The words "Greek hot dog" might conjure images of feta cheese and tzatziki. However, we're talking about a meaty sauce that may remind you of chili.

by Tom Luongo, Tom Luongo: Having now done literally hundreds of interviews/livestreams/podcast over the past seven years, I’ve learned a few things about media. The first is that this is a lot harder than it looks. I’ve done it the very hard way, limited success through repetitive failure. It’s who I am. I’m neither a […]

by Rhoda Wilson, Expose News: In October 2019, a tabletop exercise called Event 201 was held to simulate a coronavirus outbreak.  Six months later, the World Health Organisation declared a covid pandemic. In October 2024, a Bird Flu Summit is being held to prepare for the response to a potential bird flu pandemic.  As has been proved […]

from World Alternative Media: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

from ZeeeMedia: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

Pope Boniface VIII went down in history as one of the most controversial popes of all time. His conflicts with the state, particularly the French King Philip IV, led to a posthumous trial against him for heresy. Here, we delve into the events that laid the groundwork for his trial, the accusations levied against him during the trial, and its outcome. Medieval painting of Pope Boniface VIII Political Conflicts During Boniface VIII’s Pontificate While the separation of church and state has been an enduring ideology, Pope Boniface VIII was one of the boldest and most politically involved church leaders. He often expressed his political inclinations in his office and tried to influence monarchs.  When his pontificate began in 1294, there were two important and ongoing global wars. One was between England and France regarding the dominion over Flanders and Guyenne. The second was between Aragon and Naples regarding the island of Sicily. It was a turbulent time for the Mediterranean island of Sicily. Peter III of Aragon had just died and his son, Frederick, was due to succeed him. Though Boniface tried to coax Frederick not to accept the throne, Frederick accepted the responsibility and Boniface was forced to accept Sicily’s sovereignty under the new king. Boniface also tried to end the conflict between the English King Edward I and the French King Philip IV.  Meanwhile, he found himself in the middle of another issue. The mounting taxes on the clergy were mandated by the two kings without the pope’s permission.  In 1296, Pope Boniface VIII responded by publishing Clericis laicos. This was a bull that prevented the monarchs from imposing taxes on the clergy without papal consent. Failure to get the pope’s express license would result in a king’s automatic excommunication. England followed the rule under the Clericis laicos to some extent. This was mainly due to support from Robert Winchelsey, the archbishop of Canterbury. However, it did not have much effect in France as there was no strong support from the region. Increasing Friction Between Boniface VIII and Philip IV In 1301, another conflict erupted between Boniface VIII and Philip IV. This time it was over the false accusations, trial, and imprisonment of Bernard Saisset of Pamiers, a French bishop.  In return, Boniface VIII issued the bull Ausculta fili, expressing his strong disapproval of the king’s actions. He also asked for amends, particularly the bishop’s release from prison. Pierre Flotte, the king’s chancellor, circulated an altered extract of the papal bull, steering public opinion against the pope. A year later in 1302, Philip IV’s new councilor, Guillaume de Nogaret, led an anti-papal royal policy. Philip IV found many allies for this policy, including the French canon lawyer Jean Lemoine aka Johannes Monachus. During the same year, Philip IV and his aides raised many false accusations against the pope at a hush-hush assembly at the Louvre in Paris. Some of the accusations included the pope’s illegal entry into the papal office and heresy. These accusations later became the basis of the pope’s posthumous trial by Philip IV. During the meeting, Nogaret called for the pope’s condemnation by a general council of the church. Soon after the gathering, Nogaret traveled to Italy to instigate a revolt against Boniface VIII which was unsuccessful. Manuscript illustration of Boniface consulting his cardinals Boniface VIII’s Capture and Death In 1303, Nogaret received news that Pope Boniface VIII was planning to issue a bull declaring Philip IV’s ex-communication.  Learning that Boniface VIII was in Anagni, Nogaret immediately approached a few cardinals. He went to Sciarra Colonna — a member of the influential Colonna family — and Anagni’s local leaders for help. Together, they seized Boniface VIII at Anagni and asked him to resign. However, Boniface VIII told them that he would rather die than resign. He was released after three days. During Boniface VIII’s captivity, he was subjected to ill-treatment. Physically and mentally shattered, he passed away on October 11, 1303, just one month after his release. Posthumous Trial Against Boniface VIII After Pope Boniface VIII died, Philip IV and his allies pressured Clement V, the new French pope, to instigate a posthumous trial against the pope’s memory.  After the pontificate was shifted to Avignon, Pope Clement V felt increasingly embarrassed and burdened by the material against Boniface VIII that came from the previous pope’s accusers. He ultimately relented to Boniface VIII’s trial in 1309. During the judicial investigation which lasted between 1303 and 1311, Philip IV and his aides hurled many accusations against Boniface VIII. Some accusations were that Boniface VIII supposedly made many bold statements that were considered nihilist or hedonist and partially even critical and freethinking. According to them, he supposedly declared statements to the effect of: Christianity is invented by human beings like the religions of the Arabs and the Jews. The dead will not rise just like my horse that expired yesterday. When Mary gave birth to Jesus Christ, she was not a virgin just like my mother wasn’t when she bore me. Just like washing one’s hands, sex and satisfying natural desires are not a sin. Heaven and hell exist only on Earth. For the healthy, happy, and rich, this is heaven on Earth while for the sick and the poor, this is hell on Earth. The world will last forever, only human beings don’t. All religions, particularly Christianity, have a few truths and many errors. Christian untruths include the trinity, Jesus Christ’s divine nature, the virgin birth, the transubstantiation of bread and wine into Jesus Christ’s body and blood, and the resurrection of the dead. Understandably, scholars remain divided about the authenticity of these statements, especially since there is no proof that Pope Boniface VIII said them. End of the Trial On June 28, 1310, Clement released a mandate expressing his concerns about the testimonies’ quality and the accusers’ and witnesses’ corruption. He went on to declare that people committing perjury in future examinations would face ex-communication. Meanwhile, an ecclesiastical consistory held a judicial investigation against Pope Boniface VIII’s memory at Priory Groseau near Malaucène in France. It consisted of preliminary examinations conducted in August and September 1310. It gathered testimonies regarding Boniface VIII’s heresy and offenses, which included sodomy. However, this accusation lacks substantive evidence. It is also possible that Philip IV used it as a common accusation against his enemies as the Templars also faced the same charge. Meanwhile, despite many accusations put forward by Philip IV and his aides for eight years, Boniface VIII was not condemned in the end. In 1311, the trial was abandoned without reaching any verdict. That the Catholic Church meddled in the affairs of the state certainly wasn’t anything new. However, few church leaders went to the extent that Pope Boniface VIII did. His struggle for power against King Philip IV was aggressive and eventually led to his demise. The post The Most Controversial Pope In History: Pope Boniface VIII first appeared on History Defined.

Roman ruins with old buildings in Plovdiv. Source: Needpix   Considered the oldest continuously inhabited city in Europe, Plovdiv in Bulgaria has a history and prehistory that dates back 8,000 years. The original inhabitants are unknown, but from its beginning as a small town of hunter-gatherers, it saw enormous growth throughout the millennia, becoming home to the Thracians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Ottomans, and of course, the Bulgarians who live there today.   It is no wonder that Plovdiv forms an important part of the culture and history of the region. The city reveals clues to the early history of European peoples as well as the vicissitudes of the ever-changing quest for power from the ancient to the modern era.   Prehistory of Plovdiv A settlement mound near Plovdiv, Source: Visitplovdiv.com   On the banks of the Maritsa river in what would become the historical region of Thrace, a settlement began to take shape in the Neolithic Period around 8,000 years ago. Evidence for this is found in what is known as the “settlement mounds” in and around the city. These small hills contain rich layers of archeological evidence of habitation that stretch back into the Neolithic Era.   In several of these mounds, the remains of dwellings were found. These first houses were built upon stilts and had clay floors. The walls of these dwellings were also coated with thick clay plaster. Each house had a fireplace and was filled with a myriad of equipment for farming, fishing, cattle breeding, and hunting.   Like most European settlements during the Neolithic, wheat and barley formed the basis of agricultural efforts in early Plovdiv. Sheep, pigs, buffalo, and goats were all domesticated along with dogs. With such a varied choice of resources, this Neolithic settlement stood an excellent chance for growth and success.   The Maritsa River today bisects the modern city of Plovdiv, Source: Wikimedia Commons   Figurines depicting people and animals have been found in abundance. These items were made from various materials such as clay, bone, and even marble.   This early culture was known as the Karanovo culture and it extended throughout the area that is now Bulgaria. The people of the Karanovo culture were likely the ancestors of the Bronze and Iron Age Thracians.   The city of Plovdiv today includes a massive naturally fortified hill known as Nebet Tepe where evidence of habitation stretches back to 4,000 BCE. While relatively little is known about the early inhabitants, the site grew during the Iron Age to become a significantly powerful entity within the socio-political makeup of Thrace. It is believed that this fortification was a base of power for the local Bessi tribe.   Plovdiv During Antiquity Roman ruins in Plovdiv, photo by Adam Jones, Source: Wikimedia Commons   During the period of the Greco-Persian Wars, Plovdiv was part of the Persian Empire. From 516 BCE, it was incorporated into the empire of Darius the Great. Power fluctuated back and forth as Persia launched successive invasions of Greece. In 492 BCE, Thrace was subjugated under the Persian general Mardonius. It lasted as a vassal state until 479 BCE when the Persians withdrew after being comprehensively defeated by the Greeks.   Thereafter, Plovdiv formed part of an independent Thracian state known as the Odrysian Kingdom. This kingdom was conquered by Philip II of Macedon in 342 BCE, and Plovdiv came under Macedonian rule and was renamed Philippopolis. Over the next few centuries, Plovdiv (or Philippopolis) changed hands a number of times. Under Alexander the Great, a Thracian revolt led to the establishment of a semi-independent Odrysian Kingdom, a suzerain of Alexander’s empire. Macedonian power was gradually eroded, but before Thrace could exercise full control, a wave of Celtic invasions saw Philippopolis destroyed somewhere around the 270s BCE.   In 183 BCE, Philip V of Macedon conquered Philippopolis, but the city was taken back by the Thracians soon after. In 72 BCE, it was taken by the Romans but recaptured by the Thracians who kept control of it until 46 CE when Thrace was added to the Roman Empire. Philippopolis served as the capital of this province.   Philip II of Macedon, by Richard Mortel, Source: Britannica   Under Roman rule, Philippopolis experienced a golden age. It was an important trading hub, and attracted many immigrants, boosting the population and economy of the city. Huge public works were built across the city, including water works, city walls, and a sewerage system.   This period could not last forever, and the waning power of the Roman Empire gave the barbarian tribes on its borders the impetus to grab power for themselves. In 250 CE the city came under siege by the Goths. Unable to withstand the assault, Philippopolis capitulated and was sacked. Tens of thousands of the city’s inhabitants were slaughtered and many more fled.   After the Goths left, the Romans assumed control once again, and it would take a century before the city grew to the size it had been before the Gothic invasion. This hard work was undone again by the Huns under Attila in 441-442 CE and again by the Goths under the command of Theodoric Strabo in 471 CE. The Roman period came to an end with death and destruction for the city of Philippopolis.   The Middle Ages  A preserved medieval street in Plovdiv, photo by Dan Lundberg, Source: Wikimedia Commons   After the fall of the Roman Empire, other peoples and cultures moved in to fill the void that was left behind. In Thrace, that void was filled by Slavic tribes who moved in relatively peacefully. Inherited by the Byzantine Empire, Thrace formed a frontier province on the northern border and a buffer zone to Constantinople (now Istanbul).   In the 7th century, however, the Kingdom of Bulgaria was established and the frontier between the Slavic tribes and the Byzantines became the Balkan Mountain Range which runs horizontally through modern-day Bulgaria. The southern half contained Philippopolis, which became a vital fortress town near the edge of Byzantine control.   Throughout the centuries that followed, the city changed hands many times between the invading Bulgars and the Byzantines. In 970, it was also conquered by the Kievans under Prince Svetoslav I who sacked the city and had thousands of its inhabitants impaled. The city was soon recaptured by the Byzantines. This state of affairs lasted until the Third Crusade from 1189-1192. Holy Roman armies under the leadership of Frederick I Barbarossa took the city from the Byzantines and gave it to Bulgaria with whom the Holy Roman Empire had a political union.   Although the Byzantine Empire was Christian, it fell prey to the Crusaders who viewed the Orthodox Church as a heretical construct that existed in opposition to Catholicism. As such, it was targeted during the subsequent Fourth Crusade. Byzantium as well as the European lands of the empire were captured by the Crusaders at the beginning of the 13th century. These lands constituted the “Latin Empire” which was intended to replace the legitimacy of the Byzantine Empire as the rightful successor to the East Roman Empire.   The Byzantine Empire in 1025 with the location of Philippopolis/Plovdiv marked, original by Cplakidas, highlight by the author, Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Latin Empire was threatened not only by the remains of the Byzantine Empire to the west and to the east, but by the Bulgars to the north, and in the early 13th century, Philippopolis was captured by Tsar Kaloyan of Bulgaria, and handed to his successor Boril upon the death of Kaloyan in 1207. The Latins defeated Boril at the Battle of Philippopolis and returned control of the city to the Latin Empire. Philippopolis was then captured again by the Bulgars under Ivan Asen II before 1230. The ruins of Tsar Ivan Asen II’s fortress are still standing today, and constitute a tourist attraction ten miles southeast of the center of Plovdiv.   The fortress of Tsar Ivan Asen II, located in the town of Asenovgrad a short distance from the city of Plovdiv, Source: Needpix   When Constantinople was taken, the Byzantine empire fractured into three rump states in addition to the Latin Empire. The Empire of Nicaea was the largest of these states and existed to the east of the Latin Empire, further east, on the coast of the Black sea was the Empire of Trebizond. To the west of the Latin Empire in what is now northwestern Greece, was the Despotate of Epirus.   The Nicaeans under the rule of Emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes exterminated all hope of the Latin Empire returning control of Philippopolis when the Nicaeans waged war against the Latins, capturing vast swathes of former Byzantine land, including much of the lands of Epirus. Philoppolis was returned to Nicene/ Byzantine control during this conflict, and in 1261, Constantinople was recaptured and the Byzantine empire was restored.   From 1341 to 1347, the Byzantine Empire endured a civil war, and Bulgaria, on the side of the victors was awarded Philippopolis along with several other cities as payment for the services it provided in helping draw the conflict to a victorious end.   Transition to the Modern Era Aerial view of Plovdiv, by Irenè Lazarova, Source: Pexels   Around 1363, Philippopolis was captured by the Ottoman Empire and renamed Filibe. It remained under Ottoman rule for 500 years until the Russo-Turkish War of 1877 to 1878 when the city was captured by the Russians. Thereafter it became the capital of the region of Rumelia. Although under nominal Ottoman rule, Rumelia was for all intents and purposes, autonomous, and it joined the Bulgarian state in 1885.   During the time of Ottoman rule, Plovdiv/Filibe was a center of national pride for the Bulgarians, and its cultures and traditions were preserved. The influences on the people of Plovdiv, however, could not be ignored. The city attracted many immigrants from different cultures, including Jews, Roma, Vlachs, Armenians, Greeks, and Arvanites. It became a melting pot of culture, and the city was subject to major Hellenization and Turkification efforts.   In the end, however, Plovdiv became part of Bulgaria, and its status today is firmly as a Bulgarian city with no other claimants. Plovdiv also played a major part in the re-establishment of the Bulgarian Church, a vital pillar of the Bulgarian national revival.   By the end of the 19th century, Plovdiv was, and it remains today, Bulgaria’s second biggest city after the capital, Sofia. Food and tobacco were two industries that became highly developed in Plovdiv, and the city underwent a boom in construction during the communist era.   Plovdiv Today The Roman theater in Plovdiv which is still in use today, by Edal Anton Lefterov, Source: Wikimedia Commons   With successive waves of immigrants woven into the fabric of the city, people of Turkish, Greek, and many other foreign descent, now consider themselves Bulgarian, and those identifying as such in Plovdiv represent more than 80 percent of the population. Indeed, there is much for the inhabitants of this ancient city to be proud of.   Plovdiv is recognized as a major cultural center in Eastern Europe. It has 200 archeological sites with ancient ruins and buildings dotting the cityscape. Of particular note is the Roman theater which is still in use.   Medieval walls and towers still stand and are accompanied by old Ottoman baths and mosques. With many old buildings converted to museums and art galleries, the city is a paradise of culture, attracting tourists from all over the world.

  Best remembered by Americans for his role at the Alamo, there was much more to the life of Antonio López de Santa Anna than that singular event. He is one of the most colorful figures in Mexico’s past. He had a hand in Mexico’s fight for independence and the turbulent events that followed and played a role in the Texas Revolution, politics, and the Mexican-American War. From supreme power to exile, he ensured his legacy as one of Mexico’s most controversial figures.   1. His Provincial Upbringing Once Embarrassed Him Veracruz. Source: Get Your Guide.   Antonio López de Santa Anna was born February 21, 1794 in Veracruz, Mexico. His parents belonged to the middle class, known as criollos, people born in the “New World” to Spanish-born parents. He had some education and worked briefly as a merchant before he was appointed to serve in the infantry, which was described as a “good fit” for him. He worked his way up through the military and made a name for himself in politics. Originally, he fought against Mexican insurgents in their bid for independence from Spain, but later switched sides and joined the force that drove Spain from Mexico, declaring it a republic in 1823. Spanish rule was replaced by an extremely wealthy political elite, and Santa Anna felt out of place. Though he remained involved in politics, he often retreated back to Veracruz, feeling awkward among the entitled politicians. Ultimately these feelings passed, but Santa Anna’s focus on self-image hampered the progress of his political vision throughout his career.   2. He Was an “Absentee President” During His First Term Valentín Gómez Farías, Santa Anna’s first vice president. Source: SMGE Mexico.   Santa Anna was elected president for the first time in 1833. However, he declared that he had little interest in actually running the country and gave his vice president, Valentín Gómez Farías, free rein to rule in his stead. Gómez Farías was known as a liberal reformer, focused on rooting out government and military corruption, meaning he upset some powerful people. This eventually led Santa Anna to dismiss him and take a more active role.   3. He Was President How Many Times? Santa Anna in military regalia. Source: San Antonio Express-News   Santa Anna was politically active during an especially tumultuous time in Mexico’s history. As the colony fought for its independence and tried to navigate the path to becoming a successful, free country, it experienced years of political upheaval and turmoil. During this time, Santa Anna served as president for several non-consecutive terms, but the actual number of terms he served is unknown. Some scholars claim he was named president five times, while other sources indicate that he held the office a total of 11 times between 1833 and 1855.   4. He Was Known to Switch Sides A younger Santa Anna. Source: San Antonio Express   There is no doubt that Santa Anna was an intelligent man who knew that he had to play political games in order to stay in favor with powerful people and the public. As a result, he was known to switch sides in political matters, often without warning. This began in his military days when he switched from serving the Spanish to fighting on the side of the Mexican rebellion. He was also known to switch between liberal and conservative causes while in governmental roles. During the Mexican-American War, he made promises to American President James K. Polk in exchange for assistance returning to Mexico, then flipped and rallied Mexican forces. To this day, he is remembered as “vendepatria” (a sellout) by some Mexicans. However, some historians argue that he was not chronically disloyal but rather adept at predicting political shifts and following suit.   5. He Developed Immunity to Yellow Fever Yellow fever was a plague in North and Central America in the 18th and 19th centuries. Source: Stanford Medicine   Santa Anna’s status as a native of Veracruz gave him a secret power as a young military man. Many people who grew up and lived long-term in the coastal area developed a natural immunity to yellow fever. Santa Anna was one of these lucky individuals. Yellow fever, primarily spread by mosquitoes, was a disease that thrived in the region due to its wet environmental conditions. Foreigners were extremely susceptible to the ailment, and soldiers who arrived in Santa Anna’s home base, such as the Spanish he faced as he fought for Mexico’s independence, soon found themselves facing dual enemies of opposing soldiers and disease. Several key wins at Veracruz helped Santa Anna bolster his reputation and political status during his military tenure.   6. He Was Exiled Multiple Times The Surrender of Santa Anna painted by William Henry Huddle, 1886. Source: The Bullock Museum   Santa Anna found himself exiled from Mexico a number of times as the country underwent turbulent power struggles throughout the 19th century. On several occasions, when he was pushed out of leadership positions the new powers-that-be banished him to distant locations in the hopes of never seeing him again. These locales included Jamaica, Cuba, and Colombia. Usually, after a short time, the new leadership found itself on the outs and Santa Anna was able to maneuver his way back to Mexico. After his final exile to Cuba, it looked as if all hope was lost. However, in 1874, he was granted amnesty by sitting president Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada. He spent the final two years of his life in Mexico City writing his memoirs before dying at the age of 82 in 1876.   7. His Leg Received a Military Funeral Santa Anna’s prosthetic in its current location, Illinois State Military Museum. Lane Christiansen photo. Source: The Chicago Tribune.   While fighting the French in the Battle of Veracruz in 1838, one of the battles that catapulted him to superstar status and secured his (immediate) future as a political celebrity, Santa Anna was hit with a grapeshot blast from nearby cannon fire. The injury required his leg to be amputated below the knee. Afterward, he retrieved the mangled limb and took it to Mexico City in an elaborate procession, where it was given a state funeral. The service included speeches, poetry readings, and cannon salutes. Santa Anna was outfitted with a prosthetic made from wood and cork, which was later captured by the 4th Illinois Infantry after the Mexican army made a hasty retreat from the Battle of Cerro Gordo being fought against the US. The prosthetic currently resides at the Illinois State Military Museum.   8. He Didn’t Show Up to Either of His Weddings María Dolores Tosta, left, Santa Anna, and María Inés de la Paz García. Source: Infobae   Santa Anna was married twice in his lifetime, first to María Inés de la Paz García and after her death, to María Dolores Tosta. Both women were under 15 years of age at the time of the marriages, though this wasn’t unusual by Mexican standards of the time. However, Santa Anna didn’t bother to attend either of his weddings, instead having his future father-in-law stand in for him at his first wedding and a friend at the second. This supports the idea that these were weddings meant to secure social or political ties, with both women coming from very affluent families. Furthermore, he proposed to Tosta less than a month after Garcia’s death. He was a notorious womanizer and had numerous affairs, as well as multiple illegitimate children.   9. He Introduced Chewing Gum to the US A worker in Mexico harvesting sap from a sapodilla tree to make chicle. Nicola Okin Frioli photo. Source: El Pais.   During one of his exiles to Cuba, Santa Anna found himself low on funds and desperate to get back to Mexico. A Colombian revolutionary convinced him to come to New York where, for a price, he could help. It turned out to be a scam, and Santa Anna found himself alone and practically penniless on Staten Island. One thing he did have with him was a supply of chicle, the sap of the sapodilla tree, which he was fond of chewing. In an effort to raise money, he came up with the idea to turn chicle into a hot new product for the rubber industry. He worked with a local inventor named Thomas Adams to do so, but the duo failed, unable to get the chicle to vulcanize, or harden, properly to be useful as a rubber substitute. However, Adams had another idea—building on Santa Anna’s and other Mexican’s use of chicle and turning it into a chewing gum product.   A 1908 store ad for Chiclets gum. Source: Period Paper.   At that time in the United States, paraffin wax and spruce gum products were the only options available to confectioners, and neither provided a particularly pleasant chewing experience. Adams created a batch of flavorless chicle balls, which he put on sale in 1859, and almost immediately sold out. He went on to create the American Chicle Company, which is still in operation today, owned by Cadbury. It created products such as Chiclets and Dentyne Ice. Unfortunately, the success of chicle-based gum and competition from other companies that sprang up led to the overharvesting of chicle. The multi-billion dollar gum industry was forced to create an artificial gum base, which is used in the production of most chewing gums today.   10. He’s Featured in Sea Shanties Sea shanties were designed to help sailors pass time and add rhythm to their work in the days of tall sailing ships. Source: Historic UK   Santa Anna and tales of his exploits are featured in variations of sailor’s songs, called sea shanties. Most are versions of the same song, which has been called Santy Anna, Santiana, Santy Anno, and The Plains of Mexico, among others. The song refers to Santa Anna “gaining the day” in battle and has been sung by sailors for centuries and recorded on albums from 1945 to present. Though numerous variations exist, it is generally sung with the rhythm necessary to haul boats ashore or complete other sailing tasks, as was the purpose of these shanties. It was also rumored to be a favorite campfire song of cowboys in the American “wild west.”

  Hampton Court Palace has been a place of decadence and royal pastime since its beginning in the 16th century. Initially built by Cardinal Wolsey, it came into the possession of King Henry VIII, who turned it into a pleasure palace. Some of the most famous tapestries in the world are located here. They were created in Brussels to be sent to England and were commissioned by the King himself. They were made with gold, silver, and silk threads, depicting stories from the book of Genesis. The Abraham Tapestries of Hampton Court Palace continue to symbolize royal splendor.   10 Scenes From The Abraham Tapestries Oath and Departure of Eliezer by Pieter Coeck van Aelst, 1540-43. Source: The Royal Trust Collection   The Abraham Tapestries are a series created by the Flemish artist Pieter Coeck van Aelst and commissioned by King Henry VIII in the 16th century. Though faded by their 500 years of existence, they still have a glow that captures the hearts of visitors every year. The glow comes from their material, as the tapestries are woven with precious materials such as gold and silver. When Henry VIII commissioned the tapestries, he wanted to make an impression.   The series comprises ten scenes from the life of Abraham, as chronicled in Genesis 12-24. Scenes include the Departure of Abraham, The Separation of Abraham and Lot, the Meeting of Abraham and Melchizedek, God Appears to Abraham, the Circumcision of Isaac and the Expulsion of Hagar, the Return of Sarah, the Sacrifice of Isaac, the Purchase of the Field of Ephron, the Oath and Departure of Eliezer, and Eliezer and Rebecca at the Well.   What Do The Abraham Tapestries Look Like? Purchase of the Field of Ephron the Hittite by Pieter Coeck van Aelst, 1540-43. Source: The Royal Trust Collection   The tapestries each show the central scene in the middle of the tapestry, which takes up the majority of the space in the artwork, but around the sides, there is a border that shows various figures that relate to the story presented. In Purchase of the Field of Ephron the Hittite, for example, figures around the border include Lady Justice in the upper right corner (seen holding both scales and a sword to remind viewers that although she may administer justice, she may also take it away), Spes along the bottom of the border (the goddess of hope), or Hera in the upper left corner (the goddess of marriage and childbirth). At the top of each tapestry, a Latin inscription gives viewers a quick description of what is happening in the presented scene.   It is unclear whether or not these figures were chosen by King Henry VIII when he commissioned the artworks or if Pieter Coeck van Aelst chose the figures as the designer of the tapestries. Nevertheless, the figures hold symbolic meaning for the King, centering around his hope for a son and heir to the throne of England, for a continuation of the dynasty his father had created, and for justice against those who oppose his rule. Henry VIII had many reasons to fear people doubting his rule, especially after he broke from the Catholic Church. This was not a popular decision, and he faced rebellion in his kingdom after the dissolution of the monasteries. Asserting his rule and his son’s dynastic inheritance was necessary to remind people of his divine right to rule, given to him by God. Overall, there are over a hundred figures in the borders of the ten tapestries.   Who Designed the Abraham Tapestries? Portrait of the Artist Pieter Coeck van Aelst by Johannes Wierix, 1572. Source: The Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam   The Abraham Tapestries were designed by the Flemish artist Pieter Coeck van Aelst and woven in the workshop of Willem Pannemaker (also called Willem de Kempeneer), located in Brussels. The set located at Hampton Court Palace was not the only set created. There is evidence of two more identical sets being created for royal courts in Madrid and Vienna, both of which also survive into the present day. However, the set commissioned by Henry VIII is the only set that used precious materials in its makeup, leading art historians to believe that the English King was the original commissioner and that the other sets were less expensive copies. It was not uncommon for copies of tapestries to be made. An artist would design a cartoon to be made into a tapestry by creating a painting, a print, or some other form of artwork, and then that artwork would be made into a tapestry at a workshop.   Pieter Coeck van Aelst was a fascinating artist from Flanders. Growing up in Aelst, he made his way to Antwerp as an adult to make a living as an artist. Here, he married the daughter of a prominent artist, which brought him connections in the field. His career flourished quickly and he became highly prominent himself. He became well-acquainted with artists like Joos van Cleve and Pieter Bruegel the Elder. It is not surprising that Henry VIII commissioned an artist such as Coeck van Aelst to design his tapestries. The artist was often in Brussels working on cartoons that were meant to be made into tapestries or other forms of art. Unfortunately, in 1550, he and some of his family members would meet their end in Brussels, possibly from one of the epidemics or plagues in the area.   Why Did Henry VIII Commission the Tapestries? The Departure of Abraham by Pieter Coeck van Aelst, 1540-43. Source: The Royal Trust Collection   Henry VIII may have commissioned these tapestries to magnify his divine right to rule England. In 1537, he finally received his long-awaited son, the future Edward VI, from his third wife, Jane Seymour. Once he finally had his heir, Henry VIII sought to amplify his claim to the throne through magnificent artwork that would leave any viewer awed by the wealth of the display. The stories, too, would have served as a form of propaganda for the King.   The Departure of Abraham, for example, shows the moment when God appears to tell Abraham that he is to lead the Israelites into Canaan. Similarly, the King was called by God to lead England into the Protestant Reformation. It would have aided in restoring religious legitimacy to his reign amid a time of doubt and turmoil.   The Circumcision of Isaac and the Expulsion of Hagar by Pieter Coeck van Aelst, 1540-43. Source: The Royal Trust Collection   Another panel, titled The Circumcision of Isaac and the Expulsion of Hagar, would have enforced his son’s dynastic claims. Abraham’s wife, Sarah, could not conceive a child. In response, she asked Abraham to conceive a child with a woman named Hagar. Abraham and Hagar produced a son named Ishmael, but years later, when Sarah was visited by the Lord and was told she would give birth to a son, she asked God to expel Hagar and Ishmael out of fear for her son’s inheritance. Similarly, Henry VIII had to expel his previous wives to make way for his son and heir, Edward VI.   Henry VIII had a massive collection of tapestries, numbering over three hundred. Only thirty survive to the present day, ten of which are the Abraham tapestries. Their survival is a testament to their inspiring beauty, as tapestries made of precious materials were often broken down so that the gold and silk could be used to pay debts or other expenses as the tapestries became old-fashioned to later generations. The fact that these survived tells us how people appreciated them, even long after their creation.   Where Are the Tapestries Located? Hampton Court Palace. Source: Wikipedia   Since arriving at Hampton Court Palace in 1543, the tapestries have rarely been moved from their location. Initially, they would have been hung in the Great Hall, where they are situated today for viewing, but there were a few instances in which the tapestries were moved. For example, they were moved to Westminster Abbey for Queen Elizabeth I’s coronation. The move likely served a similar purpose as Henry VIII’s commission—to send a message about how the ruler was a religious leader. Just like Abraham led the Israelites, the English ruler would lead the English people to Protestant salvation.   The tapestries may also have been moved to Westminster Abbey for Stuart coronations, and there is evidence that they were used for the coronation of James II in 1685. William III also enjoyed the tapestries, having them moved into his private apartments in the late 17th century. The fact that he had 150-year-old tapestries in his private quarters shows their majestic effect on people. Most 150-year-old items would have been seen as incredibly old-fashioned, yet these tapestries remained a favorite.   Despite being in fantastic shape for their age, the Abraham Tapestries are incredibly fragile.   Restorations of the Abraham Tapestries The Sacrifice of Isaac by Pieter Coeck van Aelst, 1540-43. Source: The Royal Trust Collection   Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were fond of the tapestries and recognized that they needed restoration if they were to continue to survive. Queen Victoria hired women to restore the tapestries using needle and thread, and they were paid with a grant from Parliament. The women took over forty years to complete their work on all of the tapestries.   In 1912, George V continued his grandparents’ efforts by putting together committees that could be responsible for the restoration of the tapestries. The restoration occurred at Hampton Court Palace after professionals deemed moving them to another location too risky. Each tapestry took five years to complete, with the last one being finished in the 1960s. Despite their restorations, which helped stabilize the tapestries, they are still fragile and, therefore, remain in situ at Hampton Court Palace, behind a separating bar that prevents people from brushing up against them or touching them.   In 2006, one of the tapestries was selected for a PhD student’s dissertation, in which the tapestry had its backing removed to reveal the original colors. The visible sides of the tapestries have faded significantly over their 500 years, and removing the backing of the tapestry allowed those colors to be seen again for the first time in hundreds of years.   The Separation of Abraham and Lot by Pieter Coeck van Aelst, 1540-43. Source: The Royal Trust Collection   The tapestry was photographed thoroughly and recreated digitally. They used this digital version of the tapestry for a show at Hampton Court Palace in 2009, in which the original colors were projected onto the tapestry so that visitors could see what the tapestries would have looked like at the time of their arrival in England. It was a magnificent sight, but the show had to be strict with how often the light shone on the tapestry. The show occurred at a maximum of five times a day and for only six minutes at a time to keep the pigments in the fabric safe from further deterioration. During this exhibition, all ten tapestries could be seen at Hampton Court Palace.   The Abraham Tapestries have captivated viewers’ interest for hundreds of years since their creation. Created by Pieter Coeck van Aelst and commissioned by King Henry VIII of England to ensure his position as a divine ruler and Head of the Church of England, the Abraham Tapestries remain a symbol of the Tudor court. Created from precious materials such as golden thread and silk, they would have glowed with a nearly celestial light to the people who saw them in their glory. It is through careful research and preservation that these tapestries are still available to view today at Hampton Court Palace. Despite their fading, they are a sight to behold.