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  SUMMARY Hecate, a multifaceted Greek goddess, is associated with magic, witchcraft, the moon, and the night, and is often depicted as a triple-formed deity symbolizing the Maiden, Mother, and Crone. Her primary symbols include torches, keys, and dogs, reflecting her roles as a guide through darkness, a controller of boundaries, and a protector against evil. Worship of Hecate involved household offerings, rituals at crossroads, and significant cult centers in Caria, Eleusis, and Samothrace, highlighting her importance in both personal and public religious practices.   The goddess Hecate is one of the lesser-known goddesses of the Greek pantheon. Child of Perses and Asteria, she was the only Titan to retain her control under Zeus’ reign. Hecate’s powers transcended the boundaries of the sky, the earth, the seas, and the underworld. Although there are few myths about the goddess Hecate, her tales reveal a lot about her spheres of influence. During the Roman era, many of her attributes fell in the realm of the underworld. Yet, she also controlled elements that placed her firmly in the light. The goddess possessed extensive powers, which were later assimilated by other deities. Hecate could bestow wealth and blessings on her worshippers, yet she could also withhold these gifts if she were not adequately worshipped. This article will explore who Hecate was and what her attributes and symbols were.   The Origins of Hecate The Magic Circle, by John William Waterhouse, 1886. via Tate Galleries, London.   Classical scholars dispute the origins of Hecate’s worship in Ancient Greece. For many, the goddess’ worship has a pre-Greek origin, while for others, it originated in Thrace. Among the theories, the most popular is that Hecate was accepted into Greek religion from the Carians in Asia Minor. According to scholars, it is believed that the goddess came to Greece during the Archaic age. The presence of Hecatean worship in Caria is attested by the number of cult sites dedicated to the goddess. The most prominent of these was in Lagina. However, due to these Anatolian cult sites’ late dates, other classicists argue that an Anatolian origin is impossible for the goddess.   In the ancient sources, Hecate first appears in Hesiod’s Theogony in the 7th century BCE. Hesiod only mentions her parentage and role in the Gigantomachy, where she slew Clytius. However, she is conspicuously absent from the Homeric epics.   Hecate’s depiction in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter is perhaps her most well-known literary appearance. In the hymn, Hecate and the sun god, Hyperion, hear Persephone’s cries when Hades abducts her. After Demeter had searched for her daughter for nine days, Hecate came to her on the tenth with a torch in her hands.   The goddess told Demeter all she had heard but did not know who had taken her daughter. Once Persephone was reunited with Demeter, Hecate embraced the girl. She would become Persephone’s companion in the underworld when the girl returned to Hades each year. A standard iconographic reference to this myth is Hecate carrying a torch.   Hecate’s Divine Duties Hecate: Procession to a Witches’ Sabbath by Jusepe de Ribera, c. 15th century. Source: The Wellington Collection, London.   Hecate’s scope of divine duties was extensive in Ancient Greek religion. She was most notably the goddess of magic, witchcraft, the night, light, ghosts, necromancy, and the moon. Further, she was the goddess and protector of the oikos, and entranceways.   In her form as a triple-goddess, Hecate was strongly associated with the crossroads. She was portrayed as a liminal goddess who can cross from the underworld to the physical world with ease. Her liminality stemmed from her parentage and mythology, where she was able to move between her position as a Titan and a goddess. This liminality is attested to by her epithets and cult titles such as: Enodia (on the way), Trodia (frequenter of the crossroads) and Propylaia (of the gates).   By the first century CE, Hecate’s role as a goddess of magic and witchcraft was well established by Lucan’s Pharsalia. The witch, Erichtho, in the Pharsalia invokes Persephone as the lowest aspect of Hecate. It is in the Pharsalia, that we find the hag-like attributes given to Hecate.   Her retinue included the Lampades, or nymphs of the underworld, and ghosts. According to mythology, the Lampades were a gift from Zeus after her loyalty to him during the Titanomachy. The Lampades carry torches and accompany the goddess on her nocturnal travels.   Depictions of the Goddess Drawing of a Marble statue of Hecate Trimorph by Richard Cosway, 1768 – 1805. Source:  The British Museum, London.   Hecate was commonly depicted in Greek pottery in singular form wearing a long robe and holding burning torches in her hands. Pillars of the torch-bearing goddess called Hecataea stood at crossroads and doorways.  Later, Hecate’s most prevalent iconographic representation is as a triple-formed goddess with each form standing back-to-back looking at each direction of a crossroads.   Some of her statuary votive offerings included the addition of the Graces dancing around the goddess, such as in the image above. In other representations, she is accompanied by a pack of dogs. In his Description of Greece, Pausanias posits that Hecate’s triple-form representation was first depicted by the sculptor, Alcamenes in the 5th century BCE. He also states that a sculpture of the goddess called Hecate Epipurgidia (on the tower) was in Athens beside Wingless Victory’s temple on the Acropolis.   On the famous Pergamon Altar (c. 2nd century BCE) Hecate is represented as trimorphic, while attacking a serpent-like giant with a dog’s help. Throughout antiquity, Hecate’s triple form was portrayed as three separate bodies around a central column. Yet, in late antiquity, this representation transformed into a single goddess with three heads. Esoteric literature from this time describes Hecate as having three heads – that of a dog, a snake, and a horse. Hecate was also identified with many goddesses from surrounding pantheons.   Identification With Artemis The sending of Triptolemos. Red-figure hydria attributed to The Painter of London E183, c. 430 BCE. Source: The British Museum, London.   The name of Hecate or Ἑκατη means “worker from afar” from the Greek word hekatos. The masculine form Hekatos is a common epithet used for Apollo. According to scholars, this Apolline epithet links Hecate to Artemis, a goddess with similar spheres of influence. The goddesses were characterized in much the same fashion.   Both goddesses were generally portrayed as wearing hunting boots, carrying torches, and accompanied by dogs. They were often conflated to make a dual goddess, for example in Aeschylus’ Suppliants. In Aeschylus’ play, the two goddesses are called to as one by the chorus. This consolidation of the goddesses occurs again in Aristophanes’ Frogs (1358f), in which the character of Aeschylus invokes the goddesses.   Identification With Artemis-Selene The Night of Enitharmon’s Joy (formerly called ‘Hecate’), by William Blake. c.1795. Source: Tate Galleries, London.   In the Roman era, Hecate became amalgamated with the goddesses Artemis and Selene, particularly in Roman poetry. Apart from her combined triple form, she became known by her Roman name, Trivia. The Roman poets encouraged Hecate’s trimorphic depictions by calling her Hecate-Selene and similar variations. Seneca often refers to Hecate in conjunction with her lunar counterparts and even connects Medea to the goddess.   Identification With Iphigenia   Early ancient sources connected Hecate with Iphigenia, the daughter of Agamemnon. According to Pausanias, Hesiod stated that Iphigenia was not killed but rather became Hecate by the will of Artemis. In this identification, Hecate was sometimes associated with a goddess whom the Tauri worshipped as Iphigenia.   Hecate and Hermes   Hermes similarly occupied chthonic characteristics, and some ancient sources described Hecate as being the consort of this chthonic Hermes. Both Hecate and Hermes were gods of the dead and could transcend liminal spaces and boundaries between worlds. The connection between these two gods was first offered by the Roman poet Propertius in the first century BCE.   Hecate’s Sacred Animals Terracotta bell-krater, attributed to the Persephone Painter, c. 440 BCE. Source: MoMa, New York.   As previously mentioned, Hecate’s most sacred animal was the dog. In a description offered by Apollonius of Rhodes, Hecate’s presence is accompanied by the sound of dogs’ barks from the underworld.   Ancient authors, such as Ovid and Pausanias indicate that dogs – particularly black dogs – were sacrificed to the goddess. Scholars have also suggested that Hecate’s association with dogs points to her role as a goddess of birth. This is because dogs were also the sacred animals of other birth goddesses, such as Eileithyia and Genetyllis.   In later antiquity, Hecate’s dogs became associated with the restless souls of the dead who accompanied the goddess. The myth of Queen Hecuba’s metamorphosis into a dog is linked to the goddess Hecate. According to the legend, Odysseus received Hecuba as his captive after the fall of Troy. But the Trojan queen murdered a Thracian king on her voyage to Greece. As punishment, Hecuba was transformed into a black dog and became the companion of Hecate.   Another sacred animal of the goddess Hecate was the polecat or weasel. According to the myth told by Antonius Liberalis, Alcmena’s midwife Galinthias had deceived the gods during the birth of Heracles. While seeing Alcmena in labor pains, Galinthias went to the goddess of childbirth, Eileithyia, and the Fates – who prolonged the labor as a favor for Hera – told them the child had been born. In retribution for deceiving the gods, Galinthias was transformed into a polecat. Hecate pitied her transformation and appointed Galinthias as her servant and companion.   Worship of the Goddess Hecate Marble statuette of triple-bodied Hecate and the three Graces, 1st–2nd century CE. Source: MoMa, New York.   The cult of the goddess in mainland Greece was not as popular as the worship of other Olympians. The goddess had few dedicated temples throughout the ancient world. Smaller household shrines for Hecate were commonplace in the ancient world. These smaller shrines were erected to ward off evil and protect the individual from witchcraft. In Greece, Hecate’s most prominent cult centers were in Caria, Eleusis, and the island of Samothrace.   In Samothrace, the goddess was worshipped as a goddess of the Mysteries. Evidence of her worship has likewise been discovered in Thessaly, Thrace, Colophon, and Athens. The latter two cities bear evidence of sacrifices of dogs in the goddess’ honor. Pausanias offers that Hecate was the goddess most worshipped by the people of Aegina who believed that Orpheus established the rites of the goddess on their island. Pausanias also describes a wooden image of Hecate located in the Aeginetan temple.   Hecate Trimorph Pendent, Late Roman c.4th century. Source: the British Museum   Although Hecate does not have a Homeric Hymn in her honor, she has several Orphic Hymns. In fact, the collection of Orphic Hymns opens with a hymn dedicated to the goddess. This is significant because of her role as a goddess of entry-ways.  The Orphic Hymn to Hecate reveals a lot about her spheres of influence as perceived by the Orphics. In their mysteries, she was the goddess of roads and the crossroads, and invoked as such.   Most notably, she is also called the goddess of the dead, who presides over deserted places. In this hymn, her sacred animals include deer, dogs, and wild predators. She is described as the herder of bulls and a nurturer of youths, as well. The hymn beseeches the goddess to come to the holy rites in a favorable mood with a happy heart.   The goddess Hecate proves to be more interesting the more we learn about her. Her position as a liminal figure and a goddess of roads and entryways illuminates her position as a protector. Yet her role as a nocturnal goddess of magic and witchcraft reveals a darker side. Hecate is a multi-faceted figure deserving the same attention level as the more popular deities from the Greek pantheon.   FAQs Who was Hecate in Greek mythology? Hecate is a goddess in Greek mythology known for her association with magic, witchcraft, the night, and the moon. She was unique among the Titans as she retained her power under Zeus and could traverse the realms of the heavens, earth, and the underworld. Hecate is often depicted as a triple-formed goddess, symbolizing her role in different aspects of life and magic.   What are the symbols and attributes of Hecate? Hecate’s primary symbols include torches, keys, and dogs. She is frequently depicted holding torches, which symbolize her role as a guide through darkness and the underworld. Dogs are sacred to her, often appearing as her companions. As a goddess of boundaries, keys represent her control over the crossing points between the physical and spiritual worlds.   How was Hecate worshipped in ancient Greece? Worship of Hecate varied, with significant cult centers in Caria, Eleusis, and Samothrace. She was honored with offerings at household shrines to protect homes from evil and witchcraft. Her followers performed rituals at crossroads, a symbol of her liminal nature. Despite her few dedicated temples, Hecate was invoked in various mysteries and rites, reflecting her complex role in Greek religion.

  Germany’s more recent history obviously plays a significant role in shaping this list. It was, after all, immensely impactful to the entire world. With that being said, key dates on the nation’s historical timeline didn’t begin in 1914. The European country had played host to Roman emperors, the Thirty-Years’ War, and the Battle of the Nations, all before our planet had even made it to the 20th century. Germany is steeped in history, and subsequently, there are many landmarks to corroborate this. Here are the seven we deem to be the most substantial.   7. Luther Memorials Photograph by Immanuel Giel   The noble monk situated centrally on the highest pedestal in the above photo is Martin Luther. This monument stands tall in Worms. He’s also highly appreciated in the town of Wittenberg, where another statue of him can be found. In 1517, Luther published a document entitled “Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences.” This thesis had a massive impact on how society viewed the teachings of the church and, in the view of many, started the Protestant Reformation.   Luther had taken exception to the idea that a person should essentially pay the church money to buy forgiveness from God and believed that salvation wasn’t something that could merely be purchased or sold by humans. Luther was exiled for his disruptions but didn’t waver in his views and protests. After determining that the only source considered viable when practicing Christianity was the Bible, he opted to spend his time in hiding, translating the Holy Scriptures to enable more people the opportunity to read them.   6. Cologne Cathedral Photograph by CEphoto, Uwe Aranas   In 1248, construction began on Cologne Cathedral, and in 1880, the project was completed. Don’t worry; you didn’t misread those dates. Cologne Cathedral, or Kölner Dom as the locals call it, did indeed take a staggering 632 years to build. This is partially because cathedrals typically demand a meticulous, complex design and partially because there was an awful lot of fighting occurring across Europe. The project was stalled by both the Thirty Years’ War and the French Revolution. The French even transformed the space into a stable for their horses between 1794 and 1814 when they occupied Cologne.   Despite the many delays and excessive wait, Cologne Cathedral was generally considered a masterpiece when finished. It stands at 157 meters tall, which, at the time, made it the tallest structure in the world. To this day, it remains the largest Gothic church in northern Europe and was officially declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996. The building was bombed in World War II, and as a consequence, much of the interior varies in age. The choir stalls situated behind the altar, for instance, were carved in the early stages of the 14th century, while the bronze altar that stands before them is only around 60 years old. There’s also a fabulous gold shrine dedicated to the Three Kings on display.   5. The Trier Imperial Baths Source: Flickr, Photograph by Glass Angel   There was a period of time when the Romans were rather keen on inserting their dominance and marking their territory whenever they liked the look of a new location, and Trier in Western Germany was a city to which both Emperor Maximianus and Constantine the Great took a particular shine. In fact, the area was eventually transformed to such an extent that it was generally referred to as “Second Rome.” Constantine the Great was particularly enamored with Trier… until he wasn’t. He would eventually turn his attention to Constantinople, leaving many of the projects he’d been working on in the German city unfinished, including the Trier Imperial Baths.   Public bathing was, of course, a huge aspect of Ancient Roman culture. However, Flavius Gratianus, the next emperor to be placed in charge of the project, determined the grounds would be of better use if they served as a barrack for his soldiers and their horses. Since then, the monument has also been converted into a monastery, a castle, and a city wall. The site is a monumental part of European history and certainly worth visiting, especially considering the magnitude of work required to construct the landmark. These baths were created for the benefit of 80,000 people and are believed to be the largest of their kind outside of Rome.   4. The East Side Gallery  Photograph by Guy Percival   From August 13, 1961 to November 9, 1989, Berlin was a capital divided not just politically but also physically. Due to the division of Germany that had followed World War II, the Berlin Wall, which was 96 miles in length and 13 feet in height, had been inserted to block all movement between the two sections of Germany. The West was functioning by democratic laws, and the East was within the Soviet Union’s sphere of influence. Many East Germans saw a brighter future in the West, which didn’t sit well with the communist government of East Germany, who retaliated by closing the borders to prevent any further travel.   Berlin Wall’s East Side Gallery. Source: Shutterstock   In 1989, the announcement came that the gates at the wall had been opened, enabling all locals to pass through freely. More than two million people from both sides of the border were quick to gather at the wall and joyously celebrate the news. Soon enough, the jubilant crowds began dismantling the wall.   Alongside the Spree River, 1.3 kilometers of the wall had remained intact. This prompted talented artists from all quarters to make their way to Berlin to add color, character, and life to the once-dreary wall. This resulted in the beautiful East Side Gallery, the longest permanent open-air art gallery in the world!   3. Monument to the Battle of the Nations Photograph by Toby 87   Prior to World War I, the Battle of the Nations was the largest war in European history. The monumental battle took place in Leipzig in 1813 and saw the Sixth Coalition, a team largely made up of Austrian, Russian, Prussian, and Swedish soldiers, defeat a French army led by Napoleon. The loss was extremely damaging to Napoleon’s reputation and ultimately led to his downfall. The battle, which lasted four days, resulted in over 100,000 casualties. Sadly, further tragedy was on the horizon, too. Ensuing the war, a vicious typhus outbreak spread across Leipzig and killed 10% of the city’s population.   In 1913, exactly 100 years after this hugely significant historical war, a stunning monument was built in Leipzig as a memorial to those who lost their lives as a consequence of this famous battle. A carefully crafted towering Saint Michael stands valiantly and stern-faced at the entrance. Once inside the landmark, you’re greeted by an outer circle of mournful, downward-looking statues of soldiers, while the hypnotic, domed ceiling displays rings of mighty soldiers on horses. The Monument to the Battle of the Nations (Völkerschlachtdenkmal in German) is brimming with powerful imagery, and it’s a landmark highly recommended to any history buff to visit should the opportunity arise.   2. Brandenburg Gate Photograph by Guy Percival   Much like the East Side Gallery, Brandenburg Gate also had a monumental role in Germany’s recent divided period and now serves as an iconic landmark where people gather around to celebrate the reunification of the two sides of the country. Since the Brandenburg Gate happened to be situated between East and West Germany, it automatically became a part of the Berlin Wall. During this period, residents on both sides were no longer permitted access to the monument. Therefore, when the Berlin Wall eventually collapsed, the Brandenburg Gate became a symbol of freedom, with over 100,000 people turning up to watch the gate’s official reopening.   The gate was constructed between 1788 and 1791 and designed to replicate Propylaea in Athens. Situated centrally at the top of the gate is “Quadriga,” a courageous statue of a goddess riding a chariot with the aid of four horses. However, this iconic statue hasn’t always remained at the top of the Brandenburg Gate. In the heat of battle, Napoleon ordered his soldiers to capture the statue and take it back to Paris to display as a trophy of sorts. The Prussian army would later retrieve the monument before returning it to Germany and, subsequently, the top of the Brandenburg Gate, where it’s remained ever since.   1. Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe Source: Foundation Memorial   Six million Jewish people were murdered in the Holocaust. Almost 80 years have passed since the infamous genocide occurred, and this shockingly devastating, callous act of cruelty still remains both impossible to fathom and traumatically heartbreaking. There was an outcry for a respectful landmark to be installed in the country’s capital in the 1980s, a demand the government agreed was necessary. However, they necessitated a lengthy period to establish the specifics of a design worthy of acknowledging such a sensitive topic. In 1999, the German parliament finally announced its intentions to create a memorial site commemorating those who tragically fell victim to the Holocaust.   Peter Eisenman, an architect from New York, was assigned the task of creating a tribute that could be deemed touching and poignant. Eisenman was provided an area of 19,000 square feet, which he filled with 2,711 concrete slabs of varying heights. He left pathways between each slab, enabling visitors to walk around the landmark at their own pace. The project was finished and opened to the public in 2005. There’s also an information center beneath the memorial, which is divided into four rooms and exhibits victims’ biographies, diary entries, and farewell letters.

  The mid-1930s marked the year Great Britain upped its re-armament game. Hermann Goering’s Luftwaffe no longer remained a secret with sleek bombers and fighters. The “bomber always gets through” concept dominated all theories that fleets of bombers could wreak destruction at long distances. The Wellington Bomber’s existence resulted from that. Designed by Barnes Wallis, Vickers built two prototypes, the second with modifications learned from the first.   A Unique Construction Geodetic construction Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Wellington had a secret that only a few in Britain’s Air Ministry or Vickers knew: geodetic construction. Designed by Sir Barnes Wallis, the parts of this basket-weave structure each carried part of the weight. If one part got damaged, the remaining pieces spread the weight around, retaining the frame’s integrity. Most aircraft were built of different pieces, so much damage is not good. The Wellington’s aluminum and steel frame’s ability to absorb damage yet keep flying became legendary.    One of Three Handley Page HP-52 Hampden TB Mk.   Not one to put their eggs in one basket, the Air Ministry ordered three “heavy” bombers into production in the late 1930s. The other two are Handley Page Hamden and Armstrong Whitworth Whitley. Each’s role differed slightly – the Hampden being the fast bomber, the Whitely the heavyweight with a 4-ton bomb load, and the Wellington’s 2,800-mile range in the middle. The fabric-covered Wellington carried a 2 ½ ton bombload, six machine guns, and a crew of six.    Only the Wellington would remain in service past 1945. The others long obsolescent were gone by 1943. Vickers manufactured 11,400 Wellingtons, more than any British bomber. Their RAF service ended in 1953, seventeen years after its first test flight.    A Theory Disproven Wellington designer Sir Barnes Wallis Source: San Diego Air and Space Museum   1940 debunked the 1930s theory that “the bomber will always get through” when flying in formation. The RAF, or Royal Air Force, had several costly lessons that proved different. On December 18, 1939, three Wellington squadrons attacked German shipping off Wilhelmshaven, twenty-four planes in total. About forty Luftwaffe fighters intercepted the British bombers, shooting down twelve. Three more crashed on the return home for a fifty percent loss.    The RAF turned to night raids after several such raids in 1940. German interceptors overwhelmed unescorted bombers despite any plane defenses or formations. The Luftwaffe’s education would come later in 1940 during another epic battle. The Wellington was nicknamed Wimpy because it resembled the Popeye cartoon character J. Wellington Wimpy was kept on through 1941 and 1942 as the RAF’s primary bomber. The first 1,000-plane raid against Cologne in 1942 flew with 700 Wellingtons. Not bad for a plane from the mid-1930s that soon would be phased out. The more famous Avro Lancaster took on this big role.   Versatility Was the Key Wellington Versions Source: Emoscopes   The Wellington’s hard-won bomber reputation cannot be denied, but in war, nothing stays constant. By late 1942, hitting back against Nazi Germany required bigger bombers like the four-engine Lancaster, Stirlings and Halifaxes. The Wellington’s last night raid in Europe occurred in 1943.   But, the Wimpy’s versatility could not be denied. Continual armament and engine upgrades made the Wellington more reliable. Replaced as a bomber, the Wellington slid easily into other roles. Britain’s RAF Coastal Command used Wellingtons to hunt German U-boats with depth charges, searchlights, and flares. The stiff radar masts atop the Wellington’s back easily distinguished the anti-submarine models.   Other unsung roles the Wellington took were transport and mine detection. In the latter role, the Wimpy carried a car engine powering an aluminum magnetic ring around the plane. The magnetic waves would detonate the mines at a safe distance from Wellington. Vickers specifically built trainer version Wellingtons besides bombers. These planes trained Lancaster and Halifax crews.   The most unusual and groundbreaking Wellington role came in early warning detection. Late in 1944, the Luftwaffe used HE-111s to launch V1 flying bombs at Britain. Luftwaffe bombers would climb from sea level to launch. Detected by the airborne radar carrying Wellingtons, operators would vector in fighters to shoot down the bombers and buzz bombs. Like many classic war planes, the Wimpy came in no less than sixteen versions, including two trainer-specific ones post-war.   Long Live the Wimpy Vickers Wellingtons of 9 Squadron in flight during 1938   Whether at the cold high altitude in Europe, Malta, or tropical India, the Wellington served. The Wellington, considered high-tech in 1938, displayed its vulnerability quickly. As a night bomber, it did well until more capable planes arrived. But, it served. Perhaps the Wellington’s strength lay in doing many jobs with little fanfare.

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