from InfoWars: … Using The Power Of Mass Pardons For US Citizens Convicted Of Nonviolent Felonies! Rock Legend Ted Nugent Joins Alex Jones to respond to the Trump administration’s historic & revolutionary 2nd Amendment developments: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/ Read More @ InfoWars.com

by Ed Brodow, American Thinker: Voters in 2024 gave Trump a mandate to execute his agenda. At the top of that agenda is the deportation of millions of people who entered the country illegally but were enabled by what amounted to treason by the Biden administration. Many of these illegal aliens present significant threats to […]

from Health Ranger Report:  TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

  Pope Urban II (1088-1099) was a key figure in the process of initiating the First Crusade by calling upon the Christian world to gather together in the name of God and defend the Christian faith against the “non-believers” who had control over the Holy Land and the Holy City, Jerusalem. The First Crusade lasted from 1096 to 1099, ultimately leading to the formation of Crusade states and Christian control of Jerusalem. This article will explore the conditions leading to the First Crusade, its main objectives, legacy, and consequences.   The Holy Land Before the First Crusade St. Anselme Before Pope Urban II, photograph by Thesupermat, July 25, 2013. Source: Wikimedia Commons/St. Corentin Cathedral in Quimper, Finistère, Brittany, France   When we talk about the Holy Land, we refer to Jerusalem, Palestine, and the surrounding territories. This land has a turbulent past, and it was controlled by various rulers, including the Byzantine Empire, the Rashidun Caliphate, the Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Seljuk Turks.   Between the 4th and 7th centuries, Jerusalem was part of the Byzantine Empire. Emperor Theodosius I (347-395) proclaimed the city one of the leading centers of Christianity and made the Christian faith the empire’s official religion. In 614, the Sasanian Empire attacked and conquered Jerusalem; however, the Byzantine Empire recaptured the city again in 628.   After being conquered by the Sasanian Empire, however, the city and the surrounding region were never the same again. The Byzantine power and influence weakened, and the city was captured again in 637 by Caliph ‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb from the Muslim Rashidun Caliphate. During ‘Umar I’s reign, Jerusalem had religious autonomy as long as it paid taxes to the caliphate, meaning the Christian and Jewish people could openly practice their religions and live in peace.   Afterward, the Umayyads controlled the region from 661 to 750 and the Abbasids from 750 to 969. During the reign of the Fatimid caliphs of Egypt (969-1070), the situation for Christians and Jews became more complicated as they were prosecuted and faced dangerous circumstances.   The Seljuk Turks captured Jerusalem in 1073. Two years earlier, in 1071, they faced the Byzantine Empire and defeated Emperor Romanus IV Diogenes in the Battle of Manzikert (present-day Malazgirt, Türkiye). It was then that the Byzantine Empire asked the rest of the Christian world for help defending the empire and the Holy Land.   Pope Urban II and the Call for the Holy War Pope Urban II preaching at the Council of Clermont, by Jean Colombe, c. 1474. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Gallica/Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris   Pope Urban II was the​​ head of the Roman Catholic Church at this pivotal time in medieval history. He had political and religious ambitions and saw the Byzantine Empire’s call for help as an opportunity to restore papal supremacy and authority over Christian people, not only in Western and Southern Europe but also in Byzantine territories. Indeed, supporting the Byzantine emperor could strengthen the bond between the Western and Eastern churches after the Great Schism, the 1054 split caused by a series of theological differences and political reasons.   The pope organized the Council of Clermont in 1095, exhorting Christian rulers to rescue Jerusalem from the Turks and defend Christianity against the “non-believers.” Pope Urban II rallied them based on moral duty and highlighted Jerusalem’s importance. The pope also promised eternal salvation and the forgiveness of sins for all those who joined the Holy War and went to the Holy Land to defend Christianity.   The pope’s call was enthusiastically received. Monarchs and nobles wanted eternal salvation, of course. However, they also saw the possibility of getting wealthier, as war usually included a fair share of pillaging and sacking. Younger sons of aristocratic families also saw the crusade as an opportunity to gain wealth and glory.   Pope Urban II’s message spread across Christian Europe, reaching different social levels. Nobles, knights, and common people took up arms and started their journey to the Holy Land to defend Christianity and receive eternal salvation. Due to strong messaging and the promise of salvation, in 1906 there was also the so-called People’s Crusade led by the preacher Peter the Hermit. It was composed of minor nobility, knights, peasants, and poor people. Most of them were annihilated by the Turks before reaching Jerusalem.   Traveling to the Holy Land Pope Urban II, by anonymous, 14th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Traveling to the Holy Land was complicated at the time. Indeed, at the beginning of the First Crusade, the Crusaders had to cross an incredibly long distance, all the way to Byzantium and the Levant. Traveling and moving during medieval times was challenging, especially with all the supplies and weaponry the Crusaders had with them. During their travel, they faced bad weather and terrain conditions, diseases and illnesses, starvation, and conflicts with locals in the territories they were crossing.   When traveling to the Holy Land, the Crusading forces took two main routes: the overland and maritime routes. The former was the most used, and it led the Crusaders through France, the Holy Roman Empire, the Italian peninsula, and the Balkans, arriving directly by foot in the Byzantine Empire. Some of the most famous leaders of the First Crusade were Godfrey of Bouillon, Baldwin of Boulogne, Raymond IV of Toulouse, and Robert of Normandy. The travel was harsh and lasted months, claiming many Crusaders’ lives even before they reached the Holy Land.   The Crusaders Cross the Bosphorus, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Some Crusaders opted to use the maritime (and more expensive) route to reach Jerusalem. In particular, contingents from France and Italy traveled by boat since the Mediterranean Sea was the fastest way to reach the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Land.   In addition to enduring difficult weather and terrain in the Balkans and Anatolia, the Crusaders struggled with a lack of vital supplies, such as food. Hungry and exhausted, they often looted the territories they crossed.   After reaching Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, the Crusading soldiers clashed with the local population because of their pillaging habits. The Byzantine emperor faced a difficult situation; the people who were supposed to help him fight the Seljuk Turks were instead busy committing crimes and destroying his lands. He made sure to transport them to Anatolia as soon as possible.   The First Crusade’s Main Conquests and Battles Siège de Nicée, by anonymous, 1337. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Gallica Digital Library   During the Holy War, the Crusaders had different targets and objectives. The first was Nicaea, the capital of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. Together with the Byzantine emperor’s forces, the Crusading soldiers managed to cut off the city from its primary resources and supplies. The Seljuk Turks were driven to desperation and surrendered the city to the Byzantine Empire on June 19, 1097.   The next famous stop was Antioch, one of the most important cities under the control of the Seljuk Turks. The Crusaders launched a long siege of the city that lasted multiple months and required extensive resources and military strategy.   According to historical sources, the city fell due to the betrayal of the Armenian guard, who opened the city gates to the Crusaders. The hungry and angry soldiers started storming and pillaging the city, causing much devastation to its inhabitants. The Crusading forces entered the city on June 3, 1098, but a couple of days later, they were attacked by a Muslim army. However, they launched a counterattack, defeated the enemy forces, and claimed Antioch.   Varqa fighting on horseback, by anonymous, 13th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The following conquest, and the most important one, was the Holy City itself, Jerusalem. Jerusalem, at that point, was under the control of the Fatimid Caliphate. The Crusading forces started the siege in June 1099, and the city finally fell on June 15, 1099. Just like in Antioch, the soldiers started pillaging the city, killing many civilians, and stealing everything they wanted. According to historical chroniclers, Jerusalem was ruined, and so many people were murdered that blood was running down its streets.   The Legacy of the First Crusade Baldwin of Boulogne entering Edessa in February 1098, by Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury, 1840. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The legacy of the First Crusade is complicated, and it shaped political and religious relations across continents and countries. One of the most consequential results of the Holy War was the creation of the Crusader states: the Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099-1291), the Principality of Antioch (1098-1268), the County of Edessa (1098-1144), and the County of Tripoli (1109-1289). These new territories were highly vulnerable and saw constant conflict. They also led to other crusades.   Another consequence of the First Crusade was the worsened relations between Christians and Muslims. Crusaders were extremely brutal while pillaging the cities and territories where Muslims peacefully coexisted with other religious groups.   Some writers and chroniclers, like Ibn al-Athir, described the devastating brutality and massacres of the Crusading forces in Jerusalem, killing Muslim and Jewish people without hesitation and mercy. The behavior of the Crusaders and the formation of the Crusader states brought Muslim people together and ultimately led to the fall of the Crusaders-controlled territories.   The Guiding Creed, by Ibn Tumart, March 8, 2011. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Pope Urban II increased papal influence by calling for the Holy War. The Catholic Church broadened its authority and received a lot of land and gold from monarchs and nobles who answered the pope’s call. At the same time, the behavior of the Crusaders and the papacy worsened relations between the Eastern and Western churches. The pope’s intention to spread his influence in Byzantine territories in the Middle East also played a role in exacerbating the situation.   The First Crusade left an everlasting impact on religious relations and politics. The newly formed Crusade states did bring a European presence to the Holy Land. However, this caused more religious conflicts and accelerated the weakening of medieval empires such as Byzantium.

  In the early modern period, it was not rare for the ruler to claim the divine right to rule and to proclaim himself above the earthly laws. Absolute monarchy was one of the common political systems and had a lot of sympathizers not only among the rulers and kings but also among political scholars such as Thomas Hobbes. Eventually, people started to protest the abuse of power and demanded democratic reforms and institutions. This article will delve into what absolute monarchy represents and what is a political power without restraints.   What Is Absolute Monarchy? Portrait of Peter I, attributed to Jean-Marc Nattier, 1717. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg   Absolute monarchy is a form of political government in which the monarch has absolute authority and is not bound by the limitations of laws, a constitution, or any other political institution. This absolutist political system originated in early modern Europe, when the new nation-states replaced the old medieval order.   Some of the main characteristics of absolute monarchy are complete authority and sovereignty. In this system, the monarch has absolute authority, and his government is centralized. Even though certain institutions can exist, they have no authority over the monarch, whose power is not checked or balanced by any other agency. Since absolute monarchs were ruling alone, they needed to establish a complex bureaucracy so they could control the whole state, even the territories far from their residence and the capital city.   The frontispiece of the book Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes, engraving by Abraham Bosse, 1651. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Absolute monarchy had supporters in some of the most prolific political minds and philosophers of the early modern period, such as Jean Bodin (1530-1596) and Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). Jean Bodin is considered one of the first political theorists to write about sovereignty as a concept. He wrote about the characteristics and importance of the absolute monarchy in his famous work Six Books of the Republic (1576). Bodin was a proponent of absolute monarchy and monarchs having absolute authority. He defended the idea that rulers must have supreme power over their subjects and the state. When challenged, some absolute monarchs referred to Bodin’s theories to defend their right to rule.   Another famous political thinker who defended absolute monarchy was Thomas Hobbes. In his famous work Leviathan (1651), he argued the monarch had to have absolute power since it was the best way to prevent civil wars and keep civil society. According to Hobbes, the opposite state of civil society was the so-called State of Nature, where people lived in chaos and were constantly in danger.   Political Institutions in the Absolute Monarchy Thomas Hobbes, by John Michael Wright, c. 1669-1670. Source: Wikimedia Commons/National Portrait Gallery, London   The monarch is the first and most important political institution in absolute monarchy. His powers extend to the legislative, judicial, and executive branches—an absolute monarch answers to no one. Unlike feudal monarchs, the absolute ruler did not share his authority and power with the nobles and aristocrats.   The second important political institution in an absolute monarchy is bureaucracy and administration. They were tools for the absolute monarch to rule his territories. The monarch and his advisors would appoint governors and officials to assist him with various matters, including tax collection, law administration, and keeping order in the kingdom. As the Age of Exploration led to the first wave of colonialism, absolute monarchs began to appoint governors in the newly colonized lands. Absolute monarchs also created a sound legal system to ensure their will and laws were obeyed.   Additionally, absolute rulers had to rely on strong military support. They often kept a professional army to help them keep their authority, peace, and control over their territories. To have such an army, the absolute monarch often introduced an extensive taxation system.   Absolute monarchy also established a state-managed economic system. During the early modern period, an economic policy known as mercantilism promoted the establishment of trade barriers and colonial domination to achieve national power and glory. Mercantilism played a key role in sustaining absolutism in early modern Europe, allowing rulers to consolidate and finance their power.   The Theological Aspect of the Divine Rights of Kings King Charles I, by anonymous, late 17th/early 18th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons/National Portrait Gallery, London   Absolute monarchs defended their right to unchecked power by claiming that it came directly from God. The concept of divine right was based on the idea that the ruler was the representative of God on earth to guide his subjects. According to divine right, defying the monarch was sinful and against the Christian faith. This kind of theological and political doctrine was extremely popular in the Middle Ages and lasted until the Enlightenment, when the idea of individual liberty was born.   The Catholic Church initially supported the theory of the divine right of kings. However, the temporal rulers’ authority started clashing with the papacy’s power and interests over time. Popes also claimed to have a so-called papal supremacy over the Christian world. Thus, the idea of having supreme power based on divine right became a complicated issue, especially as monarchs started challenging papal power and establishing national churches. The most famous conflict between the pope and a temporal monarch occurred when King Henry VIII established the Anglican Church while keeping his divine right to rule over his subjects.   Some of the most famous theologians, such as St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and Jean Bodin, wrote about the divine right of kings. Their works would often be referenced whenever rulers had to defend their divine right to rule.   The Decline of Absolute Monarchy Storming of the Bastille and arrest of Governor M. de Launay, by anonymous, July 14, 1789. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Museum of the History of France, Palace of Versailles   The system of absolute monarchy started to decline with the rise and spread of Enlightenment ideas. Many factors contributed to this process, such as economic and social ones. People began developing ideas of democracy and individual rights. The birth of constitutionalism and the concept of limiting the monarch’s powers were extremely influential, with many arguing that rulers should be held accountable and obey laws just like any other man. The concept of constitutional monarchy was explored and finally realized in England in 1689 with the Bill of Rights, which limited the king’s unchecked power, making Parliament one of the key institutions in the kingdom.   Another significant factor in the decline of absolute monarchy was the fact that some of the most influential political minds started challenging the absolute rights of monarchs. John Locke, for example, promoted the idea that the government was responsible for protecting its citizens, their liberty, and their rights to have property. Another famous Enlightenment philosopher who left a significant mark on the birth of democracy and modern philosophy was Montesquieu. He argued for the separation of powers and against any kind of abuse.   Enlightenment ideas were extremely influential in the upcoming revolutions and the abolition of the absolute monarchy. Indeed, enlightenment thinkers and ideologies were prominent during the French Revolution (1789-1799) and the American Revolution (1775-1783). Both events permanently changed the political landscape and people’s view of absolute rulers.   Who Were the Most Powerful Absolute Monarchs? Portrait of Louis XIV, by Hyacinthe Rigaud, c. 1700/1701. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Louvre Museum, Paris   Some of Europe’s most influential absolute monarchs left an everlasting impact on world history. They are known not only for their absolute political power but also for building vast empires, military conquest, and strong leadership. Undoubtedly, some of the most powerful absolute monarchs were Philip II of Spain (1556-1598), Louis XIV of France (1643-1715), Peter the Great of Russia (1682-1725), and Catherine the Great of Russia (1762-1796).   Portrait of Philip II of Spain, by Sofonisba Anguissola, 1565. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Museo del Prado, Madrid   Philip II of Spain was known as the protector and defender of catholicism. He ruled the largest empire of the 16th century that spread across Spain, Portugal, the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Sicily, the Duchy of Milan, Sardinia, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and the Spanish colonies in America. Philip II intensified colonial expansion and accumulated a lot of gold and silver from his American colonies. During the religious conflicts between Protestants and Catholics, Philip II positioned himself as the fearsome protector of the Roman Catholic Church and prosecuted Protestants. Philip II also strengthened the Spanish Inquisition, which became feared across Europe.   King Louis XIV of France, also known as “The Sun King,” is often portrayed as the embodiment of absolutism. During his reign, he strengthened his authority by centralizing the government and making Versailles his residence. At the same time, he weakened the influence of the nobility and made himself the true symbol of the state. His famous words were: “I am the state.” A good military leader, Louis XIV expanded French territory during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). However, because of some of his political and economic decisions, France’s power started to decline after his rule.   Peter the Great of Russia was remembered as the ruler who modernized the state and took it from medieval to modern times. He reformed almost every aspect of the Russian state and society. From military, bureaucracy, technology, and church, Peter the Great turned Russia into a true European force. He was also a powerful military leader who defeated the Kingdom of Sweden and brought Russia to the Baltic Sea.   Portrait of Catherine II of Russia, after Alexander Roslin, the 1780s. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna   Catherine the Great of Russia was another monarch who embodied absolute power. Through her careful politics, Catherine reformed the education system and the economy. One of the so-called “enlightened despot,” she was fascinated by Enlightenment ideas. Even though she was an absolute ruler, she revolutionized some aspects of the Russian government and laws based on the Enlightenment ideas found in the works of famous scholars such as Montesquieu, Diderot, and Voltaire. She was also a feared military leader who expanded Russian territory at the expense of the Ottoman Empire and Poland.   Absolute monarchy started to decline at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. However, its legacy and influence left an everlasting impact on world politics and the development of democratic political systems.

  The late 18th century in France was a tumultuous time, marked by the rise of revolutionary ideologies. To end the grip of the absolute monarchy, people had to take the matter into their own hands. The result was the French Revolution. One of the most influential groups of the revolution was the Jacobin Club, whose members called for a more equal society. However, the Jacobins became increasingly radical, prosecuting their opponents and introducing the infamous “Reign of Terror.” This article will explain the rise, fall, and ideology of the Jacobins.   Political Atmosphere in France Before the Rise of the Jacobin Movement Louis XVI, King of France and Navarre, wearing his grand royal costume, by Antoine-François Callet, c. 1778-1779. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Museum of the History of France, Versailles   Before the start of the French Revolution in 1789, France was an absolute monarchy. King Louis XVI ruled with unchecked power and divine right from Versailles. The government was centralized. During the early modern period in Europe, many monarchs claimed they had a so-called divine right to rule. Believing God had appointed them, only he could judge them; thus, they were above the earthly laws.   During the second half of the 18th century, dissatisfaction grew rapidly and spread throughout the country. Indeed, France’s political, social, and economic system faced several challenges, and the revolutionary atmosphere could be felt way before 1789.   On top of the unbalanced and unchecked concentration of power, France had a substantial national debt due to wars and taking part in the American Revolution (1775-1783). The taxation system was extremely unequal because the aristocracy and clergy were mostly exempt from paying taxes, while the lower classes were heavily taxed. Besides the problems caused by poor government, bad infrastructure, and wars, food shortages increased the people’s extreme dissatisfaction.   Prise de la Bastille, by Jean-Pierre Houël, 1789. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Gallica, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris   In 18th-century France, the Enlightenment was one of the most significant forces that led to the spread of revolutionary ideas and the rise of movements such as the Jacobins.   During the Enlightenment, scholars and philosophers such as Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire challenged absolutism, calling for the separation of powers and sketching a political and social system based on natural rights.   After the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, the abolition of feudalism, and the Declaration of the Rights of Men and the Citizen in August of the same year, the political situation and landscape changed drastically. Initially, the main revolutionary forces were less radical than the Jacobin movement. However, in the following years, the Jacobins rose to power due to the harsh economic situation and extreme dissatisfaction and became one of the most dominant political forces of the French Revolution.   Origins of the Jacobin Movement Seal affixed by the Jacobins of Paris on their manuscripts and publications, c. 1792. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Jacobins were initially known as the Society of the Friends of the Constitution, as they opposed absolute monarchy and advocated for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.   In the beginning, the movement’s supporters were moderate. The Jacobins then became progressively more radical with the relocation to Paris and people’s dissatisfaction with the revolution’s leadership and progress.   In Paris, the members and supporters of the Jacobin group started meeting in a former convent of the Dominicans, known in the city as Jacobins. Thus, they earned the nickname “Jacobins.” As the revolution progressed and their program spread, the Jacobin movement grew, gaining members from different parts of life and social classes.   With the ongoing revolution, the Jacobin movement started to fraction and develop different ideas and political goals. In particular, the division was between a more moderate part, led by Antoine Barnave, and a more radical part, led by the famous Maximilien Robespierre. The moderates supported the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. On the other hand, the radicals called for a republic, ultimately leading to the complete separation of two fractions in 1792. From this moment, the Jacobin movement would be led by Robespierre and the radical republicans.   Meanwhile, the Jacobins’ ideas spread throughout France, which resulted in the formation of local Jacobin Clubs in several provinces. The clubs functioned as strongholds of republicanism, distributing newsletters and pamphlets listing the benefits of the republican system and the disadvantages of absolutism while denouncing the abuse of power by the aristocrats, clergy, and the king.   Through their work, the Jacobin clubs aimed to remind people they had the power to overthrow the tyrannical government and had the right to participate in the political processes by voting and electing their representatives.   Ideology and Goals of the Jacobin Movement Portrait of Maximilien Robespierre, unknown author, c. 1790. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Musée Carnavalet, Paris   After parting ways with the more moderate faction of the movement in 1792, the Jacobins firmly advocated abolishing the monarchy and establishing a republic with a government of representatives elected democratically. The Jacobins were influenced by the democratic and republican ideas from the Enlightenment. Indeed, it is generally believed one of the Jacobins’ ideological forefathers was Jean-Jacque Rousseau with his concept of the “general will.”   In January 1793, the Jacobins and their leader, Robespierre, supported the execution of King Louis XVI, believing that the monarchy was in direct opposition to the revolutionary ideas. In June 1791, Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette had tried to escape. However, they were arrested at Varennes. In August 1792, the sans-culottes, with the support of the Jacobins, stormed the Tuileries Palace and arrested the royals. In September 1792, the monarchy was abolished, and France became a republic.   The Jacbonis also wanted to abolish the feudal system and fight economic inequality, calling for the introduction of economic policies that would benefit all, especially the lower classes that struggled due to food shortages.   They ultimately sought to enlarge their support among the wage earners and peasants, aiming to include them in political life and encourage them to elect governmental representatives. The Jacobins came to power through different political plays and, especially, through the radicalization of the masses.   Une exécution capitale (An Execution), by Pierre-Antoine Demachy, c. 1793. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Musée Carnavalet, Paris   In the 1790s, they formed a front with the sans-culottes, the radical urban crowds of the revolution. This alliance was crucial to their political success. In August 1790, the sans-culottes and the Jacobins organized the storming of the Tuileries palace, where the royal family was held, leading to the overthrow of the monarchy.   After this event, the monarchy was abolished, and the First French Republic was formed. Radical revolutionaries were looking for blood and revenge. In September of the same year, thousands of royalists, or even suspected royalists, were executed. In January 1793, even the king was guillotined.   With ample support and big expectations, the Jacobins came to power. However, their political rule would be remembered as ‘’the Reign of Terror.’’ The Jacobins came to power with the aim of building a state based on republicanism, democracy, and radical virtue. However, their use of terror and authoritarian tactics led to their downfall.   The Reign of Terror Death sentence of the Sisters of Charity of Arras in 1794. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Church of Saint-Pierre de Miniac-Morvan, Paris   The Reign of Terror (1793-1794) marked the period when the Jacobins were the most influential political force in France’s First Republic. The name comes from the harsh measures taken to deal with political opponents and cement the new political system.   The Jacobins, by then well into their radicalism, took over the government in 1793. At that moment, France was in a tough position in terms of both international and national politics. On the one hand, the country had been engaged in a war against a coalition between Austria, Prussia, and Britain since 1792. Within its borders, the situation was also challenging, with uprisings of royalists and federalists, especially in the Vendée region, that turned into a civil war.   Brissot and 20 of his accomplices at the guillotine, unknown author, October 31, 1793. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Gallica, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris   In June 1793, a popular uprising led to the overthrow of the Girodins, the moderate front of the revolutionary forces, from the National Convention, the assembly that governed France until 1795. From this moment, the Convention was controlled by the Montagnards, a more radical faction whose members were closely associated with the Jacobin Club.   In the following months, the Montagnards, assisted by the Jacobins and sans-culottes, started to target their political opponents and all those who were even slightly rumored to support royalists. The symbol of this period in French history is the infamous guillotine. In October 1973, Queen Marie Antoinette was executed. In the same month, Georges Dantone and Camille Desmoulins, former friends and comrades of Robespierre, were also guillotined.   Portrait of Marie Antoinette, unknown author, after Jean-Baptiste André Gautier-Dagoty, after 1775. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Musée Antoine-Lécuyer, Saint-Quentin, France   Maximilien Robespierre famously said: “Terror is nothing but prompt, severe, inflexible justice; it is therefore an emanation of virtue.” The Montagnards and Jacobins formed the Committee of Public Safety, a political body tasked with defending France (and the Revolution) from external and internal enemies. During the Reign of Terror, the Committee of Public Safety, the de facto ruling body of the country, persecuted and executed thousands of people accused of being counterrevolutionaries.   The radical ideology of the Jacobins was based on the idea that the revolution, and with it, the republic, could not survive with opposition and enemies. Albert Soboul, who analyzed the French Revolution within a Marxist framework, argued that the Terror resulted from the class antagonism between the aristocracy and bourgeoisie and the lower classes asking for basic human rights.   The End and Legacy of the Jacobin Movement The Roll Call of the Last Victims of the Terror, by Charles Louis Müller, 1850. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Musée des Beaux-Arts de Carcassonne   The Reign of Terror brought a lot of dissatisfaction with and fear of Maximilien Robespierre’s leadership among the French population. No one felt safe during the de facto dictatorship of the Committee of Public Safety. It became clear that Robespierre and his allies went too far. In 1794, they started to lose support even among revolutionaries. At the same time, Maximilien Robespierre also cut ties with the sans-culottes, alarmed by their increasingly radical demands.   The internal divisions within the revolutionary forces came to a head in the summer of 1794. Robespierre and his close supporters were arrested on July 27, 1794, and a day later, they were executed.   The overthrow of Robespierre is commonly remembered as the Thermidoran Reaction, and it marked the end of the Reign of Terror and the Jacobin’s rule and influence. Thermidor was the term for the eleventh month in the French Revolutionary calendar that was in use from 1793 to 1805. It lasted from late July to late August.   The execution of Robespierre and his supporters on 28 July 1794, by an unknown author, July 28, 1794. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Gallica, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris   The Jacobin club and its activities were forbidden by law in 1794, and sans-culottes lost the political upper hand in France. The Reign of Terror was followed by the “White Terror,” the prosecution of the Jacobins. The government and leadership of the First French Republic started to adopt a more moderate approach and policies.   Closing of the Jacobin Club by Louis Legendre in the early morning of 28 July 1794, engraving by Claude-Nicolas Malapeau after Jean Duplessis-Bertaux, 1802. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Gallica, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris   While the Jacobins’ radicalism resulted in the execution of thousands of people, they also greatly influenced the French Revolution and the development of democratic ideals and revolutionary ideologies across the world. The Jacobins were often credited for impacting the fight for political and human rights.   They played a crucial role in the establishment of the First French Republic and promoted a government and rule based on the will of the people. The Jacobins also supported the abolition of slavery in French colonies, the introduction of laws protecting human rights and making all citizens equal before the law, and economic policies to ensure that everyone had access to food and shelter.

  The Prohibition period lasted from January 1920 to December 1933. Its supporters wanted to end the consumption of alcohol, which brought suffering to many families. However, Prohibition was ultimately unsuccessful, and instead, allowed government corruption, widespread criminal activities, and the birth of a unique era in US history. While Prohibition is often linked to clubs, jazz, and romance, it was not all like that. This article will explore the historical background of Prohibition, the criminal activities of this era, and what brought it to an end.   The Political and Historical Background A political cartoon making fun of the Anti-Saloon League and the Women’s Christian Temperance Union’s campaign against the producers and sellers of beers in Hawaii, by Rea Irvin, The Hawaiian Gazette, May 23, 1902. Source: Wikimedia Commons / University of Hawaii at Manoa Library / Chronicling America   The idea of banning alcohol consumption in the United States originated before the Prohibition Era and began to spread among various religious and social movements. In particular, the Temperance Movement, advocating for sizable social reforms in the United States, gained a lot of support in the 1830s. Alcohol was often linked to crime, abuse, bad behavior, violence, and poverty. Some organizations, such as the American Temperance Society and Women’s Christian Temperance Union, called for banning liquor consumption because its members believed it represented the moral deterioration of society and humanity. These organizations started propagating alcohol prohibition in the first part of the 19th century, and the idea started getting more support over time.   Political cartoon against alcohol consumption, by Frank Beard, originally published in The Ram’s Horn, 1890. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Ram’s Horn Press, Chicago   Even before the official ban and the Prohibition era, there were some attempts to ban or limit alcohol consumption on a state level. In 1838, Massachusetts passed a law to ban the sale of spirits in quantities smaller than 15 gallons, wanting to make it more difficult for people to purchase alcohol. However, the unpopular law was repealed two years later. Similarly, in 1846, Maine introduced a temperance and prohibition law which highly restricted the sale of alcohol. In 1851, Maine became the first state that passed a statewide prohibition law, outlawing the production and sale of alcohol altogether. This law was one of the first precedents for the upcoming nationwide prohibition laws, since some other states, like Rhode Island and Kansas, soon followed its example.   At the beginning of the 20th century, the Prohibition movement and its ideas gained more supporters and political backing. One of the most influential backers of the movement was businessman Henry Ford, who believed that alcohol negatively affected the productivity of his workers. The support of wealthy industrialists, who poured money and finances into the movement, made it possible to develop a strong and effective propaganda campaign. Thus, the ideas behind Prohibition began to reach and spread among its target audience.   Woman’s Holy War. Grand Charge on the Enemy’s Works, by Currier and Ives, 1874. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Library of Congress, Washington DC   Another essential factor influencing the Prohibition movement was the outbreak of World War I (1914-1918). The American public started developing an anti-German stance, which included boycotting German-owned bars and breweries. Additionally, the ingredients used to make alcohol were much needed to produce food and other necessary goods during the conflict. As a result, in the mid-1910s, Prohibition gained significant momentum, and the number of supporters from different parts of society increased. The movement also gained a national dimension, which greatly helped its advocates.   The 18th Amendment and the Volstead Act The Drunkard’s Progress: From the First Glass to the Grave, by Nathaniel Currier, c. 1846. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Library of Congress, Washington DC   As political support for Prohibition grew, so did the calling for the official law and the amendment that would legalize it. On January 16, 1919, the 18th Amendment was finally ratified, marking one of the most famous chapters in US history. The amendment prohibited the selling and consumption of alcohol nationwide and officially made producing, transferring, and trading alcohol illegal.   While the 18th Amendment targeted “intoxicating liquors,” it did not specify what kind of liquors would be banned, nor did it explain how the law and prohibition would be imposed. The lack of specificity was resolved by Congress, which passed the National Prohibition Act, commonly known as Volstead Act (after Minnesota representative Andrew Volstead), the same year. Even though President Woodrow Wilson was against Prohibition, famously trying to veto the Volstead Act, Congress passed the measure on October 28, 1919. The Volstead Act marked a watershed moment in American history, enforcing the 18th Amendment. The act also defined the “intoxicating liquors” mentioned in the amendment as any beverage with more than 0.5% alcohol by volume.   The Volstead Act gave the federal government a plan and way to enforce the new law and prosecute people who would violate it. However, the National Prohibition Act and the laws against alcohol consumption were not as successful as its supporters hoped. People still enjoyed drinking, and alcohol consumption and trade simply went underground, giving more power to criminals and helping the rise of bootlegging and other criminal enterprises. Criminals, such as the notorious Al Capone, made a lot of money illegally due to the widespread corruption of the Prohibition Era.   Bootlegging and Organized Crime Americans in Paris celebrated the end of Prohibition, unknown author, 1933. Source: Wikimedia Commons / The New York Times   One of the phrases often connected to Prohibition was bootlegging. What did it actually mean? Bootlegging was a term used to describe criminal activity regarding the manufacturing, transporting, and trading of alcohol during the Prohibition Era. The origin of the name goes back to the 19th century and it is connected to people hiding alcohol in their boots. During Prohibition, Bootlegging started immediately upon the ratification of the Volstead Act and manifested itself in different ways, including moonshining, smuggling, and speakeasies.   Moonshining refers to the practice of making alcoholic beverages at home. It was extremely popular during Prohibition, especially in some provincial and rural territories. Smuggling was another common practice at the time. Alcoholic drinks were usually smuggled to the US from Canada and the Caribbean, since they were the closest to the US borders. Despite alcohol being illegal in North America, the bordering countries did not intend to abandon the use of the infamous beverage. Maritime smugglers, commonly known as “rum-runners,” famously carried illegal drinks from the Caribbean islands.   Bootleggers then hid their supplies in speakeasies, notorious underground bars and clubs that served the banned liquor. Over time, these establishments became one of the most famous symbols of Prohibition. These clubs were often run by criminals and criminal organizations that had protection from corrupt government employees.   The Prohibition Era was a unique period in US history, bringing up issues such as corruption and organized crime. Alcohol became one of the main illegal trades, making some people a lot of money and giving them a lot of power. Organized crime involved many people, such as policemen and politicians. Some of the most famous criminals of this era were Al Capone, Meyer Lensky, Charles “Lucky” Luciano, and George “Machine Gun” Kelly.   Corruption and Open Law Violation A police raid at Elk Lake, Canada, 1925. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Archives of Ontario   If something was quite present during the Prohibition era, it was the widespread corruption, involving almost all levels of government, including local, state, and federal. The most common kinds of corruption were bribes, racketeering, and owning criminal enterprises. Criminal activities thrived and dealt with alcohol distribution while it was banned. One of the reasons why criminals became so successful during Prohibition was that government officials looked the other way and allowed criminal activities in exchange for a bribe or a cut of the profits. Chicago, New York, and Kansas City were the most (in)famous cities in terms of crime rate.   During Prohibition, certain cities had notoriously corrupted officials that made a lot of money through bootlegging and bribery. One of them was Chicago Mayor William “Big Bill” Thompson whose cabinet was involved with Al Capone. Capone had in his pocket not only the mayor, but also several judges, officers, and politicians, making sure that his criminal activities stayed protected. Another famous corrupted politician was the mayor of New York City, James J. Walker, also known as “Beau James.” Walker and many of his colleagues tolerated bootlegging because they profited from the illegal trade of alcohol. In Kansas City, the corrupted politician was Tom Pendergast, who allowed crime to thrive. Due to the widespread corruption in the city, criminal businesses were deliberately not attacked or investigated.   New York City Deputy Police Commissioner John A. Leach (right) watches as agents pour liquor into sewer following a raid during the Prohibition Era, unknown author. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Library of Congress, Washington DC   Despite the efforts of law enforcement officials, American society openly defied the Prohibition laws and continued to consume alcohol. The infamous “hidden” bars were serving and seeking alcoholic drinks, no matter the law, knowing that the politicians were often working with criminals and gangsters. The places selling “liquors” that represented everything the Prohibition opposed were thriving in many cities. The fact that they often operated in the open proves how much they were “in bed” with the political establishment.   The 21st Amendment and Repeal Detroit police inspecting equipment found in a clandestine underground brewery during the prohibition era, unknown author, c. 1920-1933. Source: Wikimedia Commons / National Archives   It soon became obvious that Prohibition and its laws were not achieving their goals. The final nail in the coffin was the Great Depression (1929-1939) and all its struggles. Due to widespread corruption and criminal activities, it was clear that Prohibition was not a successful endeavor. All these factors combined led to the extreme dissatisfaction of the American public, who started calling for the end of Prohibition, arguing that it only made their lives worse and criminals richer.   Original color transparency of FDR taken at the Official Campaign Portrait session, by Leon Perskie, August 22, 1944. Source: Wikimedia Commons / FDR Presidential Library & Museum   People calling for the end of Prohibition also received political support from the Association Against the Prohibition Amendment and the Women’s Organization for National Reform. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt gained many voters’ sympathies based on his determination to end Prohibition. In March 1933, Roosevelt issued the Cullen-Harrison Act, allowing the production and sale of drinks with up to 3.2 percent alcohol by volume. Another step in dismantling Prohibition laws occurred on February 21, 1933, when Congress proposed the 21st Amendment. Ratified later that year in December, it directly repealed the previous 18th Amendment, officially putting an end to Prohibition.   A group of women drinking beer at the bar in Raceland, Louisiana, by Russell Lee, September 1938. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The consequences of the 21st Amendment were many and widespread. Breweries and alcohol distillers resumed their work legally, making it taxable and beneficial for the government. At the same time, criminal activities and enterprises connected to bootlegging and alcohol smuggling lost their sources of income since people were now allowed to consume alcohol legally. The 21st Amendment ended one of the most intriguing parts of US history, allowing the people of the United States of America to choose whether they would like to drink, or not, legally.   The Prohibition Era also had a major cultural impact on American society and influenced many musicians, writers, and the cinema world. Jazz music thrived during Prohibition, giving us some of the most talented musicians like Duke Ellington and Cole Porter. Some of the most famous literary works were inspired by the speakeasy culture, such as The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald and Manhattan Transfer by John Dos Passos. Probably the most famous cultural impact of the Prohibition Era was the so-called gangster film genre. Cinematographers were greatly inspired by this period of US history, and made some of the most known and cult classic films like Little Caesar (1931), The Public Enemy (1931), and Scarface (1932).