In 218 BCE, the Second Punic War erupted when Carthage captured the Spanish city of Saguntum, an ally of the Roman Republic. The war was one of the ancient world’s largest conflicts. It was fought across Spain, Italy, and Africa, eventually spilling over into Greece and Asia. During the early stages of the war, Rome suffered devastating losses at the hands of the Carthaginian general Hannibal Barca. The Battle of Trebbia was the first of these terrible defeats, foreshadowing Hannibal’s military genius.   Before the Battle of Trebbia: The Impossible Route Map of Roman and Carthaginian territories at the start of the Second Punic War. Source: Wikipedia Commons   Once the Roman Republic declared war on Carthage, they prepared their forces to invade Carthage’s territories in Iberia (modern-day Spain and Portugal) and North Africa. The Romans were, however, outmaneuvered by a stroke of genius, which many considered to be an act of madness at the time. Hannibal gathered his forces in Iberia, numbering 50,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry, and 37 elephants. The Carthaginian general crossed the Pyrenees with his army and then ascended the impenetrable Alps in late autumn, crossing in two weeks. The entire journey was costly, and his army suffered terrible losses to ambushes from hostile tribes, and the harsh climate of the mountain passes. When Hannibal arrived on the other side of the Alps in Italy, he had a mere 20,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry, and only a small number of elephants left.   Nevertheless, Hannibal caught the Romans completely off-guard. Taking an army across the Alps was considered impossible. The Romans had planned to fight the war on enemy territory. Now, there was a hostile force right in their own backyard. While the Roman army heading to Iberia continued on its original mission, its main commander, the consul Publius Cornelius Scipio, returned in haste to take command of the Roman forces left in northern Italy.   Battle of Ticinus Engraving of Hannibal’s army crossing the Alps in The Illustrated History of the World for the English People, 1881-1884. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Scipio gathered his army and set out to confront Hannibal. The two armies encamped close to one another on a plain on the right bank of the Ticinus River. The following day, both commanders set out with a strong reconnaissance force to inspect the enemy’s army. Hannibal’s forces consisted of Libyan and Iberian heavy cavalry and contingents of the elite Numidian light cavalry. Scipio, on the other hand, had a mixed force of Gallic and Roman cavalry supported by a force of javelin-armed velites, which were light infantry.   When the armies made contact, they drew up their battle lines. Hannibal placed his heavy cavalry in the center and his light Numidians on the wings. The Roman line had placed the Gallic horse and velites in the frontline with the Roman cavalry in the rear. As the velites advanced to discharge their javelin at the enemy, Hannibal’s heavy cavalry unexpectedly charged forward, driving the Roman light infantry back before they could cast their missiles. The Romans responded by charging the Carthaginian horse. A fierce hand-to-hand combat ensued, with many horsemen dismounting and continuing the battle on foot. The battle was won when Hannibal’s Numidians outflanked the Romans and charged their rear. According to the historian Polybius:   “Numidian horse, however, having outflanked the Romans, charged them on the rear: and so the sharp-shooters, who had fled from the cavalry charge at the beginning, were now trampled to death by the numbers and furious onslaught of the Numidians; while the front ranks originally engaged with the Carthaginians, after losing many of their men and inflicting a still greater loss on the enemy, finding themselves charged on the rear by the Numidians, broke into flight (3.65.10-11).”   Scipio barely survived, suffering a severe wound. He was saved only by the bravery of his 16-year-old son, also named Publius Cornelius Scipio. The younger Scipio would be awarded the agnomen Africanus for his later victories in North Africa. The surviving Romans withdrew to their camp, and the army retreated under the cover of darkness.   While Ticinus was only a minor engagement, it shocked both the senate and the army under the consul Tiberius Sempronius Longus, who was heading for Africa. He was recalled to defend Italy. Hannibal’s army was reinforced with a great number of Gallic and Ligurian warriors who flocked to his side to join his cause.   Preparations For Battle Stele showing Numidian light cavalry with javelins, Africa, c. 2nd century BCE. Source: Algiers Musée National des Antiquités   Sempronius’ army joined up with Scipio’s in December 218 BCE. The two armies were encamped a few kilometers apart on either side of the Trebbia River. In Sempronius, Hannibal faced an ambitious general who was glory-hungry and eager for a pitched battle against the Carthaginians before his term as consul was over. Scipio, however, having seen what Hannibal was capable of, was against open engagement.   The Romans won a small skirmish against one of Hannibal’s raiding parties, which only served to embolden Sempronius. Hannibal himself was also eager to engage the enemy in pitched battle. He wanted to prove to his new Gallic allies that they had backed the right horse and to boost the morale of his own men with a decisive victory. Having carefully chosen an open plain beside an overgrown, dry watercourse, the ideal terrain for maximizing his cavalry superiority, Hannibal provoked the rash and impetuous Sempronius into battle.   The Battle of Trebbia Map of the opening stages of the Battle of Trebbia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   On a cold, snow-covered December morning, just as dawn was breaking, the Romans were awakened by the war cries of howling Numidian riders attacking their camp. Sempronius immediately ordered his cavalry, supported by 6,000 elites, to engage the brazen Numidians, who retreated to their camp. He then assembled his entire army and marched them out to meet the Carthaginian host.   The Roman army, which marched out without breakfast, made the difficult crossing over the freezing Trebbia River that came up to the infantry’s chests. By the time the army formed on the other side, the soldiers were visibly shaking and fatigued. According to Livy:   “But when they entered the water which had been swollen by the night’s rain and was then breast high, their limbs became stiff with cold, and when they emerged on the other side they had hardly strength to hold their weapons; they began to grow faint from fatigue and as the day wore on, from hunger (21.54.9).”   In contrast, the Carthaginian army they faced was well-fed, well-rested, and kept warm by their fires. Furthermore, the night before, Hannibal had selected 2,000 of his best infantry and cavalry to set an ambush for the Romans. The 2,000 soldiers were concealed in the old, overgrown watercourse, waiting for the right moment to spring their trap.   The Romans numbered 36,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry. Hannibal had 8,000 light infantry, 20,000 heavy infantry, and 10,000 cavalry. The armies were thus similar in size, but the Carthaginians had the superior cavalry arm. Both armies placed their heavy infantry in the center with their cavalry on the wings. The Carthaginian heavy infantry, being inferior in number to the Romans, had their flanks protected by the few remaining elephants that survived the crossing of the Alps. Both armies had their main force screened by light infantry.   Map of the battle deployment at Trebbia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The battle commenced with the light infantry engagement. Here, the Carthaginian slingers and javelin men got the better of the Romans due to the velites having spent most of their javelins in the engagement with the Numidians. Sempronius thus ordered his heavy infantry to engage. The light troops on both sides retreated through the ranks of the heavy infantry. The Romans charged the Carthaginian lines, and a brutal melee engagement ensued. On the wings, the Carthaginian cavalry, being well rested and outnumbering the Romans, were quick to drive off the Roman horse on either flank of their infantry. With the Roman flanks exposed, the Carthaginian light troops outflanked the Roman infantry and attacked them in the flanks. The Roman infantry were now facing enemies to their front and on both flanks.   Suddenly, the Romans heard the terrible sound of war cries from their rear as 2,000 horsemen and infantry charged down upon them, causing great chaos and distress. Hannibal had sprung his ambush. The Romans were now surrounded, fighting on all fronts and taking heavy casualties. A contingent of Romans in the van, numbering 10,000, managed to cut their way through the Carthaginian line and retreated to the safety of the city of Placentia. According to Polybius, “of the remainder, the greater part were killed near the river by the elephants and cavalry.” Those who survived were saved only by an intense storm that stopped the Carthaginians from pursuing their defeated foes any further.   Map of the final stages of the Battle of Trebbia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Hannibal had won a great victory over the Romans. He had now beaten two Roman consuls in the space of a few weeks. Unfortunately, the sources do not specify the number of casualties on either side, but Hannibal’s army was mostly intact, having lost very few of his African and Iberian veterans. His heaviest casualties were suffered by his newly gained Gallic allies. What elephants he had left after his crossing of the Alps, however, succumbed to the cold and wounds. Only one of the beasts remained. The Romans suffered far greater losses and were severely beaten on home soil.   Battle of Trebbia: Aftermath Bust of the Hannibal Barca, Roman, c. 1st century BCE-4th century CE. Source: National Archaeological Museum of Naples   Hannibal had shown his military genius by using a variety of superb military tactics at the Battle of Trebbia. Not only did he use the natural elements and the terrain to great effect, but he also used the rash character of the Roman general against his enemy. This was, however, only the beginning. Hannibal would continue to win a series of brilliant victories over the Romans that would cement his legacy as one of history’s greatest military minds.

  The Assyrian Empire grew out of the city of Assur, which was named for the principal god of Assyria, and became a significant military power. Meanwhile, Babylon was under the patronage of the god Marduk and was known as an important cultural and religious center in the region. The two kingdoms frequently came into contact through local politics. Their history is characterized by Assyria trying to exert control over Babylon, but not fully subjugating the city out of respect for their gods, giving the Babylonians the opportunity to rebel and reassert their autonomy. In the constant back and forth, the two powers sometimes seemed like friends, and sometimes foes.   Origins as Early Rivals The Standard of Ur, Iraq, c. 2500 BCE. Source: British Museum   The Sumerian civilization appeared around 6000 BCE in the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in southern Mesopotamia. By the 23rd century BCE, Sargon of Akkad, known as Sargon the Great, had conquered the Sumerian lands and effectively launched his Akkadian Empire, the first great empire in world history.   Evidence shows that both the Assyrian city of Assur and Babylon existed in this period. Archaeological remains at the site of Assur suggest the site had been inhabited since the early 3rd millennium BCE. Babylon is referenced on a clay tablet dating to 2217–2193 BCE. After the fall of Akkad, and a brief period of stagnancy in international politics, the Third Dynasty of Ur, a Sumerian kingdom, rose to fill the void. Ur was then sacked by the Elamites, and a wave of Amorite influence (Semitic-speaking people from the Levant) spread across Mesopotamia.   Until this point, Babylon had been a small but well-respected religious hub in southern Mesopotamia. Sumu-abum, a local Amorite chieftain, secured Babylonian independence from the Akkadian empire sometime between 1897-1830 BCE. Following in Sumu-abum’s footsteps, around one hundred years later, Hammurabi transformed the settlement into a dominant city. From c. 1770-1670 BCE, Babylon was the largest city in the world. Hammurabi expanded Babylon’s territory significantly and much of southern Mesopotamia came to be known as Babylonia.   But Babylon was only one of many emerging powerful city-states. Another affluent civilization called Assyria was flourishing in northern Mesopotamia.   Basalt stele inscribed with the Code of Hammurabi, Iraq, c. 1755-1750 BCE. Source: Louvre Museum   The Amorite King Ila-kabkabu of Ekallatum, the neighboring state of Assur, had been conquered by Naram-Sin of Eshnunna, causing Ila-kabkabu’s successor, Shamshi-Adad, to flee to Babylon. Upon Naram-Sin’s death, Shamshi-Adad usurped his throne. In 1790 BCE, he dethroned the King of Assur, Erisum II, who was the son of Naram-Sin. Shamshi-Adad I declared himself king of a growing number of city-states in upper Mesopotamia and continued to conquer yet more land, including areas of Syria and Anatolia. He was the first great king of Assyria.   However, Shamshi-Adad I’s growing influence would not last. Hammurabi, who was king of Babylonia from c. 1792-1750 BCE, fought with Ishme-Dagan I, Shamsi-Adad I’s successor, for control over Mesopotamia. Hammurabi was victorious, and the Assyrian king had to pay tribute to Babylon.   Instability and Rising Power Painting of Shamshi-Adad I, by A.C. Weatherstone, 1915. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The death of Hammurabi spelled the beginning of disaster for the Old Babylonian Empire. His son and successor, Samsu-iluna, could only watch as all the land conquered by his father rebelled and fractured. Chaos ensued as the city-states of Eshnunna and Larsa revolted against their Babylonian leaders, and Assyria and Elam took full advantage of the political disarray.   Asinum, King of Assyria and grandson of Shamshi-Adad I, was expelled due to his Amorite heritage and Babylonian connections. A period of Assyrian civil war followed, and Ashur-dugul emerged as king. He ruled only briefly before he was also usurped, this time by six unhappy officials. At some point, one of these men, named Adasi, a supposed native Assyrian, was crowned king. He is typically missed from Assyrian king lists, which skips straight to his son, Bel-bani. This era is often defined by historians as the Assyrian “Dark Ages” because of the disorder and lack of reliable sources. However, Bel-bani has been historically credited with stabilizing the Assyrian kingship. His Adaside Dynasty would go on to rule for the next millennium.   Map of Kassite-Babylonia in the 13th century BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   At the same time, Babylon and Hammurabi’s descendants continued to decline in power. In 1595 BCE, the Hittites sacked Babylon but made no attempt to maintain control of the city. Nevertheless, the main cultural and once political power in Mesopotamia had been destroyed, creating the opportunity for new powers to surface.   The Kassites (assumed to be tribes from the Zagros mountains) seized control of Babylonia, and the Mitanni emerged in the north. Despite not being a dominant power, Assyria enjoyed a period of relative peace and entered into diplomatic relations with the Kassite-Babylonians. Meanwhile, the Mitanni grew in strength and, like the ruling city-states of previous centuries, began to exercise power over neighboring states. Assyria was taken over by the Mittani around 1430 BCE, but would be independent once more just seventy years later. Ashur-Uballit I (c. 1363–1328 BCE) secured Assyrian autonomy by taking advantage of conflict between the Hittites and Mitanni.   While the Assyrian state fought to assert itself amongst the assembly of rival city-states, Babylon maintained a period of order. The Kassites unified Babylonia under one ruling body, reinstalled favorable trade routes, and revitalized the area through vast construction projects. During this period, successful international affairs were recorded through the famous Amarna Letters, detailed correspondence written in cuneiform between the Egyptian pharaohs and various civilizations in the ancient Near East, including the Kassite-Babylonians and Assyrians.   During the 14th century BCE, both Assyria and Babylon were experiencing frequent and increasingly longer periods of stability. The Assyrians were escalating their involvement in international affairs, while Babylon was renovating itself from the inside through reforms.   Assyrian Control of Babylon Amarna Letter from Ashur-Uballit I to Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten, Egypt, c. 1353-1336 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   The period scholars refer to as the Middle Assyrian Empire began with the reign of Ashur-uballit I. The subsequent Assyrian line of succession produced several warrior kings, namely Adad-nirari I, Shalmaneser I, and Tukulti-Ninurta I.   Adad-nirari I set his sights on subjugating the established state of Babylonia. He took towns on the Babylonian border, then met the Babylonian king, Nazi-Maruttash, in battle and defeated him. Under Shalmaneser I, Adad-nirari’s son, the Assyrian focus shifted towards the constantly rebelling Mitanni. But Tukulti-ninurta I resumed an emphasis on securing southern Mesopotamia.   Tukulti-Ninurta I assumed the Assyrian throne in approximately 1243 BCE. Historians generally consider Tukulti-Ninurta I’s prioritization of Babylonian subjugation as one of economic and political gain. However, Tukulti-Ninurta I claimed in an epic poem about his deeds that the Babylonians had attacked Assyrian settlements and that their king, Kashtiliash IV, had been renounced by the gods. This was likely state-produced propaganda to validate the Assyrian attacks. Tukulti-Ninurta I won the war in 1225 BCE, but at a heavy cost, according to contemporary sources.   The Assyrians allowed the Babylonians significant freedoms. Much of the land that the Assyrians had conquered in southern Mesopotamia was governed indirectly through vassal kings. In 1221 BCE, Tukulti-Ninurta I visited Babylonia and made offerings to the Babylonian gods, which demonstrated that the ruler of Babylon, Adad-shuma-iddina, was favored by the Assyrians. Likewise, this evidence shows that the Assyrians viewed Babylonian culture and religion with great respect.   Altar of Tukulti-Ninurta I showing the king standing and kneeling, Assur, Iraq, c. 1243-1207 BCE. Source: Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin   Peace between the two states lasted only until 1217 BCE. Tukulti-Ninurta I had already pardoned Adad-shuma-iddina for one uprising, but the Babylonian king tried again. The Babylonians were met with their third Assyrian campaign under the rule of Tukulti-Ninurta I, which once again ended badly for the Babylonians. Babylon was plundered and vandalized, and Tukulti-Ninurta I carried off an important statue of Babylon’s patron god, Marduk.   But the Babylonians did not give up. Adad-shuma-usur led another rebellion, which was successful in expelling the Assyrians in 1216 BCE. Tukulti-Ninurta I was assassinated around 1207 BCE. Historians surmised his murder was the result of his increasingly sacrilegious behavior, including stealing religious idols and declaring himself a god. The death of Tukulti-Ninurta I saw Assyria enter a period of inactivity that coincided with the collapse of the Bronze Age. Nevertheless, the state fared well in comparison to many other civilizations in the Near East.   Increasing Hostilities Ruins of the north palace at Babylon. Source: Rashid International   Babylon had conclusively become an autonomous state after the death of Tukulti-Ninurta I. His son and successor, Enlil-kudurri-usur, was defeated so badly by the Babylonians that the Assyrian officials handed their king over to them. Ninurta-apal-Ekur was the son of one of these officials and was backed by the Babylonians to seize power over Assyria. Ninurta-apal-Ekur proved ineffectual, and instability in Assyria continued.   Babylon was not faring any better. King Zababa-shuma-iddin faced the Assyrian forces that had annexed Babylonian land in the north while also taking on the Elamite king who invaded from the east because he stated he had a stronger claim to the Babylonian throne. Elam devastated many Babylonian cities and took multiple important artifacts back to Susa, including the Code of Hammurabi. The next and final Kassite-Babylonian King, Enlil-nādin-aḫe, was brought to Susa in chains along with many other Kassite-Babylonian noblemen. In 1155 BCE, the Kassites had been conclusively defeated, and the Elamites took Babylon’s statue of their patron god Marduk with them.   Reproduction of an image of Marduk from a Babylonian cylinder seal, Babylon, c. 9th century BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Only a few years later, in 1153 BCE, Marduk-kabit-ahheshu ascended the Babylonian throne and expelled the Elamites from Babylon. He was succeeded by his son Itti-Marduk-balatu. Meanwhile, in Assyria, the death of Ashur-dan I in 1133 BCE generated another Assyrian power struggle between his two sons. After Mutakkil-Nusku emerged triumphant, he immediately went to war with Itti-Marduk-balatu. The two city-states fought for control over the city of Zaqqa (or Zanqi), and the conflict passed down to both their successors.   Another Babylonian, King Nebuchadnezzar I, took up this fight but the Assyrian ruler, Ashur-resh-ishi I, frequently led the Assyrians to victory. As a result, Ashur-resh-ishi I professed himself as “the avenger of Assyria.” Nebuchadnezzar I was successful on the battlefield elsewhere as he conquered Elam and returned with the sacred statue of Marduk.   Relations between Babylonia and Assyria grew in hostility at the end of the reign of the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I (c. 1114-1076 BCE). The two nations fought at least twice. Initially, these sour dealings were resumed under Tiglath-Pileser I’s successors, but were then resolved by the later Assyrian king, Ashur-bel-kala. He installed Adad-apla-iddina to the Babylonian throne and then married his daughter to ensure peace. This securely placed Babylon in the sphere of Assyrian influence and, therefore, was effectively an Assyrian vassal state.   The Rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Decrease of Babylonian Power Map of Neo-Assyrian Empire growth. Source: Wikimedia Commons   After the reign of Ashur-bel-kala, Assyria was in a holding position, and there was little conflict between Assyrian cities and other Near East city-states. Babylon remained under Assyrian authority and also experienced a steady stream of Semitic foreign peoples settling in the area, with the Chaldeans being the last group in the 9th century BCE.   The Middle Assyrian Empire ended in 912 BCE with the death of Ashur-dan II. The ascension of Adad-nirari II in 911 BCE marked the rites of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. This was a new period of expansion, and the new king began to subjugate lands previously associated with Babylonia. He also reinforced diplomatic relations with his southern neighbor through a marriage agreement. Adad-nirari II married the daughter of the Babylonian King Nabu-shuma-ukin I and vice versa.   Wall panel from relief of Tiglath-Pileser III, Nimrud, Iraq, 728 BCE. Source: British Museum   Following in the footsteps of Adad-nirari II came a host of warrior kings who were fully committed to imperialism in the name of the Assyrian gods. Principal among these warrior kings were Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III. Shalameneser III’s son and successor, Shamsi-Adad V, successfully defeated Babylonian rebellions and claimed for himself the traditional Babylonian title of “King of Sumer and Akkad.” However, this victory was minimal as Shamsi-Adad V was unable to capitalize on the weakened state of Babylon due to Assyria’s failed campaigns against other kingdoms.   It would not be until the reign of the Assyrian King Tiglath-Pileser III, over 60 years later, that Assyria would make considerable gains in Babylonian territories again. At the start of his reign, Tiglath-Pileser III fought against the Babylonian King Nabu-nasir and conquered many regions under Babylonian control. After a period of expansion elsewhere, Tiglath-Pileser III used the ascension of the Chaldean Nabu-mukin-zeri to the Babylonian throne as an excuse for full-scale war.   Tiglath-Pileser III conquered Babylon but wanted the Babylonian people to accept him as ruler due to Assyria’s immense appreciation of Babylonian culture. Therefore, he took part in the traditional New Year celebrations in honor of Marduk, and Babylon was not carved up into provinces as was the typical Assyrian mode of conquest. Instead, Babylon was held in a personal union which means it shared a monarchy with Assyria but its religion and traditions remained intact.   Sack of Babylon Clay cylinder of Sennacherib found during excavation of the Library of Ashurbanipal, Nineveh, Iraq, c. 705-681 BCE. Source: British Museum   Babylon rebelled and restored its autonomy early in the reign of Sargon II (c. 722-705 BCE) through an alliance with the Elamites. Babylon, along with many other Assyrian vassals, seized the opportunity to rise after Sargon II usurped the throne from Shalmaneser V, which resulted in hostile infighting within Assyria.   By 710 BCE the Babylonian-Elamite alliance had deteriorated and Sargon II exploited the situation by invading Babylo. When he got there, he was allowed into the city with minimal opposition. Sargon II became King of Babylon and spent the next three years there where he immersed himself in the local customs. Assyria was effectively ruled by his son, Sennacherib.   Upon Sargon II’s unexpected death in battle, Sennacherib dissociated himself from his father. Sennacherib, as well as his later successor, Esarhaddon, were both said to be suspicious of Sargon II’s position in Babylon. They, and many Assyrian vassal states, probably saw Sargon II’s death as a sign from the gods. Accordingly, many nations ruled by Assyria rebelled upon the ascension of Sennacherib.   During his reign, Sennacherib reconquered Babylon after an earlier revolt led by Merodach-Baladan, who had ruled before Sargon II’s victory over Babylon. Sennacherib’s conquest took two years, after which Merodach-Baladan escaped to Elam and Sennacherib proclaimed himself as King of Babylon. However, unlike his Assyrian predecessors, he took no part in Babylonian traditions, which the Babylonians understood to be disrespectful.   More rebellions led by Merodach-Baladan ensued, which Sennacherib subdued. He established Bel-ibni, a Babylonian noble who had been raised at the Assyrian court, as a new vassal king. But Merodach-Baladan and Shuzubu, a Chaldean tribal leader, fought amongst themselves for the Babylonian kingship. In another attempt to quell discontent, Sennacherib appointed his son, Ashur-nadin-shumi, as King of Babylon. Sennacherib enacted further campaigns against the Chaldeans and chased them to Elam, where he sacked multiple cities.   Panels from the Lachish Reliefs depicting Sennacherib (deliberately etched off) sits on his throne in the center and watches the siege of Lachish, Nineveh, Iraq, c. 700-692 BCE. Source: British Museum   But the back and forth continued, and in the absence of the Assyrian army, the King of Elam marched into Babylonia. Ashur-nadin-shumi was taken prisoner and transported back to Elam, where he was likely executed. The Assyrians met the Elamite-Babylonian forces at Nippur, which was called the Battle of the Diyala River. Sennacherib’s forces defeated the Elamite-Babylonians, but Babylon refused to surrender. In 690 BCE, Sennacherib razed Babylon to the ground.   According to historians, the well-established respect the Assyrians had maintained for Babylon was overruled by Sennacherib’s desire to avenge his son and heir, as well as his continued frustrations with a city-state that needed to be re-conquered time and time again. While Assyrian troops customarily participated in iconoclastic attacks and kidnapped religious idols in other regions, they had never done this in Babylon due to their shared religious beliefs. But Sennacherib himself recorded the Assyrian attacks on temples and religious iconography and stated that he “devastated,” “burned,” and “dumped” the remains into water.   Sennacherib’s destruction of Babylon raised deep concerns in Assyria. The king attempted to justify his actions through a myth that put Marduk on trial by the principal Assyrian god, Assur. He added further insult to Babylon when he declared that Assur was now the deity at the center of Babylonian New Year celebrations, identified Babylon with the destructive goddess Tiamat, and connected himself with Marduk.   Unsurprisingly, this generated an unshakeable hatred among the remaining Babylonians. Sennacherib was later murdered by his eldest son Arda-Mulissu, who had been heir but was unexpectedly replaced with his younger brother Esarhaddon. Esarhaddon assumed the throne and executed all the conspirators while Babylonians celebrated Sennacherib’s death, describing it as a divine act of the gods.   Medo-Babylonian Conquest of Assyria The Fall of Nineveh, by John Martin, 1829. Source: Art Gallery of New South Wales, Australia   After his father’s controversial reign and his own complicated ascendancy, Esarhaddon was left paranoid about who to trust in court and the potential wrath of the gods. Therefore, the Assyrian king was dedicated to the reconstruction of Babylon after his father had left it in ruins. His successors continued his restorative program. But it would seem that after centuries of subjugation, Babylon would have the last laugh.   Ashurbanipal is typically named the last great king of Assyria and after he died in 631 BCE, Assyria’s fortunes changed significantly. Conspiracies erupted in the Assyrian court as Ashurbanipal’s son and named heir, Ashur-etil-ilani, was met with resistance. Despite Ashur-etil-ilani squashing his opposition, he died unexpectedly after just four years. His brother stood to inherit the throne, but he too faced hostility.   The Assyrian vassal king in Babylonia, Kandalanu, died in 627 BCE and Babylon rebelled against Assyrian control yet again. Nabopolassar was crowned King of Babylon in 626 BCE and King Sinsharishkun of Assyria responded by launching attacks in Northern Babylonia. At the same time, many Assyrian vassals, including Elam, stopped paying taxes to Assyria. Moreover, an unnamed Assyrian general rebelled against Sinsharishkun, which meant the king’s men had to leave Babylon to face the potential usurper. By 620 BCE, Nabopolassar had secured his sovereignty over the whole of Babylonia, while Assyria was dealt consistent blows from rebelling territories. The Medes then got involved and sacked Assur, the Assyrian cultural capital. Nabopolassar arrived on the scene during the looting. The Babylonians and the Medes created the Anti-Assyrian pact and Nabopolassar’s son, Nebuchadnezzar, married a Median princess.   Lion from the Processional Way in Babylon, Iraq, c. 604-562 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Next, the Babylonians and the Medes took Nineveh, another key Assyrian city and it is thought that Sinsharishkun died in the battle. By this point, the Assyrian Empire had effectively dissolved. Ashur-uballit II became the new Assyrian King, but a formal coronation could not be held as it had always taken place in Assur, which remained in the hands of the Assyrian enemies. Ashur-uballit II was crowned in Harran, but his title “Son of the King” indicates that the Assyrians expected the traditional coronation at Assur would take place later.   The Siege of Harran in 609 BCE signaled the end of Assyria altogether and Ashur-uballit II retreated into the desert. The deposed Assyrian king returned just three months later with Egyptian support, but was forced to retreat again. He probably died shortly after. The establishment of the Neo-Babylonian Empire is accredited to the ascension of Nabopolassar to power. The succession of his son, Nebuchadnezzar II, ushered in a new period of Babylonian prosperity and imperialism.   Conclusions Excavation photos of the Esagila, the temple dedicated to Marduk in Babylon, Iraq, c. 1860. Source: Library of Congress   Across a thousand years of largely shared history, Assyria and Babylon engaged in back-and-forth political affairs. Typically, the Assyrians utilized their refined military tactics to subjugate Babylon, the culturally more established state, which gave the Assyrian state credibility. However, the Assyrians shared the same deities because they were ruled by Babylonians early in their history, and even earlier still, both Assyria and Babylon were ruled by the Akkadians and Sumerians.   Thus, the Assyrians actively withheld from the same levels of persecution and re-settlement of defeated people that they used elsewhere. This created a problem whereby the Babylonians experienced greater freedoms and therefore possessed greater opportunities to rebel, which they consistently capitalized on.   Assyria and Babylon went through periods where their relations were more harmonious, usually after the Assyrians had made some sort of political arrangement post-conquest. The reign of Sennacherib and his merciless sack of Babylon cemented the Babylonian’s loathing of their Assyrian overlords. Nabopolassar’s ascension, the subsequent resurgence of Babylonian autonomy, and the ruthless assault on all of Assyria’s dominant cities can easily be seen as an act of vengeance.

  By the time Alexander the Great died in the summer of 323 BCE Olympias had over three decades of experience at the forefront of Macedonian politics, first as a wife and then as a mother of kings. She was one of the first ancient Greek women to have a significant impact on politics, both during the lives of her husband and son and following Alexander’s death. Between 323-317 BCE she became a central figure in the early phases of the decades-long War of Successors.   Olympias: Vengeful Queen or Ruthless Politician? Olympias Medallion, Roman, c. 3rd century CE. Source: Walters Art Museum   For decades Olympias had been at the heart of the court of her husband, Philip II of Macedon. A negative tradition portrayed her as a vengeful murderess. Her origins on the edge of the Greek world in Epirus, north western Greece, and a fondness for snakes gave her an exotic, almost demonic reputation. However, Olympias was little different than any other member of a ruthless court which frequently resorted to assassination and execution. Rather than jealous and vengeful, Olympias’ actions were probably rationally motivated by the need to defend her son’s position as heir to the throne and later as king.   The same pattern continued after Alexander’s death and became attached to his infant son Alexander IV, who was made joint king with Philip III Arrhidaeus, another son of Philip II who was previously judged incapable of ruling due to an unknown incapacity. Olympias fought for the rights of her grandson and allied with anyone willing to protect them.   Rivalry With Antipater Death of Alexander the Great, by Nicola de Laurentiis, c. 1783-1832. Source: MutualArt   Olympias had withdrawn from Macedon during Alexander’s reign, partly due to tensions with Antipater, Alexander’s regent. The rivalry with Antipater reached such heights that she blamed him and his family for Alexander’s death. The timing of Alexander’s death had been fortunate for Antipater, who had been summoned by the king and possibly feared for his life. Olympias may have been voicing her belief in Antipater’s guilt, sincerely believing it, soon after her son’s death.   Olympias’ rivalry with Antipater certainly continued after Alexander’s death. Her initial involvement in the War of Successors was to try to prevent an alliance between Antipater and Perdiccas, regent and guardian of the kings, by attempting to arrange the marriage of her daughter, Cleopatra, to Perdiccas. This plan fell through and Perdiccas soon died on campaign in Egypt. But then the situation changed again.   Antipater died of natural causes in 319 BCE. Instead of passing control of Macedon and the two kings to his son Cassander, Antipater appointed a veteran officer, Polyphercon, as his successor. The removal of an old antagonist was probably welcome, especially as Polyphercon reached out to Olympias and asked her to return to Macedon and care for Alexander IV. However, Cassander was unwilling to accept being passed over and soon rebelled. With Macedon itself favoring Polyphercon and the kings, according to Diodorus Siculus, Cassander sought allies elsewhere and built a presence in Greece. Cassander, the son of an old rival and now the enemy of the official guardian of Alexander IV, grew into the major threat to Olympias and Alexander the Great’s family.   Marching to War Eumenos and Roxana, by Alessandro Varotari, c. 1630s. Source: Hermitage Museum   It seems Olympias, wisely, did not trust any of the powerful generals. Diodorus reports that she contacted the relative outsider among the generals, the Greek Eumenes, seeking his continued support of the isolated royal family and saying she placed little trust in anyone. Taking Eumenes’ advice, Olympias refused Polyphercon’s offer and stayed in Epirus to see how events unfolded. She did, however, start to take a more active role, trying, unsuccessfully, to win over the Athenians from Cassander.   When Cassander gained a foothold in Greece, Polyphercon was forced to march south. Not only were his campaigns unsuccessful, but in his absence, the situation in Macedon shifted again. When Olympias decided to return to Macedon, Adea Eurydice, a roughly 20-year-old granddaughter of Philip II and the wife of Philip III Arrhidaeus, took control and allied with Cassander. Adea had reason to fear Olympias. In the past, Olympias had been ruthless with potential threats and was rumored to have caused Arrhidaeus’ incapacity through poison, though there is no supporting evidence for the accusation.   Coin showing Hercules (obverse) and lion (reverse), issued under Cassander, c. 317-306 BCE. Source: British Museum   Olympias could not allow Adea and Cassander to control Macedon and the kings. Polyphercon and Aeacides of Epirus supplied an army, which Olympias symbolically led. Adea gathered her own force and marched to the border with Epirus for what has been called the first war between women. Such was Olympias’ prestige that the Macedonians with Adea refused to fight and defected. Adea and Arrhidaeus were soon captured.   There are different ways to interpret what happened next. Negative sources, such as Justin, depict a vengeful Olympias first starving and then executing Adea and Arrhidaeus and massacring the supporters and family of Cassander. This cruelty lost her the support of the Macedonians, setting up her fall. However, removing the negative judgement from the events allows us to see a different picture.   Adea and Arrhidaeus were indeed executed, but the story that she imprisoned and walled them up can be read either as torture or hesitation. Their eventual executions were handled in a traditional manner, which respected their royal status. A brother of Cassander was killed and the tomb of another desecrated. Since Olympias considered the family responsible for the death of Alexander, this may have been punishment for their apparent treason. A few dozen supporters of Cassander were killed, but it was not a wholesale purge. When she returned to Macedon, Olympias was ruthless, but no more so than any other Macedonian political figure during this violent age. There is no sign of support being withdrawn from her in the remaining months of her life.   Cassander Reacts Image of Olympias on a silver bowl, Romano-British, c. 4th century CE. Source: British Museum   Olympias’s return to Macedon in 317 BCE brought her to the height of her political influence. But by the middle of 316 BCE, she was dead.   Hearing the news that Olympias had returned to Macedon while campaigning in Greece, Cassander quickly moved north. Bypassing potential opposition from Polyphercon’s allies, he was in Macedon before any real defense could be organized. Cassander and his commanders held off Olympias’ defenders and forced her and the royal family to retreat to the city of Pydna. Cassander had moved too quickly and outmanoeuvred Olympias. Both he and his commanders were more capable than Polyphercon and Aeacides while Olympias’s other ally, Eumenes, was far away. The events of 317-316 BCE look more like a military victory for Cassander than support for Olympias evaporating.   Olympias held on in Pydna for several months, enduring a terrible siege. Forces loyal to Olympias and the royal family fought on with little success. Only when the war looked lost did people in Macedon seek terms with Cassander. Sometime in the spring of 316 BCE, with her remaining soldiers starving, Olympias was forced to surrender. Cassander promised to keep her safe, but this promise was soon forgotten.   Final Act  Cassander and Olympias, by Jean-Joseph Taillasson, 1799. Source: Brest’s Museum of Fine Arts   Olympias and the royal family were now in Cassander’s hands, but she met her end with dignity and defiance. Cassander moved cautiously against the still popular Olympias. He convinced the families of some of Olympias’ victims to bring her to trial, refusing to let her speak or make any defense. Next, Cassander offered to let her escape to Athens, but Olympias refused. Instead, she wanted to speak to the Macedonians. Olympias seems convinced that she still retained support. Cassander refused to let her speak.   Less subtle methods were now applied before Olympias could rally support. Two hundred soldiers were dispatched with orders to kill Olympias, but when they confronted her, they could not do it. In the end, only the families of her victims were willing to come forward. A group of them went to the house where she was held. Olympias had already faced down one group of assassins, but there was no escaping her fate this time. While few details are recorded, even the largely negative sources report that the bravery and dignity with which she met death was worthy of the mother of Alexander the Great and the mythical hero Achilles from whom her family claimed descent.   Olympias was right to fear Cassander. Having killed Alexander the Great’s mother, he went on to murder his wife and son, extinguishing the Argead dynasty. In the end, this suited all the potential successors. With the nominal kings out of the way, the remaining powerful generals declared themselves kings of parts of Alexander’s empire, creating the framework for the Hellenistic Age.   Bibliography:   Carney, E. (2006) Olympias: Mother of Alexander the Great. Routledge: New York.   Jouanno, C (1995). “Alexandre et Olympias: de l’histoire au mythe”, Bulletin de l’Association Guillaume Budé, 1995.3 pp. 211-230.

  Medieval castles in Japan originated during the Sengoku period (1467–1603), a time of relentless civil war when regional warlords, or daimyō, fortified strategic sites to defend territory and assert power. Unlike European castles, these structures evolved into complex hubs of administration, military strategy, and symbolic authority. Japan’s broader history, from unification under Tokugawa Ieyasu to centuries of relative peace, left behind a landscape rich in shrines, battlegrounds, and preserved strongholds. Today, a small number of authentic medieval castles remain, offering rare glimpses into Japan’s feudal past. These ten are among the most historically intact and culturally significant examples still standing.   1. Himeji Castle, Hyōgo Prefecture Himeji Castle, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Perched on a hill in Hyōgo Prefecture, Himeji Castle, also known as Shirasagi-jō or “White Heron Castle”, is Japan’s most iconic and best-preserved medieval fortress. Originally constructed in 1333 as a fort by Akamatsu Norimura, it was transformed into a full-scale castle in the 1500s and later expanded by Ikeda Terumasa in the early 1600s. Unlike many Japanese castles, Himeji has never been destroyed by war, earthquake, or fire, and remains largely intact with original wooden interiors and towering white plaster walls.   A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the castle is a masterpiece of feudal-era architecture. Visitors can wander through the maze-like defensive layout designed to confuse invaders, climb to the six-story main keep, and enjoy panoramic views over Himeji city. In spring, cherry blossoms frame the castle in soft pink, drawing thousands of photographers and travelers.   2. Matsumoto Castle, Nagano Prefecture Matsumoto Castle in Matsumoto, in Nagano prefecture, in Japan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Rising from the plains of Nagano Prefecture, Matsumoto Castle, nicknamed the Crow Castle for its striking black walls, is one of Japan’s oldest surviving medieval fortresses. Originally built in 1504 as a simple fortification during the Sengoku era, it was later expanded into a five-story castle by the powerful Ishikawa clan in the late 16th century. Unlike many hilltop castles, Matsumoto was built on flat land, relying on an ingenious system of moats, walls, and trapdoors for defense.   The castle’s brooding exterior contrasts with the refined wooden interiors, where steep staircases and narrow windows offer a glimpse into the tactical mind of a warlord. Visitors can explore the original main keep, climb to the top for views of the Japanese Alps, and even spot hidden gun and arrow slits in the walls.   3. Inuyama Castle, Aichi Prefecture Castle of the Japanese City of Inuyama in Aichi Prefecture. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Perched above the Kiso River in Aichi Prefecture, Inuyama Castle stands as Japan’s oldest original surviving keep, completed in 1537. Built by Oda Nobuyasu, uncle of the famed warlord Oda Nobunaga, it played a strategic role in the power struggles of the Sengoku period. Unlike many castles that were later rebuilt in concrete, Inuyama retains its authentic wooden structure, steep staircases, and timeworn charm.   This mountaintop fortress offers visitors a rare chance to step inside a true medieval relic. From the top floor, sweeping views of the river and surrounding countryside stretch into Gifu Prefecture. You can still feel the defensive logic in its narrow passageways and thick walls designed to slow attackers.   The castle grounds are especially popular during cherry blossom season, when soft pink petals frame the dark-wood keep. Though compact compared to larger castles, Inuyama’s historical depth and preserved architecture make it a must-see for history lovers and anyone seeking the soul of samurai-era Japan.   4. Bitchu Matsuyama Castle, Okayama Prefecture Bitchu-Matsuyama castle, Takahashi, Japan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   High in the misty mountains of Okayama Prefecture, Bitchu Matsuyama Castle quietly watches over the town of Takahashi. First built in 1240 and later fortified during the Sengoku period, it holds the unique title of Japan’s highest original mountain castle, perched 430 meters above sea level. Its lofty position made it nearly impossible to capture, and equally challenging to reach, even today.   Unlike grander castles on flatlands, Bitchu Matsuyama blends into its natural surroundings, with stone walls rising from the rocky terrain and a modest wooden keep that feels more fortress than palace. The castle escaped demolition during the Meiji era, making it one of just twelve in Japan with an original donjon.   Visitors who make the uphill trek are rewarded with panoramic views, crisp mountain air, and a hauntingly beautiful sea of clouds on misty mornings. Far from the crowds, Bitchu Matsuyama Castle offers an intimate and atmospheric glimpse into medieval Japan, where history and landscape become one.   5. Maruoka Castle, Fukui Prefecture Maruoka Castle, Sakai, Japan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Nestled atop a gentle hill in Fukui Prefecture, Maruoka Castle, nicknamed Kasumi‑jō or the “Mist Castle”, originally rose in 1576 under Shibata Katsutoyo, a nephew of the famed Shibata Katsuie, by order of warlord Oda Nobunaga. Its modest three‑story tenshu (keep) is one of just twelve surviving original castle towers in Japan.   Legend holds that during its construction, a human sacrifice, a one‑eyed woman named O‑shizu, was buried beneath the foundations. Locals say her sorrowful spirit still brings spring rains, earning the castle its misty reputation.   Although devastated in the 1948 Fukui earthquake, the tenshu was painstakingly rebuilt in 1955 using over 70 % of the original beams and stones. Today it stands amid Kasumigajo Park, surrounded by roughly 400 cherry trees. Each April, illuminated lanterns at night and blossoms by day make it feel as if the tower floats on clouds.   Inside, narrow stone-dropping windows, steep wooden stairs, and the heavy stone-tiled roof reveal a functional medieval fortress, a subtle yet captivating glimpse into Sengoku-era ingenuity and folklore. With its eerie charm and historic depth, Maruoka Castle is a must-see medieval gem.   6. Hikone Castle, Shiga Prefecture Hikone Castle is a Japanese Edo-period castle in the city of Hikone, Shiga Prefecture. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Located in Shiga Prefecture near Lake Biwa, Hikone Castle is one of Japan’s twelve original castles with an intact wooden keep. Construction began in 1603 and was completed in 1622 by the Ii clan, a powerful family under Tokugawa Ieyasu. The castle played a key role in regional governance during the early Edo period but traces its defensive roots to the turbulent Sengoku era.   The keep itself is relatively small but built with strategic design, including angled walls, narrow windows for archers, and multiple layers of fortification. Visitors can explore the inside of the original donjon, walk along reconstructed walls and moats, and view samurai armor and historical documents at the on-site museum.   Hikone Castle is also notable for its preserved Edo-period gardens, Genkyuen, and its easy accessibility, just a short walk from Hikone Station. For travelers interested in authentic medieval architecture without heavy reconstruction, Hikone offers a practical, educational experience grounded in real feudal history.   7. Matsue Castle, Shimane Prefecture Matsue Castle in Matsue, Shimane prefecture, Japan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Built between 1607 and 1611 by daimyo Horio Yoshiharu, Matsue Castle (also called “Plover Castle”) in Shimane Prefecture is one of only twelve original feudal Japanese castles still standing, and one of just five designated National Treasures.   As the only intact original main keep in the San’in region, it serves as a genuine medieval example of flatland‑hill (hirayama-jō) castle design. Rising nearly 30 m high, the wooden, black-and-white tenshu (donjon) features six interior floors despite appearing five stories tall. Defensive elements include moats, canals, stone walls, rain shutters, steep staircases, and a rare original well in the cellar.   Visitors can climb to the top for 360° views over Matsue, Lake Shinji, and surrounding mountains. Inside, displays of samurai armor, ceramics, and feudal-era artifacts illustrate the castle’s history. The grounds, with a wide park, moats, ancient trees, and nearby boat tours on Horikawa canals, form a well-preserved castle town.   8. Kochi Castle, Kōchi Prefecture Kochi Castle in Kochi, Kochi prefecture, Japan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Perched on Otakasa Hill overlooking Kōchi city, Kōchi Castle is one of Japan’s twelve surviving medieval castles, and uniquely preserves its original keep and daimyō palace. Constructed by Yamauchi Kazutoyo between 1601 and 1611 atop an earlier fortification, it served as the stronghold of the Tosa Domain under Tokugawa rule.   Though a fire in 1727 destroyed much of the central structures, the tenshu and palace were meticulously rebuilt by 1753 in the original style. The castle later escaped Meiji-era demolition, wartime damage, and modern reconstructions. Today, all 15 honmaru buildings, including gates, walls, the keep, and the Kaitokukan palace, remain intact and designated Important Cultural Properties.   Visitors can enter the original five-story keep (six floors inside) for sweeping city views, explore the palace’s Shoin-style rooms, and wander through moats and stone walls. Defensive features like shinobi-gaeshi anti-climb spikes and narrow paths reflect Sengoku-Edo military architecture. The castle grounds double as a public park, particularly beautiful in spring when cherry blossoms and lantern-lit nights draw crowds.   Accessible via a short walk or tram from JR Kōchi Station, Kōchi Castle offers a rare, authentic glimpse into feudal castle life. No replicas, just centuries of preserved history.   9. Uwajima Castle, Ehime Prefecture Uwajima Castle, Ehime Prefecture, Japan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Standing atop a hill in Ehime Prefecture, Uwajima Castle (Tsurushima-jō) is a rare survivor of Japan’s medieval architecture. Built between 1596–1601 by renowned castle architect Tōdō Takatora, its compact three-story wooden keep remains one of only twelve original Edo-period tenshu. Restored by Date Munetoshi in 1666, the sturdy structure reflects Sengoku-Edo defensive design, complete with steep stone steps, thick walls, and pentagonal moats.   Visitors climb over 300 carefully laid stone steps to reach the keep. Inside, the original wooden interior houses displays of swords, armor, and samurai-era artifacts. The ascent is rewarded at the top floor with expansive views across Uwajima city, the harbor, and the rugged Onigajō Mountains.   Surrounded by date-family gates, weapon storehouses, and mossy stone walls, the castle’s grounds are anchored by the Date Museum and shaded by ancient camphor and cherry trees.   10. Matsuyama Castle, Ehime Prefecture Matsuyama-castle, Matsuyama, Japan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Perched atop 132-meter Katsuyama hill in Matsuyama city, Matsuyama Castle (Iyo-Matsuyama Castle) was begun in 1602 by Kato Yoshiaki, a rewarded Sengoku warlord, and completed around 1627 under the Hisamatsu-Matsudaira clan. It is one of only twelve original wooden castle keeps and classified as an Important Cultural Property.   The castle’s complex multi-tower layout links six yagura (watch-towers) and multiple gates via fortified corridors and steep stone walls, exemplifying Sengoku-era defensive design. Though originally five stories, the main keep was rebuilt as three stories between 1820–1854 following destruction by lightning and fire.   Visit via ropeway, chairlift, or foot, climb to the tenshu for sweeping 360° views over Matsuyama, the surrounding mountains, and the Seto Inland Sea. Don’t miss the Ninomaru Historical Garden at the base, with its elegant layout and seasonal cherry blossoms.   Inside, original wooden interiors display samurai armor, maps, and period artifacts. Matsuyama Castle’s rare three-dimensional defensive architecture offers a hands-on window into feudal Japan.

Portrait of King James I of England. Source: The Royal Household, London   We know King James I of England primarily through his name being attached to the King James Version of the Holy Bible, which was printed in 1611. Before he was James I of England, he was James VI of Scotland, enthroned there in 1567. He was a Protestant King, but also believed in the divine right of kings to rule, which often brought him into conflict with his Scottish subjects.   The Scottish Reformation: Key Accomplishments Opponents of King Charles I Gathered at Greyfriars Kirk in Edinburgh, by William Allen, 1830s. Source: histoclo.com   By 1567 the Scottish Reformation had succeeded in taking over the churches in Scotland, pushing out the Roman Catholic Church and obtaining all its property. The Church of Scotland was also legally free from civil influence, and had a more localized organization, able to appoint its own leaders and pastors in local districts called presbyteries. Most of the trappings of Roman Catholicism were cast out, and the Church of Scotland had a heavy Calvinistic influence.   The Church of England was different. While it too had separated from the Roman Catholic Church under Henry VIII, much of its structure was still Catholic in nature, with the crown having the authority to appoint bishops and handle church matters.   What Did King James Do? James VI of Scotland and James I of England, by Jacob Jacobsz De Wet II, 1684 – 1686 CE. Source: The Royal Collection Trust   James VI was technically crowned King of Scotland when he was only 13 months old, after his mother, Mary, Queen of Scots, was forced to abdicate. He did not fully come into his full power until 1583 when he was sixteen years old. He extensively believed in the divine right of kings, where he was given full power by God to rule, and pushed the Scottish Parliament to pass the Black Acts in 1584.  The Black Acts were a series of laws which gave James VI power over the Church of Scotland similar to that which the English throne had over the Church of England.   Presbyteries, were done away with and bishops directly appointed by the king were placed in charge.  James VI also prevented the General Assembly – the meeting of the heads of the Church of Scotland- from meeting until he could control its process and implement practices closer to the Church of England under the Five Articles of Perth.   The Five Articles of Perth King James I of England and VI of Scotland, by Miss Woodin, after Laurence Johnson. Source: National Portrait Gallery   The Five Articles of Perth were James VI’s attempt to impose some structures and practices of the Church of England onto the Church of Scotland. They included kneeling during communion, private baptism, private communion for those who were sick, children catechized and blessed by a bishop, and celebrating certain religious holidays like Christmas and Easter.   Many of the objections to the Five Articles of Perth and similar measures were that it made the church appear more Catholic. Many of the Scottish reformers had rejected, sometimes violently, the Roman Catholic Church, and had gone so far as to tear out all the decorations and discard all the ceremonial tools Catholic Churches used. Sunday was considered the only “Holy” day, and the rejection of Roman Catholicism was so pervasive that even holidays celebrated by Protestants today, Christmas and Easter, were discarded by Scottish protestants.   King James I of England and VI of Scotland by Unknown artist, 1580. Source: National Portrait Gallery   When the Articles were passed, King James wrote a letter to the leadership, stating that:   “The sword is now putt into your hands; goe on therefore to use it; and let it roust noe longer till ye have perfited the service trusted to you, or otherwise we must use it both against you and them. If anie or all of you be faint- hearted we are able enough (thanks to God) to put others in your places who both can and will make things possible which ye think so difficult.” As well as:   “But as Papistrie is ane disease in the minds, so is Puritaisme in the braine. So the onlie remedie and antidote against it will be a grave, settled, uniforme, and well-ordered church, obedient to God and their King, …”   Over the next few decades following King James VI’s push against the Scottish Protestants would be a large back-and-forth struggle between the Church of Scotland and its King, which also held the throne of England.

  People often have several misconceptions about medieval food. There seems to be a notion that peasants survived on crusts of stale bread and watered-down ale, while every night the lord of the manor and the kings and emperors around the globe were feasting on rich, expensive foods. While there is a certain element of truth to this, it is nevertheless important to dive into the reality behind the stereotypes that we have surrounding medieval food. Read on to discover all there is to know about what people ate during the Middle Ages.   Regional and Local Cuisines Salmon, pea pottage, and bread. Source: Modern History TV / Youtube   For the purposes of this article, we will solely focus on medieval Europe. While Eurocentric, people generally associate this term with the European Medieval Period, and more commonly, the High Middle Ages, anywhere from the 12th century to the 15th century. However, we will look at the Medieval Period as a whole, and use examples from different regions in Europe.   Like today, the cuisine eaten in northern Europe varied hugely from that in southern Europe, due to the resources that were available. Of course, trade played a huge role in the medieval diet, and once the spice trade was opened up from places such as China and India via the Silk Roads (and later, the Americas and the Spice Wars which dominated the Early Modern world) it helped to influence medieval cuisines regardless of location in Europe.   Map of the Silk Roads. Source: UNESCO   What is more interesting to note is that the world was much smaller in the Middle Ages. Not geographically, but metaphorically—villages, towns, and small communities were much more commonplace (particularly in the British Isles), and many medieval peasants would live their whole lives in a 20-mile radius. This meant that those who lived inland would have their diets based on the crops that they could grow, while those near the coast had a diet that was heavily reliant on seafood, such as fish and shellfish.   To this day, this is still felt in the cuisines of certain towns—take Whitby, on the North Yorkshire coast for example; often regarded as the best place in Britain to get fish and chips—Whitby has been a fishing village for hundreds of years. But go further inland to places such as Lancashire, beef stew, known as Lancashire Hotpot, has been a regional dish for centuries. Small, localized communities with little interaction with other towns, parishes, and cities made the most of their local resources.   Food as a Class Divider: Peasants vs the Nobility A banquet given by Charles V of France in 1378, by Jean Foucet, c. 1455-60. Source: BnF   Of course, it would be unwise to presume that peasants in the Middle Ages ate the same foods as the nobility. The peasants’ diet largely relied on foods that they could grow, cultivate, harvest, or nurture themselves. These foods typically involved grains such as wheat—baked into bread in Northern Europe and transformed into foods like pasta in Southern Europe.   In addition, peasants typically tried to keep small animals such as chickens, which could provide them with a multitude of things—eggs, for cooking with, and when it came to slaughtering them, meat for consumption in dishes like stews or roasts. The feathers could be used in bedding.   For the nobility, it typically didn’t matter if foodstuffs were local or not. Famously, King Henry I of England died after consuming a “surfeit of lampreys” in 1135, which would have likely had to come from the coastal regions of the UK.   Moreover, the high nobility were more exposed to rich foodstuffs and foreign foods than peasants were—they could also keep their own animals for slaughtering purposes—including cows, sheep, chickens, and more. Much more meat was consumed by the nobility when compared to the peasants, and as a result, gout became known as “the disease of kings.”   While one bad harvest could kill off a peasant family or community, the nobility managed to survive. Even during the famine of 1315-17 during the reign of King Edward II, members of the court survived, and Edward would go on to rule for another ten years, while many peasants perished due to crop failures.   Meat and Fish: A Rich Man’s Food? John, Duke of Berry, enjoys a grand meal, found in Les Trés Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, c. 1410. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As mentioned earlier, the nobility ate much more meat than their peasant counterparts, partly because they could afford to have such luxuries.   Take an average peasant family—if they were lucky, they might have a cow. This cow would be used for milk, which could be used in cooking, for nursing children, and even for selling—but they could seldom afford to kill a healthy cow before it eventually died of old age. Once this cow died, the peasants could then salvage whatever meat they could from it.   On the other hand, if a king wanted roast beef for dinner, a cow could be slaughtered at any given point and roasted in the court’s huge kitchens by a dedicated team of cooks and chefs, meaning that cost and longevity were not an issue for those in the very highest echelons of society.   Fish, for peasants who lived near to the coast, was often seen as a staple, and much more readily available than meat. A good day’s fishing could provide a peasant family with enough food to see them through a month, especially if they used different preservation methods such as smoking or drying the fish to make it last for longer.   For the nobility, fish could also be seen as a luxury—especially for those courts based in inland cities such as Paris and Milan, where seafood had to be specially imported. It was seen as a sign of how wealthy and powerful the nobility in these courts were if they could provide seafood for their guests while they were miles from the coastline.   Feasting and Fasting: Religion’s Impact on the Medieval Diet Nuns Dining in Silence, found in The Life of Blessed Saint Humility, by Pietro Lorenzetti, 1341. Source: WGA   Of course, the Middle Ages was a time of high religious fervor in Europe, and many days of the year were dedicated to different saints, where feasts were often put on.   Some of the most famous medieval feast days included Midsummer Day (celebrated on June 24th, which celebrated John the Baptist), the Transfiguration of Jesus (August 6th), and of course, Christmas Day (December 25th).   The time of year that the feast was celebrated accounted for the food that would be on offer—those feasts in winter would rely heavily on meats such as beef as many freshwater lakes or rivers could have frozen over, or been too cold to catch fish. In addition, winter vegetables such as carrots and turnips would have been served.   For the summer feasts (and especially Easter), lighter meats such as lamb would have been served. In the medieval calendar, Easter was the biggest celebration by far, celebrating Jesus Christ’s resurrection, and even peasants would celebrate. The lambing season falls around Easter, so this was—and still is—the most consumed meat for Easter celebrations.   On the other hand, there were many instances of fasting, none more famous than Lent—the period of 40 days which represents how long Christ went without food in the Bible when being tempted by Satan in the desert. While peasants could seldom afford to give up any food, it was still nonetheless observed, with many going without meat for the duration of Lent.   Medieval Cooking Methods A baker with his assistant, c. 1500. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Unsurprisingly, there were very few rules and regulations around the safety and hygiene involved in food handling in the Middle Ages.   Food was eaten as a necessity, and food poisoning could kill people much easier in the Middle Ages than it can now, so it was a big risk almost every time a meal was eaten.   Many of the cooking methods that we still use today were used in the Middle Ages, albeit with less technology due to what was available to them. Perhaps the first method that comes to mind when visualizing medieval cooking is spit roasting.   Popular throughout Europe, most meats at the time were spit roasted—from huge cattle in the kitchens of palaces and keeps, to humble chickens in the kitchens or fires of inns. Spit roasting large animals usually required two to four kitchen boys, who would rotate the meat manually so that it cooked evenly over the flames. This was a grueling job, especially during sweltering summers.   Another popular medieval cooking method was boiling. The meat was sometimes boiled alongside vegetables in dishes such as stews, which were deemed as hearty, warming meals, largely reserved for peasants rather than the nobility.   During the Middle Ages, ovens also came into play—but these were not like the commercial ovens we know today. Made out of brick and clay, these huge ovens were reserved for the finest kitchens, where loaves of bread or lots of cakes could be freshly made on a daily basis.   Medieval Food: In Conclusion A 14th-century butcher shop, c. 1350. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Food in the Middle Ages was not too dissimilar to the food we see today. Regional favorites are still very much prevalent, such as coastal towns offering an array of seafood, and with the advent of the Early Modern Period and the spice trade industry boom, tastes changed.   Food became more of a culinary experience from the Tudor Period onward, with huge banquets being viewed as something to make a show of, particularly during the reign of kings such as King Henry VIII who was known for his extravagant feasts.   In the Middle Ages, food was a necessity, and thus very little showiness was given to it—of course, banquets were reason enough for any noble to show off to their contemporaries, but as a general rule, food was eaten to survive, and the types of food were very demonstrative of local cuisine.

  In the Arthurian legends, Mordred is by far the most famous son of King Arthur to modern audiences. He was the figure who instigated a civil war against Arthur, leading to the downfall of Camelot. However, in the earliest traces of the Arthurian legends, Mordred was not Arthur’s son but rather his nephew. Early tradition does speak of several sons of the king, sons who are much more obscure today than Mordred. This article will explore what we know about King Arthur’s sons from the surviving Welsh traditional sources.   King Arthur’s Son Amhar View from Garway Hill, the possible burial site of Amhar, son of King Arthur. Source: Geograph   The earliest reference to Arthur having a son comes from the Mirabilia, a record attached to the 9th-century Historia Brittonum and probably dating from about the same time. One of the “wonders” of Britain is described as the tomb of a figure called Amr, the son of Arthur. The passage goes on to explain that Arthur himself slew Amr and buried him, although it does not explain why.   Amr appears in Geraint and Enid, a Welsh tale from the 12th century, where his name is spelled “Amhar.” While still described as the son of King Arthur, he is also presented as one of Arthur’s chamberlains. Nothing more is said about him.   There is another record in which Amhar might be mentioned. This is The Stanzas of the Graves, a long poem about the graves of numerous medieval figures. Here, a certain Meigen is described as fleeing from Amhar’s host. Although the passage does not confirm his parentage, this name was very uncommon, so this may well be a reference to Amhar, son of King Arthur.   Llacheu View of Llandrinio Church, Powys, the alleged resting place of Llacheu, son of King Arthur. Source: Geograph   Probably the most famous of King Arthur’s sons is a figure named Llacheu. He first appears in Pa Gur, a Welsh poem that may date back to c. 900, almost as early as the Historia Brittonum. Like with Amhar, Llacheu is mentioned in association with his death. He is also mentioned by several Welsh poets in later centuries, also usually in connection with his death. For example, a court poet of the 13th century named Bleddyn Fardd mentioned him. He referred to the fact that he died in “blue-enameled arms” below Llech Ysgar, a location in Powys. It appears that there was a strong tradition about the tragedy of Llacheu’s death, of which we only have glimpses now.   Llacheu is described as being a youth when he died, which is likely what contributed to his death being viewed as a particularly memorable tragedy. It may also be that the circumstances surrounding his death were especially memorable.   Pa Gur, a poem describing dialogue between King Arthur and a gatekeeper, Black Book of Carmarthen, MS Peniarth 1, fol. 47r., c. 1225-1275 CE. Source: National Library of Wales   Pa Gur heavily implies that he died at the same time as Cai, one of Arthur’s closest allies. Interestingly, the Welsh tale Culhwch and Olwen explains that Cai was killed by one of the figures who appears as an ally of Arthur in that tale. Arthur, in response, is said to have killed Cai’s murderer Cai. The idea of one of Arthur’s allies turning against him and killing Arthur’s men strongly hints at the Battle of Camlann. The rebellion which culminated in that battle had a strong presence in medieval Welsh tradition and was viewed as a great tragedy. Thus, the evidence from Culhwch and Olwen strongly suggests that Cai died at the Battle of Camlann.   Since Pa Gur implies that Llacheu died at the same time as Cai, this suggests that Llacheu, too, died in that same conflict. Interestingly, two medieval manuscripts explicitly say that Llacheu died at Llongborth. The Battle of Llongborth appears in a Welsh poem dating to perhaps the 10th century. Based on the information in that poem, some researchers have identified this battle as the prelude to Camlann, independently of the information regarding Llacheu.   Gwydre Cerrig Meibion Arthur, or the Stones of the Sons of Arthur, marking the traditional grave of Gwydre, son of King Arthur. Source: West Coast Path   Another one of King Arthur’s sons who appears in Welsh tradition is Gwydre. He appears in just a single source, Culhwch and Olwen. This may date to about the year 1100. It tells the story of Arthur and his men engaging in a series of adventures, the most notable of which is a hunt for a monstrous boar. In one of the engagements against the boar, Arthur’s son, Gwydre, is killed. This is the one and only appearance of this character in the Arthurian legends. It is possible that Gwydre is the source for Thomas Malory’s character of Borre, also called Bohart, in Le Morte d’Arthur.   The name “Gwydre,” in the form “Gwydr,” is also used for a 10th-century figure, the father of Gwaithfoed of Powys. However, the name of this figure appears in other records as Gwrhydyr, suggesting that this could be another form of the name of King Arthur’s son. Interestingly, there was a certain Gwrhityr mentioned in the Book of Llandaff as a member of the medieval dynasty of southeast Wales. He was the son of either Athrwys ap Meurig or Morgan ap Athrwys.   Duran The Death of Arthur, by John Mulcaster Carrick, 1862. Source: Wikipedia Commons   Another son of King Arthur who only appears in a single source is Duran. He is mentioned in a 15th-century poem found in a document known as Mostyn MS 131. This document presents Arthur as asking a character named Sandde Bryd Angel to drive a crow off the face of his son Duran. The implication is that Duran is dead, having recently been killed, and that crows are trying to feed on his body.   No further information is given, but this is generally understood to be a reference to the Battle of Camlann. The reason is that other Welsh texts, such as Culhwch and Olwen, associate Sandde with that battle. Therefore, the fact that Sandde is depicted as present at the battle at which Duran was slain suggests that it, too, may be the Battle of Camlann. If so, it would mean that two sons of Arthur, Llacheu and Duran, both died at about the same time.   Morgan the Black Ruins of Margam Abbey, supposedly named after Morgan ap Athrwys and his burial place. Source: Geograph   Arthur is presented as having a variety of sons in non-Welsh sources. However, there is one in particular who is worthy of attention because he might also be identifiable in Welsh sources, albeit not explicitly as a son of King Arthur. This is Morgan the Black. He is mentioned in Le Petit Bruit, an account of the history of Britain written in 1309. This account gives King Arthur three sons, Adeluf III, Morgan the Black, and Patrick the Red. The second son, Morgan, is particularly noteworthy, because it is possible that he appears in Welsh sources.   Le Petit Bruit tells us that Morgan lived in South Wales and became the king of Wales after Arthur’s death. Interestingly, this sounds very much like the historical Morgan ap Athrwys. He was a king of southeast Wales in the early medieval period. His father, Athrwys, is often presented as a candidate for the historical King Arthur. Or, at least, he is viewed as someone who may have contributed to the Arthurian legends.   Cyfoesi Myrddin a Gwenddydd ei Chwaer, The Red Book of Hergest, Jesus College MA 111, fol. 141r, c. 1382-1425. Source: Bodleian Libraries   With that in mind, it is likely that Morgan the Black is based on the historical King Morgan ap Athrwys. There is also some evidence of this in Welsh poetry. In the poem Cyfoesi Myrddin a Gwenddydd ei Chwaer, dating to before the 14th century, a certain “Morgan Mawr” is mentioned. This translates to “Morgan the Great.” He is described as the son of a certain Sadyrnin. There is no known Morgan ap Sadyrnin to be found in any of the medieval Welsh genealogies. Nonetheless, this Morgan is presented as one of the most prominent kings of the Britons in the latter part of the 6th century.   We would certainly expect that someone remembered as the son of King Arthur would have been a prominent figure. As it happens, the only Morgan in the medieval period associated with a “Sadyrnin” is Morgan ap Athrwys. One prominent abbot in his time, with whom Morgan is associated in the Book of Llandaff, is Saturnus. The name “Sadyrnin” appears to be an alternative form of this. Thus, Morgan ap Athrwys is the most likely candidate for the Morgan remembered as Morgan the Great in Welsh tradition.   The Sons of King Arthur Historia Brittonum with the earliest reference to one of Arthur’s sons, MS Harley 3859, fol. 1, c. 1100-1130. Source: British Library   In summary, Welsh tradition assigns Arthur at least four sons: Amhar, Llacheu, Gwydre, and Duran. The first of these is said to have been killed by Arthur himself, although the reason for this is never given. The second and fourth both appear to have died at about the time of the Battle of Camlann. Gwydre, for his part, appears in just one source. There, he is shown to have died while fighting a monstrous boar. Llacheu was apparently the most prominent, receiving quite a few mentions within Welsh tradition.   Outside of Welsh tradition, Morgan the Black is a particularly notable son. He was very likely based on Morgan ap Athrwys, his father Athrwys being a candidate for the historical King Arthur. This Morgan is likely identifiable with “Morgan Mawr ap Sadyrnin,” a figure remembered as one of the most prominent kings of the Britons in the late 6th century. This fits in well with the tradition that he was a son of the powerful King Arthur.

  By the time Alexander the Great died in the summer of 323 BCE Olympias had over three decades of experience at the forefront of Macedonian politics, first as a wife and then as a mother of kings. She was one of the first ancient Greek women to have a significant impact on politics, both during the lives of her husband and son and following Alexander’s death. Between 323-317 BCE she became a central figure in the early phases of the decades-long War of Successors.   Olympias: Vengeful Queen or Ruthless Politician? Olympias Medallion, Roman, c. 3rd century CE. Source: Walters Art Museum   For decades Olympias had been at the heart of the court of her husband, Philip II of Macedon. A negative tradition portrayed her as a vengeful murderess. Her origins on the edge of the Greek world in Epirus, north western Greece, and a fondness for snakes gave her an exotic, almost demonic reputation. However, Olympias was little different than any other member of a ruthless court which frequently resorted to assassination and execution. Rather than jealous and vengeful, Olympias’ actions were probably rationally motivated by the need to defend her son’s position as heir to the throne and later as king.   The same pattern continued after Alexander’s death and became attached to his infant son Alexander IV, who was made joint king with Philip III Arrhidaeus, another son of Philip II who was previously judged incapable of ruling due to an unknown incapacity. Olympias fought for the rights of her grandson and allied with anyone willing to protect them.   Rivalry With Antipater Death of Alexander the Great, by Nicola de Laurentiis, c. 1783-1832. Source: MutualArt   Olympias had withdrawn from Macedon during Alexander’s reign, partly due to tensions with Antipater, Alexander’s regent. The rivalry with Antipater reached such heights that she blamed him and his family for Alexander’s death. The timing of Alexander’s death had been fortunate for Antipater, who had been summoned by the king and possibly feared for his life. Olympias may have been voicing her belief in Antipater’s guilt, sincerely believing it, soon after her son’s death.   Olympias’ rivalry with Antipater certainly continued after Alexander’s death. Her initial involvement in the War of Successors was to try to prevent an alliance between Antipater and Perdiccas, regent and guardian of the kings, by attempting to arrange the marriage of her daughter, Cleopatra, to Perdiccas. This plan fell through and Perdiccas soon died on campaign in Egypt. But then the situation changed again.   Antipater died of natural causes in 319 BCE. Instead of passing control of Macedon and the two kings to his son Cassander, Antipater appointed a veteran officer, Polyphercon, as his successor. The removal of an old antagonist was probably welcome, especially as Polyphercon reached out to Olympias and asked her to return to Macedon and care for Alexander IV. However, Cassander was unwilling to accept being passed over and soon rebelled. With Macedon itself favoring Polyphercon and the kings, according to Diodorus Siculus, Cassander sought allies elsewhere and built a presence in Greece. Cassander, the son of an old rival and now the enemy of the official guardian of Alexander IV, grew into the major threat to Olympias and Alexander the Great’s family.   Marching to War Eumenos and Roxana, by Alessandro Varotari, c. 1630s. Source: Hermitage Museum   It seems Olympias, wisely, did not trust any of the powerful generals. Diodorus reports that she contacted the relative outsider among the generals, the Greek Eumenes, seeking his continued support of the isolated royal family and saying she placed little trust in anyone. Taking Eumenes’ advice, Olympias refused Polyphercon’s offer and stayed in Epirus to see how events unfolded. She did, however, start to take a more active role, trying, unsuccessfully, to win over the Athenians from Cassander.   When Cassander gained a foothold in Greece, Polyphercon was forced to march south. Not only were his campaigns unsuccessful, but in his absence, the situation in Macedon shifted again. When Olympias decided to return to Macedon, Adea Eurydice, a roughly 20-year-old granddaughter of Philip II and the wife of Philip III Arrhidaeus, took control and allied with Cassander. Adea had reason to fear Olympias. In the past, Olympias had been ruthless with potential threats and was rumored to have caused Arrhidaeus’ incapacity through poison, though there is no supporting evidence for the accusation.   Coin showing Hercules (obverse) and lion (reverse), issued under Cassander, c. 317-306 BCE. Source: British Museum   Olympias could not allow Adea and Cassander to control Macedon and the kings. Polyphercon and Aeacides of Epirus supplied an army, which Olympias symbolically led. Adea gathered her own force and marched to the border with Epirus for what has been called the first war between women. Such was Olympias’ prestige that the Macedonians with Adea refused to fight and defected. Adea and Arrhidaeus were soon captured.   There are different ways to interpret what happened next. Negative sources, such as Justin, depict a vengeful Olympias first starving and then executing Adea and Arrhidaeus and massacring the supporters and family of Cassander. This cruelty lost her the support of the Macedonians, setting up her fall. However, removing the negative judgement from the events allows us to see a different picture.   Adea and Arrhidaeus were indeed executed, but the story that she imprisoned and walled them up can be read either as torture or hesitation. Their eventual executions were handled in a traditional manner, which respected their royal status. A brother of Cassander was killed and the tomb of another desecrated. Since Olympias considered the family responsible for the death of Alexander, this may have been punishment for their apparent treason. A few dozen supporters of Cassander were killed, but it was not a wholesale purge. When she returned to Macedon, Olympias was ruthless, but no more so than any other Macedonian political figure during this violent age. There is no sign of support being withdrawn from her in the remaining months of her life.   Cassander Reacts Image of Olympias on a silver bowl, Romano-British, c. 4th century CE. Source: British Museum   Olympias’s return to Macedon in 317 BCE brought her to the height of her political influence. But by the middle of 316 BCE, she was dead.   Hearing the news that Olympias had returned to Macedon while campaigning in Greece, Cassander quickly moved north. Bypassing potential opposition from Polyphercon’s allies, he was in Macedon before any real defense could be organized. Cassander and his commanders held off Olympias’ defenders and forced her and the royal family to retreat to the city of Pydna. Cassander had moved too quickly and outmanoeuvred Olympias. Both he and his commanders were more capable than Polyphercon and Aeacides while Olympias’s other ally, Eumenes, was far away. The events of 317-316 BCE look more like a military victory for Cassander than support for Olympias evaporating.   Olympias held on in Pydna for several months, enduring a terrible siege. Forces loyal to Olympias and the royal family fought on with little success. Only when the war looked lost did people in Macedon seek terms with Cassander. Sometime in the spring of 316 BCE, with her remaining soldiers starving, Olympias was forced to surrender. Cassander promised to keep her safe, but this promise was soon forgotten.   Final Act  Cassander and Olympias, by Jean-Joseph Taillasson, 1799. Source: Brest’s Museum of Fine Arts   Olympias and the royal family were now in Cassander’s hands, but she met her end with dignity and defiance. Cassander moved cautiously against the still popular Olympias. He convinced the families of some of Olympias’ victims to bring her to trial, refusing to let her speak or make any defense. Next, Cassander offered to let her escape to Athens, but Olympias refused. Instead, she wanted to speak to the Macedonians. Olympias seems convinced that she still retained support. Cassander refused to let her speak.   Less subtle methods were now applied before Olympias could rally support. Two hundred soldiers were dispatched with orders to kill Olympias, but when they confronted her, they could not do it. In the end, only the families of her victims were willing to come forward. A group of them went to the house where she was held. Olympias had already faced down one group of assassins, but there was no escaping her fate this time. While few details are recorded, even the largely negative sources report that the bravery and dignity with which she met death was worthy of the mother of Alexander the Great and the mythical hero Achilles from whom her family claimed descent.   Olympias was right to fear Cassander. Having killed Alexander the Great’s mother, he went on to murder his wife and son, extinguishing the Argead dynasty. In the end, this suited all the potential successors. With the nominal kings out of the way, the remaining powerful generals declared themselves kings of parts of Alexander’s empire, creating the framework for the Hellenistic Age.   Bibliography:   Carney, E. (2006) Olympias: Mother of Alexander the Great. Routledge: New York.   Jouanno, C (1995). “Alexandre et Olympias: de l’histoire au mythe”, Bulletin de l’Association Guillaume Budé, 1995.3 pp. 211-230.

Ok, one quick confession: I didn’t read all the medical journals….I had my buddy ChatGPT assist me to read 200 MILLION medical journals and scholarly articles. But the results most definitely may stun you! I’ve covered this topic before but it continues to fascinate me so I’m covering it again and going WAY deeper! Can Ivermectin treat, stop, reverse or even CURE cancer? **At the end of this article, I’ll show you where you can GET Ivermectin for yourself** First, I have to give my standard disclaimer: I’m not a doctor. I’m not even a scientist. Nothing in this article has been evaluated or approved by the FDA — but let’s be honest, that probably just means you should pay EXTRA attention to it, right? Ok, we all good with the disclaimer? Ok good! Now, why am I even investigating this? Because the more I look into it, the more I find! When I first saw them come out so strong against Ivermectin, I knew it had to be pretty powerful and pretty good for humans in general! I’ve never seen such an aggressive pushback by BigPharma, so I figured it probably did more than just treat COVID19. Then I started seeing reports that it could treat cancer. And I’m not just talking about posts on Twitter or TikTok….I’m talking about peer-reviewed medical journals! I’ll post my original report farther below, but first I want to show you what I found on ChatGPT. I installed a special plugin that connects the OpenAI to a database of 200 million scholarly and medical journals and then I asked it to give me all peer reviewed medical journals that suggest Ivermectin can be effective in treating cancer. I think you’ll find this fascinating — and for those of you who want the nitty gritty details, each article is linked so you can go read the full thing for yourself. From ChatGPT: Here are some scholarly articles focusing on the use of Ivermectin in treating cancer, organized by their publication date (newest first): The Detrimental Effect of Pre-Treatment with Ivermectin on Myocardial Ischemia Publication Date: 2023-10-25 Authors: Sara Cheraghi, Shabnam Babataheri, H. Soraya Abstract: This study explores the effects of Ivermectin (IVM) on cardiovascular diseases, particularly focusing on myocardial ischemia in both ex vivo and in vivo. Neuroprotective effects of ivermectin against transient cerebral ischemia-reperfusion in rats Publication Date: 2023-09-27 Authors: Behdad Seyyedabadi, Shabnam Babataheri, Ismail Laher, H. Soraya Abstract: Not available. Ivermectin induces nonprotective autophagy by downregulating PAK1 and apoptosis in lung adenocarcinoma cells Publication Date: 2023-09-23 Authors: Man-Yuan Li, Jiao Zhang, Xiao Lu, Dong Zhou, Xufeng Deng, Quan-xing Liu, J. Dai, Hong Zheng Abstract: Not available. Outcome of Ivermectin in Cancer Treatment: An Experience in Loja-Ecuador (PDF) Publication Date: 2023-02-22 Authors: Yuliana Jiménez-Gaona, Oscar Vivanco-Galván, Gonzalo Morales-Larreategui, Andrea Cabrera-Bejarano, Vasudevan Lakshminarayanan Abstract: This paper analyzes the use of ivermectin-based antiparasitic as a cancer treatment in the rural area of the Loja province, Ecuador, and the medical opinion regarding its use in humans. Drug repurposing of ivermectin abrogates neutrophil extracellular traps and prevents melanoma metastasis (PDF) Publication Date: 2022-09-05 Authors: Hongjun Zhang, Xiaozhuo Xu, Rui Xu, T. Ye Abstract: This study identifies Ivermectin (IVM) as significantly inhibiting neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) formation and preventing melanoma metastasis, with a focus on its effects on myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and CD8+T cells in a mouse melanoma model. Ivermectin: recent approaches in the design of novel veterinary and human medicines Publication Date: 2022-09-05 Authors: M. C. Velho, Diego Fontana de Andrade, R. Beck Abstract: This review discusses strategies proposed in the last decade to improve the safety and efficacy of Ivermectin and to explore its novel therapeutic applications, including in cancer and viral infections. Ivermectin and gemcitabine combination treatment induces apoptosis of pancreatic cancer cells via mitochondrial dysfunction (PDF) Publication Date: 2022-08-26 Authors: D. Lee, H. Kang, So Yi Kim, Myeong Jin Kim, Jae Woong Jeong, Woosol Chris Hong, S. Fang, Hyung Sun Kim, Yun-Sun Lee, H. Kim, Joon Seong Park Abstract: This study evaluates the anticancer effects of the combination of ivermectin and gemcitabine in pancreatic cancer, indicating that ivermectin exerts synergistic effects with gemcitabine, preventing pancreatic cancer progression. Forging Ahead the Repositioning of Multitargeted Drug Ivermectin Publication Date: 2022-05-16 Authors: S. Atmakuri, Shweta Nene, D. Khatri, S. B. Singh, V. Sinha, Saurabh Srivastava Abstract: This review highlights the role of Ivermectin in unexplored avenues towards the repositioning of this multitargeted drug in cancer, viral, and bacterial infection, and malaria, providing insights into regulatory considerations of drug repurposing and current formulation strategies. Ivermectin and gemcitabine combination treatment enhances antitumor effect in pancreatic cancer through mitochondria dysfunction (PDF) Publication Date: 2022-04-30 Authors: Daeun Lee, H. Kang, So Yi Kim, Myeong Jin Kim, Y. Lee, Hyung Sun Kim, Jung Min Lee, H. Kim, Joon Seong Park Abstract: This study explores the combination of Ivermectin and gemcitabine in enhancing the antitumor effect in pancreatic cancer, focusing on mitochondria dysfunction. Topical ivermectin: an off-label alternative to treat neonatal Scabies in the era of permethrin resistance Publication Date: 2022-02-21 Authors: A. Bassi, V. Piccolo, G. Argenziano, C. Mazzatenta Abstract: This article discusses the use of topical ivermectin as an off-label alternative for treating neonatal Scabies, focusing on the era of permethrin resistance. Repurposing Ivermectin to augment chemotherapy’s efficacy in osteosarcoma Publication Date: 2022-01-01 Authors: B. Hu, H. Tan, L. Yu, Q. Liao, W. Guo Abstract: This research investigates the potential of repurposing Ivermectin to enhance the efficacy of chemotherapy in osteosarcoma, focusing on its effects on proliferation, migration, and apoptosis in osteosarcoma cells. Ivermectin induces apoptosis of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma via mitochondrial pathway (PDF) Publication Date: 2021-12-01 Authors: Nana Xu, Mengmeng Lu, Jiaxin Wang, Yujia Li, Xiaotian Yang, Xiaoshuang Wei, J-L Si, Jingru Han, Xiaojuan Yao, Juanmei Zhang, Junqi Liu, Yanming Li, Hushan Yang, D. Bao Abstract: This study examines the induction of apoptosis in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma by Ivermectin, focusing on the mitochondrial pathway. Progress in Redirecting Antiparasitic Drugs for Cancer Treatment (PDF) Publication Date: 2021-06-01 Authors: Haoyang Huang, Qing He, Binghua Guo, Xudong Xu, Yinjuan Wu, Xue-Rong Li Abstract: This review discusses the redirection of conventional drugs, including Ivermectin, into cancer treatment, focusing on their anticancer potentials and underlying mechanisms. Computational Drug Repositioning and Experimental Validation of Ivermectin in Treatment of Gastric Cancer (PDF) Publication Date: 2021-03-31 Authors: Hanne-Line Rabben, G. Andersen, Aleksandr Ianevski, M. K. Olsen, D. Kainov, J. Grønbech, T. Wang, Duan Chen, Chun-Mei Zhao Abstract: This study focuses on the repositioning of Ivermectin in the treatment of gastric cancer, combining computational predictions with in silico, in vitro, and in vivo approaches. Ivermectin converts cold tumors hot and synergizes with immune checkpoint blockade for treatment of breast cancer (PDF) Publication Date: 2021-03-02 Authors: Dobrin D. Draganov, Z. Han, A. Rana, Nitasha R. Bennett, D. Irvine, Peter P. Lee Abstract: This research shows that Ivermectin induces immunogenic cancer cell death and enhances T cell infiltration into breast tumors, demonstrating synergy with immune checkpoint blockade. Antiviral Drug Ivermectin at Nanomolar Concentrations Inhibits Glycine-Induced Chloride Current in Rat Hippocampal Neurons (PDF) Publication Date: 2021-03-01 Authors: J. Bukanova, E. Solntseva, R. Kondratenko, V. Skrebitsky Abstract: This study examines the effect of Ivermectin on chloride currents in rat hippocampal neurons, contributing to the understanding of its potential use in cancer treatment. Quantitative proteomics reveals a broad-spectrum antiviral property of ivermectin, benefiting for COVID-19 treatment (PDF) Publication Date: 2020-09-22 Authors: Na Li, Lingfeng Zhao, X. Zhan Abstract: This study identifies ivermectin-related virus infection pathway alterations in human ovarian cancer cells, revealing its broad-spectrum antiviral property, including against COVID-19. Ivermectin converts cold tumors hot and synergizes with immune checkpoint blockade for treatment of breast cancer (PDF) Publication Date: 2020-08-24 Authors: Dobrin D. Draganov, Z. Han, A. Rana, Nitasha R. Bennett, D. Irvine, Peter P. Lee Abstract: This research demonstrates how Ivermectin induces immunogenic cancer cell death and enhances T cell infiltration into breast tumors, showing synergy with immune checkpoint blockade. Antitumor effects of ivermectin at clinically feasible concentrations support its clinical development as a repositioned cancer drug Publication Date: 2020-05-30 Authors: M. Juárez, Alejandro Schcolnik-Cabrera, G. Domínguez-Gómez, A. Chávez-Blanco, J. Díaz-Chávez, A. Dueñas-González Abstract: This article supports the clinical development of Ivermectin as a repositioned cancer drug, highlighting its antitumor effects at clinically feasible concentrations. Progress in Understanding the Molecular Mechanisms Underlying the Antitumour Effects of Ivermectin (PDF) Publication Date: 2020-01-01 Authors: Jian Liu, Kun Zhang, Lin Cheng, He Zhu, Tianmin Xu Abstract: This review summarizes the antitumor effects of Ivermectin and its potential roles in cancer treatment, including its impact on various pathways and cellular functions. I could have kept going but I cut it off after 20 results. I also asked it to sort the results by date with newest first, and we ended with 1/1/2020, which means these 20 articles all came out within the last 3 years. How many more do we have in the past decade or two? A lot. Now here’s my original report which gives you a ton more information: Can Ivermectin Treat Cancer? New Evidence Might Surprise You! Let’s get something out of the way right up front in this article…. I’m not a doctor. I’m not even a scientist. Nothing in this article has been evaluated or approved by the FDA — but let’s be honest, that probably just means you should pay EXTRA attention to it, right? Ok, we all good with the disclaimer? Great! I’m a reporter and I report on what I see…. And right now I’m seeing a ton of people talking about Ivermectin as a possible treatment for cancer. Let me give a SECOND disclaimer: do NOT read this article and stop taking cancer treatments or stop doing what your doctor tells you to do. Listen to you doctor! But….Ivermectin has been called a “Wonder Drug” (more on that in a minute) and NINE new scientific, peer-reviewed studies are showing it may be effective in treating or curing cancer….AND it’s safer that Aspirin! So if it were me, and I can only tell you what I would do, but if it were me or one of my family members, we’d listen to our doctor but I think I’d also be taking a high dose of Ivermectin on the side. Read this for more on how incredibly SAFE Ivermectin is: INVESTIGATION: Can You OVERDOSE On Ivermectin? Now let's dig in and I'll show you everything I'm seeing about Ivermectin and Cancer... We start on Twitter but we will end with peer-reviewed, scientific studies. Nine of them, to be exact. Let's start here: https://twitter.com/StewVet/status/1711943721430729088 Once again, I can only talk about what I would do, but I'm considering going on a high dose Ivermectin treatment once per year as preventative medicine: Believe it or not, high-dose Ivermectin may very well cure cancer.https://t.co/vwUCWFVqFM pic.twitter.com/OsTXkc90wX — HatRabbit ??? (@HatRabbit17) October 7, 2023 And is this why Big Pharma hates it so much? Knew it. I said this well over a year ago. How many times did I tell people to search the NIH site for "ivermectin and cancer" & then read the many the peer reviewed papers? #Ivermectin kills tumors. And cancer. @AprilHunter pic.twitter.com/bIYi6ADs1L — RealAprilHunter (@realaprilhunter) October 4, 2023 Now let's get scientific.... You know, REAL science, not "Fauci-ism". From The Journal of Antibiotics, published 2/15/17: Read the full article yourself here. "...unmatched value of an extraordinary drug..." "...Antibacterial, antiviral and anti-cancer agent..." Folks, that isn't my take or someone on Twitter or TikTok. That is a medical journal. Let's do another one.... From PubMed: Read the full article yourself here. "...led many to describe it as a 'wonder' drug." Let's do another... From the NIH.gov: Read the full article here. "...powerful antitumor effects...in a variety of cancer cells." I repeat, this is not MY opinion, this is a medical journal! In fact, there are MANY articles that all come to the same conclusion, across multiple different types of cancers. Can Ivermectin Treat “Turbo Cancers”? - 9 Ivermectin Papers Reviewed The drug once labeled “horse de-wormer” is now showing AT LEAST 15 anti-cancer mechanisms of action.https://t.co/Nt6kr0j8VH — The Vigilant Fox (@VigilantFox) October 10, 2023 Here are 9 of them, from VigilantNews: Papers reviewed: 2023 Sep.23 - Man-Yuan Li et al - Ivermectin induces nonprotective autophagy by downregulating PAK1 and apoptosis in lungadenocarcinoma cells 2023 May - Samy et al - Eprinomectin: a derivative of ivermectin suppresses growth and metastatic phenotypes of prostatecancer cells by targeting the β-catenin signaling pathway 2022 Nov - Lotfalizadeh et al - The Anticancer potential of Ivermectin: Mechanisms of action and therapeutic implications 2022 Oct - Jian Liu et al - Progress in Understanding the Molecular Mechanisms Underlying the Antitumour Effects of Ivermectin 2022 Jun - Daeun Lee et al - Ivermectin suppresses pancreatic cancer via mitochondria dysfunction 2021 Aug - Shican Zhou et al - Ivermectin has New Application in Inhibiting Colorectal Cancer Cell Growth 2021 Jan - Mingyang Tang et al - Ivermectin, a potential anticancer drug derived from an antiparasitic drug 2019 Sep Intuyod et al - Anti-parasitic Drug Ivermectin Exhibits Potent Anticancer Activity Against Gemcitabine-resistant Cholangiocarcinoma In Vitro 2018 Feb - Juarez et al - The multitargeted drug ivermectin: from an antiparasitic agent to a repositioned cancer drug You can see that FULL article over on MakisMD Substack here. Now for the most obvious question: Need LEGAL and SAFE Ivermectin? Read This! We just reported yesterday that a new leaked report says airlines are looking to BRING BACK MASKS in October. Yes, really. I fully expect a new "planned-demic" will show up right in time for the 2024 election. Oh they might not call it "COVID" again and probably they won't. But I fully expect a new one to hit. And I'm going to be prepared this time. Whether it comes in the form of a bioweapon or something much more mundane like a tick bite or a Bill Gates' mosquito – you and your family need to be prepared. That’s where The Wellness Company comes in. You know the Wellness Company and their great doctors – like Dr. Peter McCullough and Dr. Jim Thorp – are regularly in the media speaking out against the broken medical establishment. Dr. Thorp, one of the nation’s leading critics of the corrupting influence of big pharma, believes that now – more than ever – people should be prepared for the next pandemic. “I’ve strongly recommended “stock piling” critical medications including antibiotics since the turn of the century. This has been an incredible investment as many friends, family and patients have benefited.  Now, in summer of 2023, this recommendation is even more crucial.” – Dr. Jim Thorp The Wellness Company and their doctors are medical professionals that you can trust and their new medical emergency kits are the gold standard when it comes to keeping you safe and healthy. Be ready for anything, this medical emergency kit contains an assortment of live-saving medications – including ivermectin and Z-pak. The medical emergency kit provides a guidebook to aid in the safe use of all of these life-saving medications. From anthrax to tick bites to COVID and even to a bioweapon like the plague – the Wellness Company’s Medical Emergency kit is exactly what you need to have on hand to be prepared. Rest assured knowing that you have emergency antibiotics, antivirals and anti-parasitics on hand to help keep you and your family safe from whatever the globalists throw at us next! The Wellness Company Medical Emergency Kit includes:  Amoxicillin-Clavulanate (generic Augmentin) 875/125 mg - 28 tablets Azithromycin (generic Z-Pak) 250 mg - 12 tablets Doxycycline Hyclate 100 mg - 60 capsules Metronidazole (generic Flagyl) 500 mg - 30 tablets Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole (generic Bactrim) 800/160 mg - 28 tablets Ivermectin 18mg - 7 compounded capsules Fluconazole (generic Diflucan) 150 mg - 2 tablets Ondansetron (generic Zofran) 4mg - 6 tablets 1 virtual consult from a doctor you can trust 1 Emergency Medication Guidebook written by our Chief Medical Board for safe use. The Wellness Company Medical Emergency Kit treats: Anthrax Bacterial Vaginosis Bite Wounds Bronchitis Chlamydia Clostridioides difficile Colitis COVID - 19 Gonorrhea Giardiasis Lice Nausea & Vomiting Pharyngitis Pinworms Plague (bioterror) Pneumonia Rickettsial Infections Scabies Shigella Infection Sinusitis Skin Infection Strep Throat Syphilis Tetanus Tick Exposure Tonsillitis Traveler’s Diarrhea Trichomoniasis Tularemia (bioterror) Urinary Tract Infection Vaginal Candidiasis Viral Upper Respiratory Infection Don’t be caught unprepared. Don’t be reliant on the broken and corrupt medical industrial complex. Don’t regret not acting today. Order The Wellness Company’s Medical Emergency Kits today! (Note: Thank you for supporting businesses like the one presenting a sponsored message below and ordering through the links below, which benefits WLT Report. We appreciate your support!) RELATED: We Were RIGHT About Ivermectin From Day One! PAGING DOCTOR FLIP-FLOP! DOCTOR FLIP-FLOP, PLEASE REPORT TO THE OPERATING ROOM! In a 180 degree flip-flop a politician would be jealous of, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) now admits doctors can prescribe Ivermectin to treat COVID-19. Yes, really. During the COVID-19 plandemic, the FDA did everything possible to prevent doctors from prescribing the antiviral to treat COVID-19. The corrupt agency compared people seeking ivermectin to horses. The federal government, mainstream media, Big Tech, and pharmacies created numerous barriers to prevent COVID-19 patients from obtaining ivermectin for treatment. After millions of Americans lined up to take the experimental COVID-19 shots, the FDA changed course to say doctors can prescribe ivermectin for COVID-19. Straight from the horse’s mouth. Now time for @US_FDA to issue a statement so my patients can get their prescriptions filled at @cvspharmacy and @Walgreens.https://t.co/r5khovfAfe — Mary Talley Bowden MD (@MdBreathe) August 11, 2023 According to The Epoch Times, the "'FDA explicitly recognizes that doctors do have the authority to prescribe ivermectin to treat COVID,' Ashley Cheung Honold, a Department of Justice lawyer representing the FDA, said during oral arguments on Aug. 8 in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit." "FDA explicitly recognizes that doctors do have the authority to prescribe ivermectin to treat COVID." Doctors are free to prescribe #Ivermectin to treat #COVID19, a lawyer representing the #FDA said this week. https://t.co/2IaViQTfjX — The Epoch Times (@EpochTimes) August 10, 2023 From The Epoch Times: The government is defending the FDA's repeated exhortations to people to not take ivermectin for COVID-19, including a post that said "Stop it." The case was brought by three doctors who allege the FDA unlawfully interfered with their practice of medicine with the statements. A federal judge dismissed the case in 2022, prompting an appeal. "The fundamental issue in this case is straightforward. After the FDA approves the human drug for sale, does it then have the authority to interfere with how that drug is used within the doctor-patient relationship? The answer is no," Jared Kelson, representing the doctors, told the appeals court. The FDA explicitly stated that ivermectin "isn’t authorized or approved to treat COVID-19." However, the agency attempted to excuse its corruption. "FDA made these statements in response to multiple reports of consumers being hospitalized, after self medicating with ivermectin intended for horses, which is available for purchase over the counter without the need for prescription," Honold said. In an interview with Maria Bartiromo, Senator Ron Johnson described the destruction caused by the actions of the FDA. "The doctors I've been dealing with and talking to for yours now, they believe that probably hundreds of thousands of Americans lost their lives because they were denied early treatment," Johnson said. "And they were denied it because the FDA sabotaged, for example, ivermectin. And they said, come on, you all, you're not a cow, you're not a horse. You know, this is supposedly horse medicine. No, this was a Nobel Prize-winning medicine that could have saved hundreds of thousands of lives." WATCH: The FDA has now endorsed treating COVID with Ivermectin! The FDA has blood on its hands. How many Americans senselessly died because Big Medicine called this cheap, readily available Nobel Prize winning medicine horse paste? Thank you Ron Johnson your leadership and bravery. pic.twitter.com/m0d6EonC5Q — Charlie Kirk (@charliekirk11) August 11, 2023 Read more from the court exchange from The Epoch Times: Ms. Honold said that the FDA didn't purport to require anyone to do anything or to prohibit anyone from doing anything. "What about when it said, 'No, stop it'?" Circuit Judge Jennifer Walker Elrod, on the panel that is hearing the appeal, asked. "Why isn't that a command? If you were in English class, they would say that was a command." Ms. Honold described the statements as "merely quips." "Can you answer the question, please? Is that a command, 'Stop it'?" Judge Elrod asked. "In some contexts, those words could be construed as a command," Ms. Honold said. "But in this context, where FDA was simply using these words in the context of a quippy tweet meant to share its informational article, those statements do not rise to the level of a command." The statements "don't prohibit doctors from prescribing ivermectin to treat COVID or for any other purpose" Ms. Honold said. She noted that the FDA, along with the statements, said that people should consult their health care providers about COVID-19 treatments and that they could take medicine if it was prescribed by the provider. "FDA is clearly acknowledging that doctors have the authority to prescribe human ivermectin to treat COVID. So they are not interfering with the authority of doctors to prescribe drugs or to practice medicine," she said. We actually told you all of this YEARS ago! Our reporting has been spot on from Day 1, nice to see the FDA catching up to us, but very sad it took so long. Here is one of our prior reports: CONFIRMED: The True Story of Ivermectin Now Coming Out! I continue to bring you the REAL news about Ivermectin.... Real, unfiltered news with no bias. Just the facts, ma'am! Like this one for example: Two Separate Doctors Claim OVER 100 Members of Congress Treated With Ivermectin! Anyone else mad yet? But here's the deal... Now the FDA is backtracking big time, trying to claim they never said you couldn't take Ivermectin. Yes, really...hard to even believe! But it's true, look at this: The scumbags are backtracking. They knew all along Ivermectin and Hydroxychloroquine prevented covid. But the drug dealers would not making hundreds of billions on these functional drugs. So they poisoned billions of people with the mRNA test drug. Crimes against humanity. https://t.co/nia76r41lW — Phenix Evely, PhD (@evely_phenix) November 22, 2022 And this: I'm not making accusations. This will all come out in the wash eventually. The FDA in the US is already backtracking by claiming that when they said don't use ivermectin it was only a "suggestion." — Other Heather dot connectr ...... (@thedotconnectr) December 12, 2022 They knew all along: https://twitter.com/wolsned/status/1603157314147868672 In fact, some studies are now showing it MIGHT be highly effective at destroying cancer: The horse dewormer strikes again. https://t.co/6qofYPNGHV — Dr. Urso (@richardursomd) December 15, 2022 Catturd right again: Remember when they said Ivermectin was only horse paste - and the low IQ, anti-science, useful idiots clapped like trained government seals. — Catturd (@catturd2) December 14, 2022 A wave of truth is coming out: The FDA’s website states, “Currently available data do not show ivermectin is effective against #COVID19.” But half of the studies to which the FDA points support using #ivermectine against #COVID_19, an @EpochTimes review (by @ZackStieber) has foundhttps://t.co/9DImZ7kvah — Jan Jekielek (@JanJekielek) December 11, 2022 Here is Dr. Peter McCullough: #BREAKING: Dr. Peter McCullough says the FDA acted criminally and should be sued for misleading the public by spreading misinformation on Ivermectin's ability to treat Covid-19 - causing unnecessary death. pic.twitter.com/Bg3ZS756tc — govt.exe is corrupt (@govt_corrupt) December 16, 2022 Just remember we told you the TRUTH all along... They didn't want you to see this but we showed you from Day 1! Watch it here on Rumble: Remember this disclaimer: I am not a doctor.  I am not giving you medical advice.  I’m a REPORTER.  I research and I report and I give you the full story open and honestly so YOU can decide. Now let's go to another video. This woman below documented her own journey with Ivermectin on video. She starts off looking not so good but makes a swift turnaround in just a few days. This is not me talking, listen to her share and document her own story.... Here is the video from Rumble: Now let's talk about the MSM disinformation campaign, which is a nice way of saying "outright lies and propaganda". Look, I will give you one disclaimer before we get started:  I am a journalist and not anyone with any medical expertise.  I'm not a doctor and I'm not giving medical advice.   I'm just presenting you with the results of my research that the MSM really seems to want to hide.... And I know how to do my research. So let's start with this: Now let's unpack all the lies the MSM has been telling you about Ivermectin. You would assume based on all the MSM propaganda that Ivermectin is only approved for Horses and not Humans. The only problem with that? It's not true. Not even close. Here's the real truth: Yes folks, that is a statement taken from PolitiFact's very own fact-checking page about Ivermectin. But what they do with their "Face Check" is so insidious.... Here's how PolitiFact tries to claim that the TRUE statement is still somehow false, watch these mental gymnastics: This post was flagged as part of Facebook’s efforts to combat false news and misinformation on its News Feed. (Read more about our partnership with Facebook.) It is true that ivermectin was approved by the Food and Drug Administration that year — but not to treat the coronavirus. The drug was approved for strongyloidiasis, a disease caused by a roundworm, and onchocerciasis, or river blindness, which is caused by a parasitic worm. The drug was approved for humans under the brand name Stromectol, National Geographic reported, and since then it’s been recognized as a safe treatment for several tropical diseases caused by parasites. In 2015, two scientists even won a Nobel Prize for their discovery of ivermectin and its use to treat diseases caused by parasites. But unlike, say, river blindness, COVID-19 is caused by a coronavirus, not by parasites. And as PolitiFact recently reported in a story exploring ivermectin, there’s no conclusive evidence that ivermectin is effective against COVID-19. The lying and the deception is just so evil, really makes me angry. If you gave me a full year, I couldn't come up with all the twists and turns these people take to turn the TRUTH into a lie. It's sickening. But we're just getting started. Next come the scare tactics and VERY misleading headlines. Like this article from WIVB Channel 4 News: After a recent resurgence in several states, health officials are warning residents to be aware of a dangerous of an unauthorized “treatment” for COVID-19 — often being taken with dangerous consequences. It’s called ivermectin and it’s used to treat and prevent parasites in animals, the Food and Drug Administration explains. The tablets are not FDA approved for treatment of COVID-19 in humans and isn’t even an anti-viral drug — meaning it has no impact on the coronavirus. And because the large-concentration tablets are intended for large animals, these can be treacherous for humans. In addition to not being authorized for treatment, there’s no evidence ivermectin treats COVID-19. “There’s a lot of misinformation around, and you may have heard that it’s okay to take large doses of ivermectin. That is wrong.” FDA The FDA and several state officials say they’ve seen an uptick in calamitous use of the drugs, particularly tablets used to treat parasitic worms in horses. While ivermectin is approved for humans to treat certain skin conditions (rosacea) and certain external parasites like head lice, the FDA warns this ivermectin is different than the one used in animals. On Friday, the Mississippi Department of Health was forced to send out a warning to residents about the dangers of the drug after several poisonings. The Mississippi Poison Control Center said at least 70% of recent ivermectin-related calls are tied to people taking livestock or animal formulations they bought a livestock supply stores or through online markets. Eighty-five percent of callers had mild symptoms — these include rash, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain — but one person needed evaluation because of how much they’d taken. More severe dangers of ivermectin ingestion include neurologic disorders, seizures, coma and death. Use of ivermectin should only be taken if prescribed by a doctor for an FDA-approved use. Regardless of the usage and prescription, the FDA warns ivermectin overdose is still possible. Possible interaction with other medications is also a possibility. I highlighted the key parts. A 70% SURGE in Ivermectin Poison Center calls sounds like a lot doesn't it? NPR even reports a 245% surge!  Oh my! Sounds bad until you realize according to NPR that the 245% surge is going from 133 calls to 459 calls....NATIONWIDE! According to the National Poison Data System (NPDS), which collects information from the nation's 55 poison control centers, there was a 245% jump in reported exposure cases from July to August — from 133 to 459. Yes folks, out of 333 MILLION people, there were 459 calls to poison centers. So 0.00000137% of the population. And those are just calls. According to the bold part of the Channel 4 article, 85% of those people who called or had symptoms had MILD symptoms like a rash. The horror! According to the article, only ONE person needed a further evaluation. But is this what you hear in the MSM? No. If you listed only to the MSM fear-porn, you'd think we had a crisis of Ivermectin deaths. The truth is the polar opposite. Anyone else REALLY tired of being lied to? It's why I'm here. I will continue to shout the truth from the rooftops! But I'm not done yet. Did you know that Ivermectin has actually been listed even by the corrupt WHO as one of the most "essential medicines" out there? It's true, you can read it right here until they take it down. But I'm not done yet! Let's cut right to the chase and go to a medical journal to see the true toxicity data on Ivermectin in humans. Seems like something JOURNALISTS should do, don't you think? Let's go to INCHEM.org, the WHO's own website for "Internationally Peer Reviewed Chemical Safety Information". They lay it out in black and white and even a non-medical person like me can understand it. Now let's go down to Section 7.2 of their report which is about Toxicity in Humans: I'm going to bold the key part: 7.2 Toxicity 7.2.1 Human data 7.2.1.1 Adults Amounts approaching the therapeutic doses in animals (100 to 200 ðg/kg bodyweight) are not hazardous to humans. Ingestions of large quantities (10 to 100 times the animal therapeutic dosage) may produce symptoms resembling those observed in animal toxicology studies at high toxic levels. An adult female accidentally self-injected a small quantity (approximately 200 ðg/kg) subcutaneously. Twelve hours later she experienced colicky pain with nausea but recovered within 12 hours (MSD, 1988). Clinical studies of oral ivermectin given in doses from 2 to 200 ðg/kg (maximum 12 mg) have shown a pattern of adverse experiences that included only one serious event (transient stupor). The remaining adverse experiences were considered not serious and were chiefly of the type expected based on the characteristics of the underlying disease and the responses seen after treatment with other microfilaricidal drugs, except for reports of "depression" (not psychiatrically tested) in four patients in open studies (MSD, 1988). 7.2.1.2 Children A 16-month-old boy weighing 15 kg ingested approximately 100 to 130 mg of ivermectin (as an injectable solution). Ten hours post-ingestion he had mydriasis in one pupil, with frequent vomiting, pallor, 35°C temperature, tachycardia, somnolence and variable blood pressure. He developed urticaria the following day, and had recovered after three days (MSD, 1988). Let's start with the very first line: even if you take the ANIMAL dosage, it is "not hazardous to humans". Case closed folks. Seriously, why is this not front page news? Is it because Ivermectin WORKS and actually treats COVID-19 and they can't let that happen? Just asking. How soon will it be do you think before they take down the WHO website or "edit" it? Good thing I took screenshots! Ok, now to address the question everyone is asking: how can I get it? Here is a new update from the FLCCC, which stands for Front Line COVID-19 Critical Care Alliance. From their page "Prevention and Treatment Protocols" I give you the following: I also highlight their disclaimer: And then you can TAP HERE to get the full list of doctors who can assist you. And if that doesn't work, I have a second source. Let's go to America's Frontline Doctors, who as their name suggests, are on the frontline of this battle. They took an oath to heal their patients and they believe many of the things the MSM wants to scare you away from may actually help heal you. Not my words, theirs.....take a look: From their website: Tap here to go to their site. And here is even more, also from America's Frontline Doctors..... Here is a graphic that has been circulating: And now let's go right to their website.... Here is what they're calling their Wellness Protocol and it sure seems very normal and common sense to me, how about you? Then we have their Treatment Options, which again look very reasonable. Folks, I'm not going to tell you what to do or not do, you have to make up your own mind and consult with your own doctor. But as a non-medical person, doesn't this stuff sound like a good idea? And here it is in a diagram: I will reiterate here once again what they posted on their website: THIS IS NOT MEDICAL ADVICE. Every situation is unique and every person must check with his or her own physician, especially if you are taking any other medication. Good advice.  For everyone. If you are interested in where to buy some of these items, scroll down and I have links for you to some of the best ones. Want even more? Then you need to hear from my friend Chris Burres who joined me last weekend on my show to talk about the power of C60. No, he's not saying it treats COVID or cures COVID. But he is saying it appears to supercharge your immune system and help your body in many different ways.....anyone else interested in that? Me too, and that's why I had him on my show. I had a lot of questions for him about C60 and I found the whole thing fascinating! Yes, I (Noah) personally take C60 and I've been taking it for over a year now. I first started hearing about it online about a year ago and I did my own research on it to find out what it is, where can I get it, and is it really that good....? First, let me give you my disclaimer once again in bold font: I'm not a doctor and I'm not giving you medical advice.  I'm not telling you this is going to treat or cure any condition you have.  I'm just telling you what I have personally experienced.  So here's what I found. I found that C60 is a powerful antioxidant often described as the "perfect carbon molecule". It's an antioxidant that has been measured to be 172x more powerful than Vitamin C!  How about that? Not only is it an antioxidant, but it's an anti-viral and an anti-bacterial and an anti-inflammatory. I'll tell you this....ever since I saw the Deep State going after Carbon and trying to tax carbon emissions with their Al-Gore Carbon Tax, I immediately knew one thing:  I bet Carbon is actually pretty good for you! Turns out I was right. Especially the Carbon-60 "perfect carbon molecule." So once I learned more about it, I then set out to find where to buy it from the most reputable company. I found there are a lot of companies selling C60 that might actually be bad for you and toxic, so I found the one that has the highest standards and safest, most continually-tested product out there....and that was C60 Evo. I've been personally taking C60 for over a year and feel amazing so in light of all the health issues plaguing our nation right now, I decided I'd have one of the founders of the company on my show to break all this down. Chris Burres was kind enough to speak with me today (on a weekend) and I thought it was a WONDERFUL discussion! I learned a lot myself.... He explains what C60 is, why its discovery won a Nobel prize, and the benefits many people experience when taking it. I believe in this product so much after using it for a year I asked the company if I could actually become an affiliate and get all of you a discount.... And they agreed! So watch the video below and then scroll down to grab my code which will get you 10% if you want to try it. Watch here on Rumble: To visit their website go to https://www.c60evo.com/welovetrump/ Use promo code EVNOAH to save 10%. Backup here on YouTube: To visit their website go to https://www.c60evo.com/welovetrump/ Use promo code EVNOAH to save 10%. Want even more on an immune-boosting health plan? Look no further than my friend Clif High. Clif has routinely promoted C60 in the past and here is even more of what he recommends. Take a look: Vaxx repair protocol... pic.twitter.com/stvjmbbCmn — clif is antiselenite (@clif_high) August 11, 2021 If that Tweet gets taken down, here is a screenshot of what he posted: I'm going to give you my disclaimer once again..... DISCLAIMER: I'm not a doctor and I don't practice medicine. And neither is Clif! Neither of us is giving you medical advice. Ok? Ok. I'm just reporting on what others have said. But let's be honest....I think I can probably do better than the "doctors" like Dr. Fraudci, Dr. Birxx who lie to you and serve you up a big heaping pile of propaganda! You can probably take whatever they tell you to do and just do the opposite and you'd probably be pretty close to an ideal course of action! So no, I'm not a doctor, but if being a doctor puts you in the same class as Dr. FRAUDci, then I take not being a doctor as a badge of honor. I'm a reporter. I simply report what I hear and see from others. To paraphrase a once great network: I report, you decide! But what I can report is that it sure looks like some very basic stuff can drastically help you recover and protect your body going forward! Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Chaga Mushroom Tea, C60, and of course hydroxychloroquine and ivermectin may be highly effective! If you scroll down, I have links for you. And let's consider the worst case scenario.....taking more vitamins is almost never a bad thing, right? Your body needs them regardless of what virus is floating around out there. As long as you don't take too much of the fat-soluble vitamins, it's almost NEVER a bad thing to give your body more vitamins. Now let me give you a little more background on Clif and why he's making these recommendations.... Watch this video where Clif High explains what the spike protein is actually doing to your body, why it is definitely a bio-weapon, and how each of the items listed above can help: [iframe src="https://www.bitchute.com/embed/sbls9aO7kys6/" width="100%" height="360"] Here is one more where he goes into even more detail and in this one he talks about the power of C60 and why you need to get some! Ever since you were a kid, you were told to get your vitamins! It's basic advice that was good then and is still good now! You need large doses of the right kind of Vitamin C, 10-15,000 IU's of Vitamin D to maintain certain blood levels, and then Clif recommends C60 too. Watch the interview here from Rumble (they discuss it in the first 10 minutes) and then scroll down for links to where you can get the best of each item: If you want to follow Clif's advice, here are some links to the products I like to use. Unfortunately, I can't give you a link to NAC on Amazon because Amazon banned it. One of the oldest and most trusted supplements in the bodybuilding industry and Amazon suddenly banned it right now. Interesting. So we go with the rest of the list.... First is Glutathione: You want to get "Liposomal" Vitamin C, very important. And in case that sells out, which tends to happen, this is another good Liposomal Vitamin C: Now on to Vitamin D. Here is my current favorite and the one I personally take: And a backup Vitamin D3: And Chaga Mushroom Tea: And here is the Zinc Balance: And we end with C60. As I mentioned above, I've been personally taking C60 for over a year and I have not came down with COVID.  Not saying it treats or prevents COVID, I'm just saying my experience. Regardless of COVID, I love taking it and have noticed multiple benefits. Here's what many people have reported: C60 is a powerful antioxidant (172x the power of Vitamin C), antiviral, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory.  I liked it so much I actually contacted the company and got everyone who is reading this a deal. The company is called C60Evo. Go to their website here and then be sure to use promo code EVNOAH and you'll get 10% off your order! I love this stuff and I think you will too. Cheers to good health and a big thank you to Clif High for putting out this information! No, I'm not promising you won't get COVID, but I am saying that TAKING YOUR VITAMINS and powerful ANTIOXIDANTS is a good idea! Be smart. Be safe. Be healthy!