strength, national unity, and minority rights. He remained the de facto leader of Poland until his death in 1935. Revered by many as the father of modern Poland, Piłsudski left a lasting legacy as a revolutionary in Polish history.   4. Tomáš Masaryk Tomáš Masaryk. Photograph from 1925. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While Piłsudski led his legions to victory over the Soviets and founded modern Poland, Czech lawyer and statesman Tomáš Masaryk was preparing for the independence of a state composed of Czechs and Slovaks amidst the collapse of the Habsburg Empire. During the First World War, Masaryk and his two colleagues, Edvard Beneš and Milan R. Štefánik, encouraged the Entente to create a military force known as the Czech Legion. Masaryk believed that an Allied victory would precipitate the collapse of the regime in Vienna and allow for the creation of an independent Czechoslovakia.   In 1918, Masaryk went to the United States and sought recognition from Washington. At this time, Czech soldiers were caught up in the Russian Civil War and the priority of Czechoslovak political leaders was to get them back to their homeland. By 1920, these troops managed to escape the maelstrom that engulfed the former Russian Empire. Masaryk’s gambit proved successful; he gained recognition from all the major Allied powers, and he was elected president of the Czechoslovak Republic in 1920.   Unlike Piłsudski and many other post-WWI revolutionaries, Masaryk was a firm believer in liberal democracy and sought to make Czechoslovakia a progressive democratic country. The Czech Constitution was one of the most egalitarian in the world at the time. Czech politics were not affected by military interference or demagoguery. When the independent Czech Republic emerged in the 1990s after decades of Nazi and Communist rule, Masaryk’s vision was promoted by men like Václav Havel. Today, he is universally venerated in the Czech Republic for his ideals and accomplishments.   5. Fidel Castro Fidel Castro, leader of revolutionary Cuba, speaking at the UN General Assembly. Photograph by Marty Lederhandler, 1961. Source: Associated Press via LA Times   Besides Simón Bolívar, the most prominent Latin American revolutionary was Fidel Castro, who ruled Cuba for nearly five decades and became one of the most influential and polarizing figures of the 20th century. Born in 1926, Castro studied law at the University of Havana, where he became involved in leftist politics. In 1953, he led an unsuccessful assault on the Moncada Barracks, for which he was imprisoned. After his release, he went into exile in Mexico, where he organized the 26th of July Movement with other exiles, including Ernesto “Che” Guevara.   In 1959, Castro successfully overthrew Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista after a guerrilla campaign launched from the Sierra Maestra mountains. He quickly consolidated power, declared Cuba a socialist state, and aligned the country with the Soviet Union. His leadership led to sweeping land reforms, nationalization of industries, and a centralized economy. These policies brought improvements in education and healthcare but also led to authoritarianism, repression of dissent, and economic stagnation.   Castro became a key figure in Cold War geopolitics, especially during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, which brought the US and USSR to the brink of nuclear war. He survived numerous CIA assassination attempts, outlasted ten US presidents, and inspired leftist movements across Latin America and beyond. In 2006, he transferred power to his brother, Raúl Castro, due to health issues, and formally retired in 2008. Fidel Castro died in 2016, leaving behind a legacy tainted by his ruthlessness but also venerated for his revolutionary idealism.   6. Lech Wałęsa Lech Wałęsa, the first leader of post-Communist Poland, at the 2nd Solidarity Trade Union Conference, 1990. Source: Wyborca   While Józef Piłsudski was the man behind Poland’s resurrection in 1918, Lech Wałęsa was responsible for its liberation from Communism in the 1980s. Wałęsa was born into a working-class family in German-occupied Poland during the Second World War. He survived the war and went into the shipbuilding industry in Gdańsk. By the 1970s, he started to engage in labor agitation, promoting strikes and encouraging workers to organize. Wałęsa was repeatedly fired and subject to surveillance by the Polish security services.   By 1980, Wałęsa became the chairman of the National Coordinating Committee of the Solidarność (Solidarity) Free Trade Union, which sought to fight for working-class people. The union grew to over 10 million members and became a major political force. In 1981, Polish dictator Wojciech Jaruzelski declared martial law and cracked down on political dissent. Wałęsa was arrested along with other activists. After his release, he continued to engage in dissident activities, supported by the United States. He led negotiations with the government at the Round Table Talks, leading to limited reforms and the reestablishment of Solidarity.   In 1989, he helped Tadeusz Mazowiecki get elected the first non-Communist Prime Minister in Poland since WWII. A year later, Wałęsa won the first presidential election in Polish since the 1930s. His presidency was transformative: he pushed for Polish membership in NATO and the EU, started the opening of Poland’s market, and advocated for major democratic reforms in Polish society. After losing his re-election campaign in 1995, he became a figure celebrated globally for his advocacy for democracy and support for human rights. He is still considered one of the most iconic anti-communist leaders in Eastern Europe.

  The rapid expansion of the railroad system west of the Mississippi River after the end of the Civil War is one of the defining characteristics of the Old West, and its development that joined the East and West coasts of America brought about the end of that legendary period of American history.   Early Travel Accomplishments Old West settler wagons.   Before the railroads made their way west, travel west of the Mississippi was accomplished either on foot, on horse, or by oxen. The wagon trains which became part of the American image of the Old West were commonly used to move families and cargo, but were slow, traveling only two miles an hour and only able to travel 20 miles in a day at most in good weather. Stagecoaches pulled by horse teams from one town to another were faster, but still would only cover about 80 miles in a day.     The Transcontinental Railroad The Driving of the Last Spike by Thomas Hill 1881. Source: Wikipedia   The transcontinental railroad was a project to connect the eastern and western American railroad systems, constructed from 1863-1869. Its concept began in the 1840s, promoted by Asa Whitney, a New York merchant who spent significant time in China and wanted to travel and transport goods faster. He envisioned a railroad which extended west all the way to the Pacific Ocean, and pressed Congress to enact a measure to construct the railroad.     The Pacific Railroad Act, 1862. Source: US History Scene While his specific idea was never enacted, the nation embraced the idea of a railroad extending from coast to coast. After several years of surveys (some overseen by Jefferson Davis) and proposals, Congress passed the Railroad Act of 1862, which provided the necessary authority to begin construction. On May 10, 1869, a golden spike was ceremonially driven to combine the east and west railroads at Promontory Summit in the Utah Territory.     Train Robberies in the Old West Film still from The Dalton Gang, 1949. Source: Listall   Train robberies in the Old West were frequent enough to warrant significant measures on the parts of the railroads and financial companies (such as Wells Fargo) to protect money and goods from theft. The Jesse James and the James-Younger Gang, Butch Cassidy, and the Dalton Gang, among others, achieved a measure of fame through daring train robberies with significant amounts of money stolen. However, most were caught or killed eventually through efforts of law enforcement and such groups like the Pinkerton Detective Agency.     Possemen unload their horses in Wilcox after the June 2, 1899, train robbery. (American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming)   Over 200 train robberies took place during the period of the Old West, as trains were easy targets with significant amounts of money and valuables aboard. The largest train robbery of the period was the Union Pacific Big Springs Robbery, perpetrated by another notorious train robber, Sam Bass and his gang. Bass and the Black Hills Bandits stole over $60,000 in gold coins, a modern value of over $1.6 million dollars.   Lasting Effects Completion of the transcontinental railroad. Source: Cove Collective   The railroad system allowed significantly cheaper and faster travel across the United States. Costs were reduced to one tenth the price of a stagecoach ticket, and long-distance travel which once took months was reduced to mere days. Cargo was also transported much faster and cheaper than previous methods, as was the mail. With the completion of the transcontinental railroad and the further expansion of the railroad system into the west, populations shifted further beyond the Mississippi, and the wilderness aspect of the American West was losing its mystique.