During the 1940s in England, there was a resurgence of interest in the Spiritualism movement. Although partly in response to the generational trauma of the World Wars, the ‘industry’ of Spiritualism was also fertile ground for charlatans and opportunists looking to capitalize on the grief of their audience. One notable case captured the public imagination due to the seeming authenticity of the medium’s claims and, through an extended trial, led to a reexamination of the archaic Witchcraft Act under which the defendant was tried.    Who Was Helen Duncan and What Were Her Claims as a Medium? Helen Duncan, by Harry Price. (1931) for Regurgitation and the Duncan Mediumship. (Bulletin I of the National Laboratory of Psychical Research, 120pp with 44 illustrations). Source: Wikipedia   Helen Duncan (1897 – 1956) was a Scottish medium who gained fame (and notoriety) during the first world war for claiming to communicate with fallen soldiers. Her career continued throughout the 1920s and 1930s gaining as many fans as she did detractors for her highly dramatic and impressive seances. During these she would speak in the voices of the dead, often with their spirits materializing in the room. Another frequent feature would be the appearance of ectoplasm in her mouth; a phenomenon she claimed was proof of her paranormal abilities. Through investigations, the ectoplasm was found to be made of cheesecloth, paper and other materials.    What Led to Helen Duncan’s Arrest and Conviction? A spiritual seance, c. 1910. Source: Who Do You Think You Are?   Helen Duncan was enjoying a period of busy popularity during the second world war, when one seance drew widespread attention. In January 1944, Helen conducted a seance for the relatives and crew mates of a sailor who was missing. During the event the dead sailor ‘materialized’ and was seen wearing a naval cap of the HMS Barham; the ship the missing sailor belonged to. The routine was not in itself any different to her usual seances. What drew attention was that the sinking of the HMS Barham had not yet been made public knowledge.    This raised the question: how did she know? For her followers, this was proof of her psychic abilities. However, a police raid quickly debunked the phenomena of the ectoplasm and found the costume of the sailor hidden among other props. Her arrest and conviction now focused on her revealing war time secrets. This led to her being convicted under the Witchcraft Act of 1735 for ‘pretending to exercise or use witchcraft, sorcery, enchantment, or conjuration’. She served nine months in Holloway Prison for this crime along with other charges of defrauding her audience.    How Did Helen Duncan’s Trial Unfold and What Were the Key Testimonies? By Harvey Metcalfe – Harry Price. Leaves from a Psychist’s Case-Book (Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1933). Source: Wikipedia   Helen Duncan’s trial began on 30th March 1944. During the trial, the court heard emotional testimonies from participants of the seances who’d believed they had contacted their loved ones. Amongst these was Helaine Fry, mother of the missing sailor, who recounted the shock of seeing the spirit of her son despite the absence of his face. A detail that chilled the jury. Witnesses for the prosecution presented damning evidence of the ectoplasm, costumes and props used in Duncan’s act. As well as detailing the sums of money grieving participants would pay Duncan.    HMS Barham. Source: Wikipedia   One of the most compelling witnesses was photographer Harvey Metcalfe, he presented photographs he’d taken during the seances explaining how he’d captured the ‘spirits’. It remained unclear how Helen Duncan knew about the sinking of the HMS Barham, but the prosecution suggested she’d heard of it through unofficial channels. Living in the Naval city of Portsmouth would give her plenty of opportunities to hear news and rumors from sailors and their families before official announcements had been made. Duncan denied this and maintained her innocence throughout.    What Was the Public and Media Reaction to Helen Duncan’s Conviction? Publication outlining Helen Duncan’s trial. Source: Abe Books   The trial, especially the use of the Witchcraft Act, drew mass public and media attention. Many commented with surprise that such an ancient law could still be enacted (it had not been used for over a century at the time of Duncan’s trial). Even the sitting prime minister, Winston Churchill, commented on his concern over the security breach and damage to public morale due to the case. Duncan’s case was also used as an example by those trying to curb the Spiritualist movement and strengthen the laws against fraudulent practices paving the way for the Fraudulent Mediums Act of 1951.   Most significantly, it led to the repeal of the Witchcraft Act itself. Helen Duncan remained unrepentant after her conviction, maintaining that her skills were authentic. Her high-profile case meant she returned to performing well attended seances after her release from prison.   How Did Helen Duncan’s Case Influence the Repeal of the Witchcraft Act? Excerpt from The Hammer of Witches. Source: The Lost Book Project   The Witchcraft Act of 1735 had been created to reflect the developing attitudes towards the supernatural. Whereas the previous act of 1563 had presumed that witchcraft existed and treated suspected cases as criminal; the updated act of 1735 drew from the belief that those claiming to have supernatural powers were behaving fraudulently, usually for financial gain or exploitation. Over time, the law fell out of use as other laws covered cases of theft or fraud. So when Helen Duncan’s case came to trial it led to a public debate about how such cases should be viewed. Spiritualists and others spoke out about the Witchcraft Act being an outdated relic that curbed their personal freedoms and belittled their spiritual practices.    On the other hand, some conservative groups used the Duncan case to demonstrate how such laws were necessary to prevent what they saw as a particularly cynical form of fraud committed against those who were emotionally vulnerable and grieving. Ultimately, the law was repealed on 22nd June 1951 to be replaced by modern laws against fraudulent behavior that excised the more supernatural wording of the Witchcraft Act of 1735.

  Tales of chivalric deeds and honor-bound knights are the subject of much Medieval storytelling. The knightly class was one of military endeavor and of great heroism, a combination that has generated admiration and interest throughout the centuries. Many of these tales involve half-truths, exaggerations, and completely made-up flights of fancy. Young boys dreamed of becoming gallant knights, often embodying their thoughts on the school playgrounds—even today. Imagery of young heroes, battered and bruised from acts of noble valor, is popular in the imagination.   In modern times, knighthoods are awarded for achievements and contributions in various fields as well as service to the country. In the Middle Ages, however, the dynamic was completely different.   So, how did one become a knight back then?   It certainly wasn’t as simple as being a matter of privilege. Years of punishing drills, strict discipline, and major financial investments lay ahead for any young apprentice wishing to couch the lance and charge at the foe.   Setting the Scene for Medieval Knights Artistic rendition of a medieval knight and his horse. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Like many periods in history, the Middle Ages saw their fair share of war and horrific brutality, much of which occurred on the battlefield and often in service to nobles jostling for power, territory, and wealth.   Knights were the lowest caste of the upper classes and were a crucial part of the feudal system. While at home, they were integral in maintaining order, and while on campaign, they were the most feared, and often the most effective and respected soldiers on the battlefield.   Thus, it was extremely important in the feudal system to maintain a powerful knightly class, and training new knights was a prominent enterprise.   Birth, Blood, and the Right Connections Henry III meeting with his parliament. Source: Wikimedia Commons   To become a knight, from the moment of one’s birth, certain circumstances had to be in place. For a start, the child had to be a boy. And while commoners did sometimes become knights through exceptional circumstances, it was generally a privilege afforded to the nobility. Typically, it was the sons of knights and lords who were selected to follow the path to knighthood.   Those who wished to pursue a chivalric career also had to be wealthy. Becoming a knight was extremely expensive. Training, armor, and horses were prohibitively costly, and those of limited financial means had little hope of affording all the accoutrements needed for knighthood.   As mentioned, however rare, it was possible for commoners to become knights. It was usually the result of military endeavors, such as providing invaluable military aid to a lord, or it was the result of a commoner helping a monarch, as seen in the case of Thomas de Rockby, who led King Edward III of England directly to the Scottish army. Edward had offered a knighthood to anyone who could do so.   Pagehood (Age ≈ 7 – 13): Discipline Starts Early Page boys depicted in a preparatory study for Triumph of the Dogaresa by José Villegas Cordero. Source: Museum of Fine Arts, Seville   Typically, at the age of seven, a boy destined for knighthood would be apprenticed to a knight as a “page” for seven years. In this role, the boy served the noble family to whom he was apprenticed. He was expected to run errands, deliver messages, and clean clothing, among other basic chores. Tending to horses and cleaning weapons were of utmost importance, as these things would feature most prominently in his future.   In return for service to the noble, the page received a fitting education, learning basic horsemanship, hunting, and, importantly, combat. He was introduced to the “Seven Points of Agility” that knights were expected to master—horseback riding, swimming, archery, climbing, wrestling, participation in tournaments (particularly jousting), and fencing. Athletics was also a focus.   The page would also be required to engage in less demanding physical activities, and was taught finer subjects such as Latin and dancing.   Squirehood (Age ≈ 14 – 21): A Knight’s Shadow Prince, squire, and servants in the 15th century. Source: New York Public Library   Around the age of 14, a page became a squire, and his training required him to live side-by-side with his knightly mentor. While retaining the duties of a page, his training focused more on the practical skills needed for knighthood.   A squire mastered weapons by practicing with a pell (a wooden dummy or target post). For jousting, target practice was done through using a quintain, which is a device with a target on one side and a weight on the other, connected via an arm that pivots when the target is struck.   Of course, jousting was of prime importance. Not only was it a sport, but of great significance was the use of the lance in cavalry charges—the shock tactic employed by knights in the Middle Ages. As such, the squire not only had to become proficient with the lance, but he had to have incredible horsemanship. And of course, horses had to be trained as well, and as each horse is different, squires and knights formed bonds with their mounts and got to know their cadence and peculiarities.   The squire, by his close relationship with the knight, also learned effective governance, leadership styles, discipline, obedience, and adherence to the Chivalric codes.   Punishing Training Regimens Exercising in the early Renaissance. Detail by Sebald Beham (1500-1550). Source: Wikimedia Commons   To add to the difficulty of the tasks, training was often done in armor. This was typically chain mail or plate armor, or often a combination of the two. A suit of full plate could weigh from 33 to 65 pounds. Knights trained by running long distances in armor and fought with weighted weapons to build stamina and strength.   Other exercises such as stone throwing, vaulting onto horses, and climbing were also common, and were all done in armor. Horsemanship was a crucial skill, and much time was spent training on horseback, improving hand-eye coordination, as well as equine skills. It is fair to say that knights preparing for battle were certainly among the fittest men in the world.   Putting their training to good use off the battlefield, knights were the focal point of tournaments where they could prove their prowess, winning fame and fortune in various martial events, especially jousting, in which knights tested their ability with the lance.   The Dubbing Ceremony: From Squire to Sir The Dedication by Edmund Blair Leighton (1908). Source: Wikimedia Commons   When a squire graduated to knighthood, he would be the subject of a ceremony, which varied according to the time period. During the 10th and 11th centuries, knights were dubbed by their fathers or liege lords. Their sword would be girded on, and traditionally, they would be slapped across the face with a glove, representing the last blow a knight should receive without responding.   As the decades and centuries progressed, however, the tradition changed. The clergy became involved, and the ceremony included religious symbolism and prayers. The knight would symbolically wash away his sins and don robes for the ceremony, which would take place in a chapel or a church. The sword was blessed before being handed to the knight who would recite oaths. Celebrations followed, especially in wealthy households, in which a great feast would be held. The new knight, in his duties, would be bound by the Code of Chivalry, which prioritized courage, honor, loyalty, and piety.   The Hidden Costs of Knighthood A pile of medieval coins, mostly from England, dated from 1279-80 to around 1369-77. Source: The Portable Antiquities Scheme / The Trustees of the British Museum   Being a knight was extremely expensive. One had to be wealthy and come from a fortunate family to be successful in carrying out all the knightly duties that were expected. The very notion of a knight is one of a heavily armored man riding a warhorse. The money involved in affording such things was phenomenal.   A ready-made suit of armor cost several months’ wages, while, as was common for knights, a custom-made suit could easily cost over a year’s worth of wages. To add to this was the maintenance and repair work that would have to be done over the years.   A salient fact is that the knight did not live alone, and he did not operate in a vacuum. Knights had retinues to maintain. This included squires, pages, and servants to run the household and look after horses. These people all had to be fed and clothed. In addition, knights were often accompanied by hired men-at-arms.   Another major expense was the service required of the overlord. A knight was indebted to their superior lord and had to provide military service or serjeantry. The latter could be anything from holding the lord’s banner to providing weapons, or any other number of requests.   In lieu of military service, the knight often had the opportunity to pay a tax called “scutage,” which would absolve them from their obligations to their overlord.   Myth vs. Reality — Hollywood’s Knight Compared to the Medieval Original Mitchell Harris and Will Rogers in A Connecticut Yankee (1931). Source: IMDb   There has been much exaggeration and twisting of historical facts for the purpose of cinematic spectacle. The portrayal of knights is no exception, and Hollywood has been directly involved in creating and perpetuating many myths surrounding Medieval knights.   One such example is the idea that armor was so heavy that knights had to be lifted onto their horses with a crane. In reality, while armor was significant in its weight, it was evenly distributed, and the wearer was (and still is) far more mobile than he is perceived in popular misconception. In addition, knights were athletically trained, so armor offered even less of a hindrance than it would to the average untrained man. There is even evidence that some knights could do somersaults while wearing their armor!   Sir Isumbras at the Ford by John Everett Millais (1857). Source: Wikimedia Commons   Another enduring myth is that knights were all honorable men. It is true that the Code of Chivalry existed; however, there were plenty of knights who were cruel and brutal. Some were little more than bandits, extorting, kidnapping, and oppressing people. Women were often the targets, with forced marriages to wealthy heiresses and widows being a particular trend.   Many Knights also did not stick to their oaths. The Code of Chivalry was often abandoned in favor of personal gain, and many places under the control of knights became disorderly and violent to such an extent that the Church had to enact the Peace of God and the Truce of God, which were initiatives intended to protect common people and restore order. The latter was particularly aimed at knights and was intended to limit warfare.   Knights, like other people, cannot be generalized into a single group, however. There were decent, honorable knights, as well as terrible, violent ones.   The 19th century saw a revival of Medieval knighthood, marked by a resurgence in heraldry, literature, and art. This movement romanticized the Medieval knight and lent itself to the idealized image of chivalry rather than historical accuracy.   Reenactors in Lithuania, 2012. Source: Defense Visual Information Distribution Service   Being a knight in the Middle Ages was no easy task. It involved a lifetime of dedication and service that was physically and mentally demanding. Those who took up the mantle, like any human, could be paragons of virtue as well as despicable tyrants. Nevertheless, reverence for the ability of knights on and off the battlefield was well deserved.

  There is a long history of women being overlooked by a patriarchy-dominated society, and often men dismiss their female counterparts’ contributions to a field. Yet, some trailblazing female composers forged their path in a male-dominated field. Discover eight women composers who made important contributions to the history of music.   1. Kassia (810-ca. 865 CE)   Kassia is one of the most important and oldest-known female composers whose works we can still listen to and study today. Yet, because of her gender, her male contemporaries did not take her seriously at first. Eventually, men realized they were wrong to dismiss her as a hymnographer and “acknowledged her gift and encouraged her to compose hymns lofty enough to suit the occasion.”   Kassia was born into a noble family around 810 in the Byzantine Empire. Because of her high status, she was instructed in Christian theology, Greek literature, philosophy, reading, and writing.   But, because Kassia did not become royalty, she could follow her dreams to serve the church. She founded a convent in Constantinople in 843 and became its first abbess. She drew on her education and wrote hymns and poetry for religious and secular occasions.   Kassia often wrote her music in the second or fourth Byzantine church modes and used text painting where the music paints a picture of the words. Her melodies are considered “concise” and “syllabic” (Braeden Weyhrich).   2. Hildegard von Bingen (1098-1179)   Hildegard von Bingen, also known as the Sibyl of the Rhine, was a medieval nun and abbess who was more than just a trailblazing composer. She was also a botanist, medical healer, mystic, polymath, poet, and writer.   Hildegard believed in a holistic approach to healing. The body could be healed through medicinal herbs, diet, and care. The body (and soul) needed music to heal, too. From her pen flowed over 70 compositions collected in a cycle called Symphonia armoniae celestium revelationum. The Symphonia is a collection of sequences of responsories, hymns, and antiphons.   Hildegard’s trailblazing compositions reflect not only the evolution of the high medieval chant but also go beyond it. Her music is filled with melisma—the singing of a vowel, word, or part of a word over multiple notes. Another feature of her compositional style is the use of recurring melodic units that bring a sense of order and unity to her music.   Her music is the epitome of monophony—when a single, unaccompanied melodic line is used. A single instrument or multiple instruments (or a singer/singers) will perform the same music without variation or improvisation. Yet, her melodies soar beyond the confines of traditional Gregorian chant and can be distinguished from the usual monophonic monastic chant.   She is also credited with composing one of the first surviving medieval morality plays, Ordo Virtutum (Order of the Virtues). Hildegard used 82 melodies, and all the parts are sung in plainchant apart from the Devil who recites or screams their part. This work is the first medieval one that has music and spoken parts distinctly mentioned in the play.   3. Duchess Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (1739-1807)   Being the sister of Frederick II (Frederick the Great) does come with some privileges and perks. Her childhood was filled with excellent schooling and cultural events, but she was destined for the role of mother and wife when she married Carl August of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. Even worse, her husband passed away after two years of married life and she inherited the neglected court in Weimar.   Yet, under her guidance and management, she pulled Weimar out of its financial misery, established a library filled with over 600 musical works by notable composers such as JS Bach, and financed the University of Jena.   Her business acumen allowed her to turn Weimar’s misery into fortune—by the time her sons were ready to rule, it was a financially secure cultural center.     It is said that Anna Amalia described herself as a perfectionist yet timid person. Few of her works have survived and she may have destroyed some of her works due to her self-critical nature.   Her criticism also extended to other composers, and she was not shy about sharing her views with those in her inner circle. She was quite taken with Carl Philip Emmanuel Bach’s (one of JS Bach’s sons) Empfindsamer Stil (“sensitive style”) and the emerging Sturm und Drang (“storm and stress”) movements that would later flow into the Romantic era. Her Flute Sonata in F Major (showcased above) and the overture to her opera Erwin und Elmire, with a libretto based on a text by Goethe, showcase elements of these two prevailing styles from the Classical Era.   Although Anna Amalia achieved modest fame for her works, she was a trailblazing female composer who used her privilege for the cultural good of her constituents and the arts.   4. Florence Price (1887-1953)   The Chicago Daily News wrote the following about a new piece: “a faultless work, a work that speaks its own message with restraint and yet with passion… worthy of a place in the regular symphonic repertoire.” This review was published on June 15, 1933, about Symphony in E minor which won first place in the Wanamaker Foundation Awards. The winner was Black. She was a woman. She was the composer Florence Beatrice Price.   Florence’s mother, a music teacher herself, recognized her daughter’s talent early on and encouraged her music. She went on to study piano and organ at the New England Conservatory of Music where she graduated with honors. By 1910, she was the head of music at Clark Atlanta University in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1912, she married Thomas J Price and moved back to her hometown of Little Rock, Arkansas, Unfortunately, racial tensions flared up in the city and the family moved to Chicago in 1927.   After moving to Chicago Florence continued her studies in composition at the American Conservatory and Chicago Musical College.     Florence was deeply religious and influences from the African American church rubbed shoulders with European Romantic composers like Dvořák and Tchaikovsky, among others in her music. There are also glimmers of her southern roots and elements of the Harlem Renaissance present in her work.   5. Nadia Boulanger (1887-1979) Nadia (standing) and Lili (seated) Boulanger in 1913. Source: Center International Nadia et Lili Boulanger   Few people have trodden such deep tracks in the history of music, such as the talented Boulanger sisters.   Imagine being hailed as one of the best compositional teachers in the world who shaped the futures of many of the 20th century’s greatest composers. Well, that is Nadia Boulanger.   Her family had a two-generation association with the Paris Conservatory, starting with her father, Ernest Boulanger, who recognized her gift for music at an early age. At the young age of ten, she entered the Conservatory. She took composition lessons with Gabriel Fauré, harmony lessons from Paul Vidal, and studied the organ with Charles-Marie Widor. She taught composition at the Conservatory like her father and privately.     After the death of her sister, Lili Boulanger, Nadia vowed never to compose again. Instead, she turned her attention to pedagogy. Her teaching philosophy focused on helping composers find their voice rather than being a pedantic instructor who hammered the rules of music home. Teaching was Nadia’s way of honoring her departed sister’s legacy.   Some composers who passed through her hands include Leonard Bernstein, Philip Glass, Quincy Jones, Astor Piazzolla, and Aaron Copland, to name a few.   Nadia was also the first woman to conduct the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra in London, and the first to conduct the Boston Symphony, New York Philharmonic, Philadelphia, and Washington National Symphony Orchestra while staying in the USA during World War II.   Nadia is credited with the revival of Claudio Monteverdi’s works but also championed works by her lifelong friend Igor Stravinsky and composers like Gabriel Fauré and Lennox Berkeley. She also gave touring lecture-recitals on the works of Monteverdi and Heinrich Schütz.   6. Lili Boulanger (1893-1918)   Nadia’s younger sister, Lili Boulanger was a composer in her own right, but fate was unkind towards her—she contracted bronchial pneumonia at the tender age of two. Nadia would become a champion of Lili’s works after she died of intestinal tuberculosis at 25.   Lili became the first woman to win the prestigious Prix de Rome prize in 1913 for her Cantata Faust et Hélène (showcased above) at the age of 20. Of course, the judges were not overjoyed because a woman won, so the first place was also awarded to Claude Delvincourt. She was the same age as her father when he won the prize. The prize included a year’s study in Rome with all expenses covered.   Lili’s studies were interrupted by the outbreak of World War I (1914) and when she returned to Rome in 1916, her health was failing quickly. She was forced to return to Paris again where she concentrated on finishing the compositions she began in Rome.   Ultimately, Lili’s life was cut short at 25, but she left behind rich and complex compositions that shaped the 20th century.   The Boulanger sisters were each composers in their own rights who shaped the course of 20th-century music and paved the way for many more women composers following in their footsteps.   7. Wendy Carlos (1939-)   Many refer to Wendy Carlos as the “Mother of the Moog” and the “Godmother of Electronic Music” and in many ways, she is an outstanding female musician everybody should know about.   Born November 14, 1939, in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, Wendy was born as a biological man, formerly known as Walter. She started her transition journey in 1969 after experiencing years of gender dysphoria. She came out as a transgender woman during an interview with Playboy Magazine in 1979. The public seemed tolerant or even indifferent toward the news.   Her album, Switched-On Bach, paved the way for the Moog analog synthesizer—skyrocketing electronic music into the mainstream. Wendy and Bob Moog, the inventor of the Moog synthesizer, worked together on his design. Luckily, Bob took many of Wendy’s recommendations to heart, like the portamento control, a touch-sensitive keyboard, and a filter bank.   Wendy believes that electronic music is not a new kind of music, just a different kind of music.   Her Grammy-winning Switched-on Bach reinterpreted some of JS Bach’s music on a Moog synthesizer. It showcased the synthesizer as a worthy musical instrument and not just an instrument college professors use in labs to make strange robot noises.   Other notable works include her collaboration with Weird Al Yankovich as narrator. Peter and the Wolf — A Performance Parody and Carnival of the Animals — Part Two (starting at 31:52) are two examples. Wendy does not like her music to be on streaming platforms like YouTube and Spotify—so you will have to discover her music on CDs and vinyl—which is part of the thrill of discovering one of electronic music’s pioneers!   8. Lisa Gerrard (1961-)   With a dramatic contralto voice spanning three octaves, Lisa Gerrard has a unique singing style technique known as glossolalia. Furthermore, a prime example of her unique and “invented language,” known as idioglossia, can be heard on the Gladiator soundtrack co-composed with Hans Zimmer. Apart from her involvement in the band, Dead Can Dance as a co-composer alongside Brendan Perry, she is also a producer and accomplished sound engineer in her own right.   Her first solo album, The Mirror Pool, accompanied by the Victorian Philharmonic Orchestra, saw the light in 1995. She describes the album and title as follows:   “If you read about African music, they believe that during the process of making this music, you come into contact with spirits from another plane … They say that this place is like a mirror of the world we live in, and that when we sing or play music, we are given this information as preparation for where we’re going … I [Gerrard] feel that music permits you to come into contact with your deepest feelings … With the best music, you don’t find the composer or the musicians within the work, you find yourself, your own feelings…” (Gerrard cited by Bogle, 1995)   Many of the characteristics like otherworldliness, darkwave, and World Music as found in Dead Can Dance are also found in Lisa Gerrard’s music. Some of Lisa Gerrard’s film scores include The Whale Rider (2003), Oranges and Sunshine (2010), and the theme song to the 49th NHK Taiga drama, Ryōmaden (2010).   Final Thoughts Saint Cecilia, by Artemisia Gentileschi, 1620. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Throughout history, men have feared and objectified women but always found a way to sweep their achievements under the rug. Debbie Felton writes that in classical Greek and Roman myths, the conquerors are always men who overcome mostly female monsters because men feared “women’s destructive potential. The myths then, to a certain extent, fulfill a male fantasy of conquering and controlling the female” (Felton, 2012). We can extend this to all parts of life and history—the patriarchy has assigned women their roles and decided they should be happy with household administration, raising children, and being doting wives.   Often, the historical record also downplays or outright excludes women’s achievements through purposeful censorship or omission. Unfortunately, history is no exception. Even when we take the prejudices out of the equation, history is written by the victor (men), and some (women) pass through with luck.   The Concert, by Johannes Vermeer, ca. 1664. Source: Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston, MA   The select female composers who made it into the history books are the lucky ones. They stood their ground and refused to bow their knee to a patriarchal society and forged their own paths. Thankfully, there are projects like Music By Women that shine a spotlight on female composers and theorists giving them their due!

  Pena Palace, Queluz Palace, the Palace of Estói, Mafra Palace, Buçaco Palace, the National Palace of Ajuda, and Vila Viçosa Palace are perfect examples of royal architecture. As a primary residence or a summer home, these palaces have witnessed the passage of time and reflect different architectural styles. From Baroque to Manueline and Renaissance architecture, you will find unique features at each site.   1. Pena Palace Photograph of Palácio da Pena, by Julia Solonina, 2019. Source: Unsplash   Pena Palace has been a Portuguese National Monument since 1910 and a UNESCO World Heritage site since 1995. This iconic landmark is one of the most recognizable monuments in Portugal and the perfect example of 19th-century Portuguese Romantic Revivalism.   The history behind this mesmerizing palace begins in the 12th century, with a small chapel dedicated to Our Lady of Pena. Later, in the 16th century, King Manuel I ordered the construction of the Royal Monastery of Our Lady of Pena in the same location.   However, the infamous 1755 earthquake left the monastery in shambles. Nevertheless, it continued working until 1834, when the religious orders were extinct in Portugal. In the following decades, the monastery was abandoned and left in ruins.   Yet, that all changed when King Consort Fernando II, married to Queen Maria I, arrived in Sintra. Due to his Germanic upbringing, he quickly fell in love with Sintra. As a result, King Fernando II bought the ruins of this impressive monastery and the forest surrounding it with his fortune.   Photograph of Palácio da Pena, by Katya De Juan, 2019. Source: Unsplash   The king intended to restore the monastery as a summer residence for the royal family. However, King Fernando II got carried away and decided to build a palace instead. He extended the existing monastery and added new elements such as pathways, watchtowers, and a drawbridge. Today, you can also see a combination of architectural styles ranging from neo-Gothic to neo-Manueline, neo-Islamic, and neo-Renaissance.   The palace’s opulent decoration reflects the royals’ preferences. Inside the chapel, you can admire an astounding alabaster marble altarpiece made by Nicolau Chanterenne, one of Mosteiro dos Jerónimos architects.   After Queen Maria I’s death, King Fernando II remarried Elise Hensler, an opera singer, also known as Condessa d’Elba. Together, they built the Alpine-inspired Chalet da Condessa D’Elba, close to Palácio da Pena. A few years later, when King Fernando II died, Palácio da Pena became Hensler’s property. Considering the public controversy surrounding the palace’s ownership, Elise Hensler reached an agreement with the Portuguese government, which bought Palácio da Pena.   Since the palace was now government property, Portuguese royals occupied the building. King Carlos I and Queen Amélia made Pena Palace their preferred residence.   In 1910, the monarchy was abolished and the Portuguese Republic was born. Pena Palace was converted into a museum and received its official name: Palácio Nacional da Pena.   2. Vila Viçosa Palace Photograph of Palácio de Vila Viçosa, by Alves Gaspar, 2013. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Palácio de Vila Viçosa, also known as Paço Ducal, is one of the country’s most famous historical monuments. In 1501, the fourth Duke of Bragança, D. Jaime, ordered the construction of a palace in the small village of Vila Viçosa, deep in the heart of Alentejo.   For centuries, Palácio de Vila Viçosa was the seat of the Serenissima Casa de Bragança, an influential noble family founded in the 15th century, which became the reigning house in Portugal when on December 1, 1640, the 8th Duke of Bragança was acclaimed King of Portugal (D. João IV) and began the Bragança Dynasty.   The cloister, chapel, and armory were the first areas built. In 1537, D. Teodósio I, the 5th Duke of Bragança, ordered the palace refurbishment to host a royal wedding between his sister D. Isabel and Prince D. Duarte, King João III’s brother. The result is the imposing marble façade we can still admire today.   The palace underwent several renovations and improvements until 1640 when the Duke of Bragança became king and took most of its remarkable contents to the Ribeira Palace in Lisbon. From then on, Palácio de became the royal family retreat.   Courtyard of the Vila Viçosa, photo by Stephan Hoppe. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the 18th century, King João V refurbished the chapel, kitchen, and new bedroom pavilion. During this campaign of works, King João V commissioned Domenico Duprà to paint the series of royal portraits in the Tudescos Room in Vila Viçosa between 1727 and 1729.   Queen Maria I also made some improvements, adding the body of the dining and Glass rooms. At the end of the 19th century, the old palace was still the subject of some work as a result of King Carlos and Queen Amelia’s preference. King Carlos was very fond of the palace, spending many seasons here when he and his friends (he rarely brought official guests to Vila Viçosa) went hunting in the extensive Royal Hunting Park.   After the proclamation of the Republic in 1910, the Palace of Vila Viçosa, as well as all the assets of the House of Bragança, remained in the possession of King Manuel II, as they were the King’s family assets and the State’s.   In 1933, following King Manuel II’s death and according to his last wishes, the palace became part of the House of Bragança Foundation, which opened its doors to the public as a museum. At that time, the palace also received a large part of the exiled king’s furniture, works of art, and a precious library from his London residence.   3. Mafra Palace Photograph of Palácio de Nacional de Mafra, by Pedro, 2016. Source: Flickr   Palácio Nacional de Mafra is a breathtaking landmark composed of a Baroque palace and convent with Germanic and Roman influences, a magnificent garden, and the Tapada Nacional de Mafra (Royal Hunting Park). It has 1,200 rooms, more than 4,700 doors and windows, 156 staircases, and 29 courtyards and halls.   This mesmerizing palace has been classified as a National Monument since 1907. It has also been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2019. The palace construction inspired the Portuguese writer José Saramago, a Nobel Prize winner, to write his iconic Memorial do Convento.   The idea behind the magnificent Mafra Palace emerged from a promise from King João V. He swore to build the monument if his wife, Queen Maria Ana of Austria, gave him children. In 1711, Princess Maria Barbara was born.   Mafra palace, Basilica dome, photo by Miguel Carraça mcmiles. Source: Unsplash   The palace construction began a few years later, in 1717. It was designed by Johann Friedrich Ludwig and employed more than 52,000 workers. This megalomaniac project was funded by Brazilian gold, which the Portuguese ships brought frequently. Although the construction extended until mid-1737, the basilica was consecrated in 1730.   The original building was designed as a small convent suited for only 13 friars. However, the monument transformed into an immense building with all the facilities and belongings needed for daily court life and the 300 friars of the Order of St. Francis. During the religious community’s heyday, the convent consumed 120 barrels of wine, 70 barrels of olive oil, and almost 10 tons of rice, per year.   The palace and basilica illustrated the monarchy’s need for political affirmation. They intended to build a reputation among the great European monarchies and the Holy See while showing off Portugal’s mighty overseas empire and the king’s absolute power.   Inside the basilica, you can admire several Italian statues, medallions, and a large crucifix with angels in adoration, mostly made of Carrara marble and produced in Rome and Florence.   Library, Mafra Palace, photo by Oksana Z. Source: Unsplash   The library is the most important room at Palácio de Mafra: this was a center of knowledge for many intellectual subjects during the Baroque Period.   Today, the Library still follows Friar João de Santana’s organization, which listed the books in 1809. These are arranged hierarchically from the sacred texts, such as Bibles, lives of saints, matters of religion, doctrine, and canon law, to the “profane” works, such as exact sciences, humanities, liberal arts, history, geography, and law, among others.   It also holds a significant number of rare books, Renaissance books of hours, and a collection of “Books Prohibited by the Index,” kept in the Mafra Library under special papal authorization through the Bull of Benedict XIV of 1745.   In 1744, King João V decreed the purchase of the land surrounding the palace, which became Tapada Real de Mafra. The king and queen would often visit Mafra Palace during the convent festivities and to celebrate their birthdays.   Unfortunately, King João V fell severely ill and died in 1750. Soon after, Queen Maria I opened the palace to religious celebrations. Her successor, King João VI, settled the court in the palace in 1806. In the following year, the king and royal family left for exile in Brazil after Napoleon Bonaparte‘s invasions.   In 1807, the French troops occupied the palace, and a few months later, they were replaced by a small fraction of the English army, which remained there until March 1828. After the Civil War, opposing Liberals and Absolutists, Palácio de Mafra was the preferred location for the royal family from Maria II to Manuel II to escape.   At the palace’s south turret, King Manuel II, the last Portuguese king, spent his last night in Portugal on October 4th, 1910, before leaving for exile when the Republic was established.   4. Queluz Palace Palácio de Queluz. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Palácio de Queluz is an 18th-century palace built as a summer residence for King Pedro de Bragança. It was one of the last Rococo-style buildings constructed in Europe.   Construction began in 1747 under the supervision of architect Mateus Vicente de Oliveira. Although it is much smaller, people often refer to it as the “Portuguese Versailles.” The palace architecture reflects the last extravagant period of Portuguese culture after the discovery of Brazilian gold in 1690. As a result, during the palace construction, many foreign artists and architects were employed to satisfy the desires of the newly enriched aristocracy.   When Queen Maria I struggled with a dementia diagnosis, Queluz Palace was her discreet place of confinement, especially after her husband, King Pedro de Bragança, died in 1786.   After the fire that destroyed the Ajuda Palace in 1794, the Queluz Palace became the official residence of the Portuguese Prince Regent, the future João VI, and his family. The palace underwent refurbishment works to accommodate the court, guards, and servants. Once renovations were complete, Palácio de Queluz became a Court’s favorite for leisure activities and watching serenades.   The royal family and the court inhabited Palácio de Queluz until 1807 when the royals fled to Brazil following the French Invasion.   Palácio de Queluz from its gardens, by Erkan Kirdar. Source: Unsplash   In the following years, the Portuguese Civil War broke out, between brothers Miguel and Pedro IV of Portugal and the First Emperor of Brazil. This conflict ended royal life at Queluz Palace. Miguel, an Absolutist, lived in the palace as king during the bloodiest period of the war.   Eventually, Pedro won the war, but because he was ill, he abdicated the Portuguese throne in favor of his young daughter, Maria II. Since his health worsened day by day, this became the king’s last address. The Palace of Queluz became forever known as the birthplace and deathbed of Pedro IV.   In 1910, Palácio de Queluz was declared a National Monument and was used as a residence for foreign heads of state on official visits to Portugal.   5. Estói Palace Photograph of Palácio de Estói, by Jorge Cardim, 2023. Source: Flickr   Palácio de Estói is a unique historical building near Faro, in the Algarve region. It is considered one of the Algarve’s main monuments due to its architectural and decorative richness, combining Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassical, and Romantic elements.   This palace dates back to the 18th century when Marshal Francisco Pereira Coutinho founded an estate inspired by Palácio de Queluz. However, the palace construction only began in the mid-19th century with Fernando de Carvalhal e Vasconcelos, Coutinho’s son, who was highly influenced by Palácio da Pena.   With the original owner’s death, the property passed on to José Maria Pereira do Carvalhal, Vasconcelos’ younger brother. Nevertheless, the palace was abandoned until it was purchased by José Franciso da Silva in 1890. Construction works quickly resumed and the palace was inaugurated in May 1909. After Silva’s death, Palácio de Estói passed through several owners leading to its progressive degradation.   In 1973, the palace was declared a Property of Public Interest. However, it was only in the 1980s that the palace underwent refurbishment works. In the 1990s the palace was repurposed as a guesthouse. Today, you can spend the night at this incredible palace.   Palácio de Estói, photo by Gabrielle Polita. Source: Unsplash   This stunning landmark presents two distinctive areas: the old manor house and the gardens.   The manor house shows several volumes in a U-shaped structure where you can admire Italian Baroque features. Inside are several richly ornamented and furnished rooms decorated in the 18th-century French style. One of the most famous areas of the palace is the chapel, a Louis XV-style interior with a tiled ceiling and painted roof.   The gardens are organized in three levels and partially combine areas for agricultural production. The gardens are decorated with exotic trees and baroque sculptures and tiles. The 18th-century nativity scene and the two sculptures of shepherds made of Carrara marble are the most distinctive elements.   At the palace gardens, you can also admire two belvederes decorated with paintings, a polychrome set of tiles, and blue and white tile panels.   6. Ajuda Palace Photograph of Palácio de Nacional da Ajuda, by Susana Falcão, 2017. Source: Flickr   In 1755, a massive earthquake, followed by a 30-meter-high (98-foot) tsunami, devastated Lisbon and much of the Alentejo and Algarve coastline. Yet, it was the capital that registered the largest death toll and the most damage. One of the damaged buildings was the Paço da Ribeira, the royal palace where King José I lived.   Due to the king’s refusal to live in masonry and stone buildings following the earthquake, Italian architect Giovanni Carlo Galli da Bibbiena designed the “Royal Shack.” This was the nickname common people granted to the royal palace made of wood.   Unfortunately, due to a fire, the wooden palace was destroyed in 1794. The following year, construction work began to build what became known as Palácio Nacional da Ajuda.   Architect Manuel Caetano de Sousa designed the original Baroque project in 1795. A few years later, the new Neoclassical style was in fashion. Prince João, who would become King João VI, ordered a new project for architects Francisco Xavier Fabri and José da Costa e Silva. As a result, the new designs incorporated the original works.   The palace’s construction extended for 200 years. The French invasion, King João VI’s escape to Brazil in 1808, and a lack of funds all contributed to such a long construction period.   View of the “Winter Garden.” Source: IPPAR   The Ajuda Palace was inhabited for short periods since kings and queens preferred other royal palaces such as Palácio de São Bento, which today holds the Portuguese Parliament.   In 1862, Queen Maria Pia de Saboia ordered the palace redecoration. The layout and room decoration were designed by architect Joaquim Possidónio da Silva and followed the new standards of comfort and hygiene characteristic of the second half of the 19th century.   Palácio Nacional da Ajuda was the birthplace of Princes Carlos and Afonso and the location where the Council of State met and court ceremonies were held.   In 1910, when the Republic was established and the royal family went into exile, the palace was closed. It opened to the public as a museum in 1968. Since then, the palace has retained the typical 19th-century layout and room decoration.   7. Buçaco Palace Photograph of Palácio do Buçaco, by A. J. Brandão, 2017. Source: Flickr   Deep in the heart of Buçaco National Forest, Palácio do Buçaco was built in 1885 for the last Portuguese kings. However, its history begins in the 17th century with the Order of the Discalced Carmelites.   A group of hermit monks settled in Buçaco to live in contemplation and isolation. During their stay, the monks planted the immense forest you see today with plant species from all over the world. They also built several hiking paths through beautiful fountains, hermit chapels, and breathtaking viewpoints.   Amidst Buçaco Forest, you can admire the Via Sacra and the Santa Cruz Convent, which helped Buçaco become an icon for the Christian faith in Portugal.   In the 19th century, King Carlos I, who had always enjoyed this astounding location, gathered the best architects and built this magnificent palace. Italian architect Luigi Manini was in charge of the project design.   However, other renowned architects, such as Nicola Bigaglia, Manuel Joaquin Norte Júnior, and José Alexandre Soares, also contributed to this masterpiece. The result is a neo-Manueline building with Gothic and Renaissance influences.   Palácio do Buçaco. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The building shows profiles of Belém Tower carved in Ança stone, motifs from Jerónimos Monastery’s cloister, and a few elements from the Convent of Christ.   Today, the palace is a luxury boutique hotel where you can still admire the lavish decoration. Here, you can see the incredible works of the great Portuguese masters. Among them, you can find a collection of tile panels by Jorge Colaço evoking the Os Lusíadas, by Luís de Camões, and the Peninsular War, frescoes by António Ramalho and paintings by Carlos Reis.   The intricate furniture includes Portuguese, Indo-Portuguese, and Chinese pieces, enhanced by beautiful tapestries. Also noteworthy are the Moorish ceiling, the remarkable flooring made from exotic woods, and the royal gallery.   Palácio do Buçaco was classified as a Property of Public Interest in 1996 and declared a National Monument in 2018.

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