One of the pastimes of medieval nobility was building a grander empire‚ a strength never before seen by the world. This‚ of course‚ meant searching for more land and more subjects. The places that housed such subjects became major urban developments and became symbols of power that benefited their rulers. These eight cities were not necessarily the largest in terms of land area or even population in some cases‚ but they were large in their sense of importance to the medieval era.   1. Angkor Angkor Wat‚ the largest temple of medieval Angkor. Source: Lonely Planet   Ankor was once the jewel of the Khmer Empire in present-day Cambodia. The city was massive‚ both in land and population and in 1100 CE‚ it was considered the largest city in the world. The metropolis sprawled over 1‚000 square kilometers (390 square miles) and housed around one million people.   While the only thing remaining from the grand city today is its central temple‚ Angkor Wat‚ the capital city of the Khmer Empire was once a modern urban center‚ with roads as wide as airplane runways‚ canals‚ rice farms‚ the world’s largest hand-cut water reservoir‚ and an intricate system of working with the monsoon season to make its harvests bountiful.   The city of Angkor was a city of god-kings‚ who all were supposed earthly incarnations of the Hindu God Shiva. The city’s population flourished‚ with schools‚ public hospitals‚ and an intricate irrigation system that allowed rice cultivation on a massive level.   The “temple city‚” as it is called today‚ was abandoned around the 1400s‚ but today is still an incredibly popular tourist site. However‚ several conflicts throughout the past few hundred years have made the excavation and analysis of the site difficult‚ so archaeological work is still ongoing.   2. Baghdad A map of Baghdad between the 8th and 10th centuries by William Muir‚ 1883. Source: Muhammadism.org   Baghdad‚ in modern Iraq‚ was the capital city of the Abbasid Caliphate beginning in the early Middle Ages. Construction on the city began in 762 CE‚ and by the end of the eighth century‚ the city was already home to half a million residents. It was the political and cultural center of the Middle East during its height‚ and between the 700s and 900s‚ approximately one million people lived in Baghdad or its suburbs.   The city was built in two semi-circles on either side of the Tigris River. The infrastructure of the city was modern‚ with aqueducts and sewage systems‚ several public squares and gardens‚ and wide avenues. According to Yaqut‚ an Arabic scholar who lived a few centuries after the city’s heyday‚ the avenues of the city were built to be 40 cubits (60 feet) wide‚ and the city did not allow garbage or refuse to collect within the walls.   While Baghdad remained important throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern day‚ the Abbasid Caliphate was not what it once was after the 10th century‚ and the city declined. Two major attacks occurred during the Middle Ages‚ one in 1258 and one in 1401. Today‚ it is still the capital of modern Iraq and is the second-largest city in the Arab world.   3. Constantinople Constantinople‚ as it would have looked around the 10th century‚ rendering by Antoine Helbert. Source: Vivid Maps   Constantinople served‚ and continues to serve‚ as the great epicenter of the Byzantine Empire. Though it was founded in 330 CE by the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great‚ the city reached its zenith in the early medieval period. The fall of the Western Roman Empire shifted global focus to the Eastern Roman Empire‚ with its Emperor‚ Justinian‚ ruling from Constantinople.   The city itself was large throughout the transitions it faced‚ from Roman to Byzantine to Ottoman and back again. The population‚ at various periods in history‚ was approximately one million people‚ and it served as a major hub for trade. Constantinople’s unique position that straddled Europe and Asia poised the city to become a key player in international affairs and commerce. The Venetians‚ along with traders and merchants from the Middle and Far East‚ came to the city to do business‚ making its economy boom.   However‚ Constantinople faced near-constant challenges‚ with sieges and battles often threatening to wipe it away. However the city endured throughout the age of great medieval cities‚ becoming the capital of the Ottoman Empire in 1453. The city would remain a key player throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern period. Today‚ Constantinople is known as Istanbul in modern-day Turkey and is still a huge city with strategic importance in the international affairs of both Europe and Asia.   4. Cairo Cairo’s Citadel‚ built in the 12th century. Source: medievalists.net   Cairo‚ Egypt‚ was built in 969 CE by the Fatimid Dynasty to rival Baghdad as the largest city in the Islamic world. It was the capital of the dynasty‚ and served as an example of the power and enlightenment of Islam during the Middle Ages.   Cairo is known as “The City of a Thousand Minarets” for good reason. A truly Islamic city‚ the number is not fabricated‚ and some claim that there are even more than 1‚000 mosques throughout the city. These places of worship‚ however‚ also served as places of administration and learning in the medieval city of Cairo. The Al-Hassan Mosque‚ Cairo’s first‚ was a center of education where thousands of young Egyptians and foreigners could learn‚ whether they were rich or poor.   When the city was taken over by the Mamluk Dynasty‚ mosques also served as hospitals and centers of community. The rulers‚ who had risen from slavery to power‚ cared for the lower classes of the city‚ and helped fortify the city as an Islamic stronghold against the Crusades. Cairo was also a key hub of commerce‚ as it sat at the confluence of European‚ African‚ and Asian trade. This position would make Cairo one of the world’s wealthiest medieval cities.   Today‚ Cairo is still the capital of Egypt‚ and is the largest city in the Arab world. It is a center of Islamic power in Northern Africa‚ despite several modern conflicts.   5. Hangzhou Leifeng Pagoda‚ built in the 10th century in Hangzhou. Source: Hangzhou Tours   One of the seven ancient capitals of China‚ Hangzhou may have been one of the largest cities in the world in the twelfth century. With a population of at least one million people and its position at the end of the Grand Canal‚ Hangzhou thrived as a capital for several Chinese dynasties.   Hangzhou’s location was paramount to its prosperity‚ as it sat directly within the Silk Road trade network. It flourished as a trading city‚ with archaeological evidence of products from Hangzhou being found as far away as Iran. It was the capital for both the Wuyue Kingdom and the Southern Song Dynasty. Even when it was not serving as a capital city‚ the strategic location of Hangzhou made it a powerful city.   Though it was well known for its wealth‚ Hangzhou was also a great center of Chinese culture‚ especially as it related to early literature and Buddhism. Its cultural and economic prowess attracted travelers like Marco Polo and Ibn Batuta‚ who wrote of the city in grandiose terms. Marco Polo declared that it was “without a doubt the finest and most splendid city in the world‚” and he marveled at the city’s paved streets and numerous bridges. Polo’s writings elucidate the splendor of Hangzhou in the 13th century‚ when it was still the largest city in the world.   Hangzhou is still an important economic and cultural center today‚ with thriving rice and silk production. Though it is no longer a capital‚ it is still a metropolis with a modern population of at least ten million people.   6. Paris The Right Hand of God Protecting the Faithful against the Demons by Jean Fouquet‚ ca. 1452-1460. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   Still the capital of France today‚ Paris came out of relative obscurity and developed into the large‚ cosmopolitan city we know today beginning in the Middle Ages. In the 10th century‚ Paris was considered little more than a provincial city that housed a cathedral and not much else. This changed‚ however‚ when the Capetian Kings decided to rule France from the &;Icirc;le de la Cit&;eacute;‚ not only making it the site of their royal palace‚ but also of the new Notre Dame Cathedral.   Under the Capetians‚ Paris became a city that was important on three fronts: religious‚ educational‚ and commercial. The Left Bank of the Seine was a hub for important French monasteries‚ as well as several colleges‚ which‚ at the time‚ became the leading educational institutions in Europe. On the Right Bank‚ the ports‚ merchants‚ and markets made the city into a commercial hub. Its prosperity‚ combined with a focus on religion and education‚ led to Paris becoming an important center of illuminated manuscripts and the first city to develop buildings in the Gothic style.   Before 1328‚ there were no concrete numbers of people living in Paris. However‚ the census of that year counted over 61‚000 households within the city‚ making the population estimate anywhere from 210‚000 to 270‚000. Though the city faced several hardships‚ including sieges and the Bubonic plague‚ it recovered to become one of the most populous cities in the western world during the Middle Ages.   7. Tenochtitlan A map of Tenochtitlan‚ published in Nuremberg in 1524. Source: Dumbarton Oaks   Perhaps the largest city in pre-Columbian America‚ Tenochtitlan was the capital of the expanding Aztec Empire from the 14th to the 15th century. It was built on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco and was the site of royal palaces‚ temples‚ markets‚ and other public buildings that served the Aztec people well and contributed to the prosperity of the city and the empire.   The Aztec Empire‚ from Tenochtitlan‚ had vast trade networks from the Gulf of Mexico and possibly into the Inca Empire. The population was probably around 200‚000 people‚ and was split into complex social classes‚ the most complex in the Mesoamerican world.   When Spanish conquistadors arrived in the capital‚ they found a thriving city that was rivaled in population only by Paris or Venice in Europe. The palace of the emperor‚ Moctezuma II‚ was a sprawling complex that boasted zoos‚ botanical gardens‚ and aquariums. The city was‚ however‚ conquered by the Spanish‚ led by Hernan Cortes‚ and turned into a municipality of the Viceroyalty of New Spain.   While the city remained under Spanish rule for several hundred years‚ the capital of Mexico did not move‚ and was built around the medieval capital. Tenochtitlan sits at the historic center of modern day Mexico City and is still one of the most populous cities in the Americas‚ with a population of almost ten million people.   8. Venice The Miracle of the Relic of the True Cross on the Rialto Bridge by Vittore Carpaccio‚ 1494. Source: British Library   Considered by many to be the greatest maritime power of the Middle Ages‚ Venice began as a safe haven for refugees fleeing from the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. The marshy lagoon would serve as an important strategic location for what would become the Republic of Venice‚ as its access to the Mediterranean Sea allowed trade on a wider scope than the rest of Europe.   The city-state of Venice began conquering areas within the Western Mediterranean while it retained a high level of independence‚ both in religion and government‚ from Rome and other powers on the Italian peninsula. Venice was ruled by a doge‚ or a duke‚ who served for life and was elected by the Great Council of Venice. It was billed as a republic but was‚ in practice‚ ruled by oligarchs of the merchant classes.   The city-state of Venice grew steadily and became a great center of art‚ architecture‚ and publishing during the Middle Ages. Its Renaissance‚ considered to have begun before the general Italian Renaissance‚ was a direct result of its economic prowess and fostering of the arts in service to the maritime republic. Venice’s power was relatively unchecked until trade routes to the East Indies and Americas opened in the 16th century‚ granting other European powers the same ability to foster effective trade as Venice.   Venice was incorporated into a unified Italy in the late 19th century‚ and though it is still a center of culture within Italy‚ it is not considered the power that it once was. Venice was a unique and completely maritime-focused power‚ thanks to its canals‚ which are now used for the likes of tourist gondola rides and water taxis rather than vast naval fleets.

  Every American is familiar with the story of Paul Revere‚ the man who rode into the dead of night‚ rallying the colonial militia with his cries. “The British are coming&;#33;” is a familiar refrain that served to prepare the colonial troops for the oncoming battle of Lexington and Concord in 1775. However‚ Revere wasn’t the only patriot to ride out at midnight‚ warning troops about imminent invasion. Two years later‚ a 16-year-old girl did the same but is less remembered for her actions. This is the story of Sybil Ludington.   Sybil Ludington’s Beginnings The Long Island Sound‚ near the Ludington property‚ today. Source: Riverhead News-Review   Sybil (sometimes spelled Sibbell) Ludington was born on April 5‚ 1761 in Fredericksburg‚ New York (now known as Kent). She was the first of twelve children born to Henry and Abigail Ludington.   Henry Ludington was a gristmill owner‚ and the family’s farm sat in an area between Connecticut and the coast of the Long Island Sound. This area was particularly alluring to the British troops‚ as it gave access to the wider colonies but allowed a sea route for attack as well.   In addition to his profession as a gristmill owner‚ Henry Ludington had served in the British military for decades‚ including in the French and Indian War. However‚ by the time of the American Revolution‚ Ludington had switched sides and hedged his bets on the Patriot cause and American independence.   While the Revolutionary War raged‚ the Ludington family lived in Dutchess County (now known as Putnam County)‚ and Colonel Henry Ludington was named commander of the county militia.   Not much else is known about Sybil’s life before April of 1777 when her actions shot her into the spotlight.   The Midnight Ride Woodblock print entitled “The Fight at Ridgefield.” Source: Keeler Tavern Museum‚ Ridgefield‚ Connecticut   The story goes that on April 26‚ 1777‚ 16-year-old Sybil and her family encountered a rider at their home. The rider warned Colonel Ludington that the British had arrived in the nearby town of Danbury‚ Connecticut‚ and were burning it to the ground.   Danbury‚ a revolutionary stronghold‚ was stockpiled with arms and munitions storage. British General William Tyron sought to capture and destroy the important base of power in Western Connecticut with the help of some 2‚000 British troops.   Upon hearing the news‚ Colonel Ludington knew that rallying the troops was important if they were to catch up with the Redcoats. The problem was that the militia had disbanded for the season and were scattered around the county throughout the New York and Connecticut border areas. The Colonel only commanded around 400 troops‚ but every last soldier was necessary to track the British down as they retreated.   A statue of Sybil Ludington On the banks of Lake Gleneida in Carmel‚ New York. Source: Veteran Life   Accounts vary; some say that Sybil Ludington volunteered for the job of raising the alarm‚ while others claim that her father asked for her help. Either way‚ legend states that the 16-year-old fearlessly mounted her horse and rode off into the night‚ facing total darkness‚ rough terrain‚ and stormy weather.   Sybil rode all through the night‚ alerting her father’s men of the attack on Danbury. Her ride‚ in total‚ was said to have been around 40 miles‚ or almost triple the length of Paul Revere’s ride. While she made it back to her family farm around dawn‚ Sybil could have certainly been captured by British troops or highwaymen with no allegiance to either side at any time. The ride was a dangerous one‚ but she was knowledgeable enough to track down all of her father’s troops.   Troops across New York and Connecticut rallied thanks to midnight riders like Sybil‚ and they caught up with the British troops near Ridgefield‚ Connecticut‚ the following day. A major conflict followed‚ with one American General‚ David Wooster‚ killed‚ and General Benedict Arnold (who had not yet been discovered as a traitor) had his horse shot out from under him.   Still‚ due to the quick response of riders like Sybil‚ the British suffered heavy casualties and were forced to retreat to the Long Island Sound.   Accounts of the Ride  The Historical Marker for Sybil Ludington in New York’s Hudson Valley via Lite FM   Interestingly‚ no contemporary accounts of Sybil’s ride exist. The earliest version of her story thought to exist appeared in a history book from 1880‚ which cites no primary or contemporary secondary sources.   Though there was never any mention of her ride in Sybil’s own correspondence‚ her nephew‚ Charles H. Ludington‚ penned a petition for her inclusion in a ceremony honoring Revolutionary War heroes in 1854.   Ludington’s letter states‚ “My aunt Sybil rode on horseback in the dead of night…through a country infested with Cowboys and Skinners (highwaymen) to inform Gen’l (Israel) Putnam.” Thus‚ her nephew’s letter‚ written nearly 80 years after the event‚ became the earliest written account of the daring female Paul Revere.   Several other accounts followed‚ which ensconced Ludington in heroism and patriotism to the American people forevermore. In 1940‚ a poem was written about Sybil Ludington‚ claiming her cries‚ described as a “high-pitched feminine halloo‚” pierced through the night. She went on to shout to the soldiers:   Up‚ Up there‚ soldier. You’re needed‚ come&;#33; The British are marching&;#33;” and then the drum Of her horse’s feet as she rode apace To bring more men to the meeting place.   Sybil Ludington was memorialized as a Revolutionary War heroine through later accounts‚ but without any contemporary evidence‚ it begs the question‚ did the ride of Sybil Ludington really happen&;#63;   The Colonial Revival Period A print made for the centennial of the American Revolution in 1876 by William R. Smith. Source: Library of Congress   During the mid-to-late 19th century‚ a sort of nostalgia emerged out of the coming centennial of American independence. This patriotic era is notable for producing and making famous several stories of Revolutionary heroes‚ the symbolic patriots that all Americans should strive to be.   Sybil Ludington’s story came about early in this period in the aforementioned letter from her nephew‚ petitioning to include Sybil in a ceremony that honored Revolutionary War heroes. Ludington was one of a cast of characters that symbolized the struggle for freedom and the patriot cause. Other such patriots included Betsy Ross and the story of her first flag‚ as well as Paul Revere and his midnight ride.   During and after the centennial‚ patriotic family stories became more widely circulated and allowed these household names to be cemented in the American psyche. Women like Ludington and Ross left behind very few documents of their own‚ meaning that their stories could be adapted and changed to fit the narrative of the time.   Betsy Ross‚ 1777 by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris‚ ca. 1930s. Source: Library of Congress   Whether or not Betsy Ross sewed the first American flag is irrelevant because it became a story ingrained into the fabric of the country and the role that women played in the Revolution‚ as is the case with Sybil Ludington. The colonial revival period sparked an admiration for the courage and valor of those Revolutionaries who had built the nation‚ and they were stories that could endure for various causes.   As Smithsonian Magazine author Abigail Tucker writes in her article “Did the Midnight Ride of Sybil Ludington Ever Happen&;#63;‚” Ludington is an inspiration to several factions within the United States‚ from feminist groups who seek to uncover the integral role that women have played in building society‚ to the National Rifle Association‚ who honor Ludington’s memory with the Sybil Ludington Women’s Freedom Award‚ which has been given to the likes of former vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin and other female leaders.   Sybil Ludington: Symbol of Patriotism  The Sybil Ludington Postage stamp. Source: National Postal Museum‚ Smithsonian Institution‚ Washington DC   Vincent Dacquino‚ a New York historian‚ is the definitive voice on Sybil Ludington‚ as he has written four books on the lesser-known midnight rider. In his research‚ he has discovered several documents from Ludington’s lifetime‚ including letters that she wrote later in life. It is important to note that she never mentions her famed ride in life; however‚ it could have been because that one event was overshadowed by the other chapters of her story.   Ludington married Edmond Ogden in 1784‚ who later died young of yellow fever. Sybil was left widowed with a young son‚ Henry‚ whom she raised and provided for by working as an innkeeper in Catskill‚ New York. Perhaps the story of her ride was apocryphal‚ but Sybil Ludington endured silently as a single mother throughout her life‚ one who raised a son who would go on to become a prominent lawyer and a New York State assemblyman in 1819. Sybil Ludington died in 1839 at the age of 77 and is buried near her father in the Patterson Presbyterian Cemetery in Patterson‚ New York.   Sybil (spelled Sibbell here) Ludington’s grave. Source: boneladyblog   Sybil Ludington’s story has never faded into the background and gained traction from the 20th century onward. A towering statue‚ sculpted by Anna Hyatt Huntington‚ stands by the lakeshore in Carmel‚ New York‚ depicting Sybil on her horse‚ shouting her warning about the attack on Danbury. The statue was dedicated in 1961 and can still be seen today.   More recently‚ her story has been marked by road signs throughout Putnam County‚ New York‚ she has been featured on a US postage stamp‚ and even appeared on television in an episode of Comedy Central’s “Drunk History.” In addition to these cameos‚ her alleged path through the countryside is now the course of an ultramarathon named in her honor.   Though it is difficult to prove whether or not Sybil Ludington’s midnight ride really happened‚ she is still ensconced in American history as a symbol of the patriot spirit during the Revolutionary War. Her story shows the lengths that even teenagers were willing to go to in the fight for freedom on the homefront‚ as well as the important‚ if not understated‚ role that women have often played in American history. Her story exemplifies what being an American should look like‚ even 300 years later.

  The United States was reaching new frontiers by the 1960s‚ with the crew of Apollo 8 orbiting the moon and Boeing’s first 747 taking flight. However‚ on American and foreign soil‚ tragedies abounded. The deaths of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy and protests of the Vietnam War were just a few of the stories that rocked the nation. Whether the year tipped toward good or evil‚ the United States was surely never the same. Here are eight events that would contribute to that change in 1968.   1. January 23: North Korea Captures the USS Pueblo  The surviving crew members of the USS Pueblo as they arrive in North Korea following their capture on Jan. 23‚ 1968. Source: National Public Radio (NPR)   The United States Navy was operating a surveillance mission from the Tsushima Strait‚ a channel that divides Japanese from North Korean waters. According to the Navy‚ the surveillance ship was called the USS Pueblo and was conducting the mission in international waters. However‚ the North Korean military claimed the vessel had entered its territory.   North Korea sent planes and warships to intercept the Pueblo‚ and in the struggle to do so‚ US crewman Duane Hodges was gunned down. The other 82 crew members were captured‚ with their ship being brought to port in North Korea. The American sailors were sent to a POW camp‚ where they were reportedly starved and severely beaten.   Despite their cruel treatment‚ the crew of the USS Pueblo was forced into a news conference‚ where they were to acknowledge the “kind treatment” they had received from their North Korean captors. The crew’s remarks were‚ however‚ intentionally sarcastic and mocking the North Koreans. This earned them harsher treatment once their captors had realized the mockery.   What began at the beginning of 1968 finally concluded in the final days of the year. On December 23rd‚ after negotiations‚ the crew was allowed to return to South Korea. The United States‚ as a concession to North Korea‚ was supposed to acknowledge that the Pueblo was conducting espionage‚ but once the crew was safe‚ the government immediately retracted its concessions.   While the crew of the Pueblo made it back to the United States‚ their ship never did‚ and it is still thought to be in the possession of North Korea today.   2. January 30: The Launch of the Tet Offensive A unit of the 1st Battalion‚ 5th Marine Regiment‚ sitting on the wall of Hue’s imperial palace after a battle for the citadel in February 1968‚ during the Tet Offensive. Source: NPR   The beginning of the end of the United States’ involvement in Vietnam was the launch of the Tet Offensive on January 30th‚ 1968. The attack‚ coordinated by the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong‚ was named after and carried out on Tet‚ the Vietnamese Lunar New Year. Previously‚ the two sides had observed a truce during the holiday‚ but 1968 changed that and took all the Southern Vietnamese forces by surprise.   Eighty-five thousand Viet Cong and Northern Vietnamese soldiers attacked 36 major cities and towns in South Vietnam‚ catching the United States‚ as well as Southern Vietnamese forces‚ by surprise. The media coverage of the attack also took Americans on the homefront by surprise‚ as their confidence in the Johnson Administration to bring victory out of Vietnam waned.   Both sides sustained heavy casualties during the attack‚ and by the end‚ both sides claimed victory. The North Vietnamese were not as weak as President Johnson had claimed‚ even though the United States swiftly retook all occupied cities and towns.   The Tet Offensive was not only a test of the US Military’s strength but also a test of how much the American public could support their country’s intervention in the conflict. Public support of the war only diminished after the Tet Offensive and gave way to the several large protests that would crop up throughout 1968 and beyond.   3. April 4: Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Assassinated Civil rights leader Andrew Young (L) and others on the balcony of Lorraine Motel pointing in the direction of the assailant after the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King‚ Jr.‚ who is lying mortally wounded at their feet. Source: Thirteen   On April 3rd‚ Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. arrived in Memphis‚ Tennessee to prepare for a march in solidarity with striking sanitation workers throughout the city. The next night‚ as Dr. King stepped out onto the balcony of his room‚ number 306‚ at the Lorraine Motel‚ he was shot once by a hidden gunman at 6:01 PM.   Dr. King sustained injuries to the lower right side of his face‚ and once he lost consciousness‚ he never woke again. He was pronounced dead at 7:05 PM on April 4‚ 1968. While his fellow pioneers of civil rights begged for a nonviolent response to his death‚ the assassination inspired riots in over 100 cities throughout the United States.   The same night‚ Democratic presidential nominee Robert F. Kennedy was in Indianapolis‚ Indiana on a campaign stop when he received the news of King’s death. He announced the terrible news to those in the crowd who had gathered to listen to his speech. Despite the crowd’s emotional response‚ Kennedy urged them to embrace King’s message of love‚ nonviolence‚ and compassion. It is believed that because of Kennedy‚ riots were prevented in Indianapolis that night.   Two months after the shooting‚ police apprehended James Earl Ray at London Heathrow Airport after fingerprints had been found that linked him to the crime. Ray was a fugitive who had escaped from a Missouri prison in 1967.   After his capture and subsequent extradition‚ Ray entered a guilty plea to avoid the death penalty. However‚ shortly after he was sentenced to 99 years in prison‚ Ray recanted his confession and maintained until his death that he was innocent. While the FBI did perform an internal investigation after Ray’s death on behalf of the King family‚ no sufficient evidence was found to prompt further investigation.   4. April 23: Students Protest the Vietnam War &; Racism Strikers on the ledge of Mathematics Hall‚ one of five buildings at Columbia University that students took over in April 1968. Source: New York Times   On April 23rd‚ around one thousand Columbia University and Barnard College students gathered on Columbia’s campus and began a protest that would force the university to shut down for the rest of the school year.   The students were protesting both the war in Vietnam as well as the university’s plan to build a gymnasium over Morningside Park‚ public land that catered to the majority Black residents of Harlem. The movement was particularly poignant on behalf of the Vietnam War‚ as students fought for the safety of soldiers who were‚ on average‚ their age or younger.   The students occupied five buildings on Columbia’s campus for nearly a week before university officials called in the NYPD‚ who beat and arrested several hundred protestors. According to former Tactical Patrol Force officer Mike Reynolds‚ who was involved in the bust‚ “We thought the students were a bunch of spoiled kids…who needed a good spanking.”   Even after the violent bust of the occupation‚ Columbia students refused to go to class‚ forcing the university to close for the remainder of the school year. This inspired a wave of student activism worldwide‚ with demonstrations in Mexico City‚ Paris‚ Italy‚ and West Germany‚ among others.   In Paris‚ particularly‚ the students and police clashed on what is now known as “Bloody Monday” for the hundreds of injuries incurred. Eventually‚ when workers joined the movement‚ President Charles de Gaulle dissolved the National Assembly and threatened military intervention if the demonstrations did not stop.   The Columbia occupation inspired an era of student-led movements‚ where the young people of America and beyond could fight for the rights of themselves and others.   5. June 5: Robert F. Kennedy Assassinated Senator Robert F. Kennedy gives a speech at the Ambassador Hotel shortly before being shot and killed. Source: Politico   Shortly after being confirmed as the Democratic primary winner in California and South Dakota on June 4th‚ Robert F. Kennedy gave a speech at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles. After the speech‚ Kennedy’s security detail led him out of the hotel through the kitchen‚ citing the need to protect the presidential candidate by taking him out of a back entrance.   However‚ in a hallway of the Ambassador’s kitchen‚ Sirhan Sirhan‚ a 25-year-old Palestinian man‚ shot Kennedy three times‚ once in the head and twice in the back. Five others were shot at the same time‚ all of whom recovered except for Kennedy. Robert F. Kennedy was pronounced dead almost 25 hours later at Good Samaritan Hospital.   Sirhan was apprehended immediately and‚ although he confessed on record‚ entered a not-guilty plea‚ resulting in a large‚ highly publicized trial. Sirhan was convicted of the murder and given the death sentence in 1969. However‚ his sentence was commuted as a result of People v. Anderson. He remains in prison in California‚ serving a life term. As of April 2023‚ his request for parole has been denied 17 times.   Kennedy’s death prompted the Secret Service to begin protecting presidential candidates and was the last of four monumental assassinations to occur in the 1960s.   6. September 30: Boeing’s 747 “Jumbo Jet” is Launched The Launch Day of the 747 Jumbo Jet with several airlines’ flight attendants posing with the aircraft. Source: Northwestern University   Air travel experienced such a boom in the 1960s that companies who manufactured planes‚ like Boeing‚ had to come up with new and creative ways to fit more passengers and make more journeys. Thus‚ the 747 Jumbo Jet was born.   Unveiled in September of 1968‚ the 747 was the largest commercial plane on the market at the time. It had a capacity of 374 passengers‚ stood six stories tall‚ and weighed around 300 tons. The superjet made air travel more feasible for the average American‚ which made way for the modern relative ease of travel that we experience today.   The 747‚ however‚ was not simply a phenomenon of the 1960s. Over 50 years after its unveiling‚ the 747 is still one of the most widely used aircraft for commercial flights.   7. October 16: United States Athletes Protest at the Olympics Tommie Smith (center) and John Carlos (right) raise their fists in protest after winning the 200-meter race at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City. Source: New York Times   During the 1968 Summer Olympic Games in Mexico City‚ two American athletes changed the nature of politics in sports forever. Tommie Smith and John Carlos won the gold and bronze medals‚ respectively‚ for their participation in the 200-meter race. As they were awarded the medals‚ the two athletes lowered their heads and raised a black-gloved fist during the playing of the Star Spangled Banner.   All three athletes on the podium‚ including silver medalist Australian runner Peter Norman‚ wore the badge of the Olympic Project for Human Rights‚ which fought against segregation and racism in sports. Smith and Carlos wore no shoes and black socks‚ which they said symbolized Black poverty. Smith’s raised right fist symbolized Black Power‚ while Carlos’s raised left fist stood for Black unity‚ and together‚ the fists formed an arch of unity and power.   As they walked away from the ceremony‚ the athletes were booed and were subsequently cut from Team USA. Many felt that the display unnecessarily brought politics into sports and dampened the spirit of the Olympics. Smith‚ however‚ countered this sentiment by saying‚ “If I win I am an American‚ not a black American…But if I did something bad then they would say ‘a Negro.’ We are black and we are proud of being black.”   The two athletes were stripped of their status but ultimately returned home as heroes of the African American community‚ and their protest became one of the most famous images in sports history.   8. December 24: Apollo 8 Becomes the First Manned Spacecraft to Orbit the Moon “Earthrise‚” the most iconic photo taken on the Apollo 8 mission of December 1968. Source: The Guardian   On Christmas Eve of 1968‚ three astronauts became the first humans to travel to the moon. Bill Anders‚ Frank Borman‚ and Bill Lovell orbited the moon ten times‚ with Lovell reporting back after their reappearance from the dark side of the moon‚ “Houston‚ please be informed there is a Santa Claus.”   The week-long mission came after an intense “space race” with the Soviet Union and was full of firsts for space exploration. Apollo 8 was the first mission where humans took photos of Earth from deep space‚ including the iconic “Earthrise” photo; it was the first time the surface of the moon was broadcast on live television‚ the first time humans had gone to the dark side of the moon‚ and reached a record rocket speed of 24‚200 miles per hour.   NASA was eager to fulfill former President Kennedy’s wishes to land on the moon by the end of the 1960s‚ and the Apollo 8 mission was a necessary first step that led to the Apollo 11 mission to the lunar surface seven months later.   Apollo 8 was a high point in an otherwise tragedy-filled year. According to his book A Man on the Moon‚ Andrew Chaikin claims that the astronauts received several thousand telegrams after the mission‚ but none that affected them as much as a simple one that read “You saved 1968.”

  Part of an illustrious literary family‚ Emily Bront&;euml; was arguably the most spectacularly talented of all the Bront&;euml; family. It was‚ after all‚ her remarkable poetry that first fanned Charlotte’s ambition that she and her sisters should pursue publication to a flame. Yet Emily herself did not share Charlotte’s burning desire for fame and is often considered something of a socially awkward recluse by her modern biographers. Alternately vilified as a misanthrope and celebrated as a genius‚ here we will take a closer look at the life and work of one of the greatest writers of all time.   Early Years: Birth‚ Bereavement‚ &; Cowan Bridge Known as the Getty Portrait‚ this (supposed) portrait of Emily Bront&;euml; is widely contested. Source: IMDb   Emily Jane Bront&;euml; was born on July 30‚ 1818 in Haworth‚ West Yorkshire. By the time of her birth‚ her parents‚ the Reverend Patrick Bront&;euml; and Maria Bront&;euml; (n&;eacute;e Branwell)‚ had already had four children: her elder sisters Maria (born late 1813 or early 1814)‚ Elizabeth (born 1815)‚ and Charlotte (born 1816)‚ as well as her brother‚ Branwell (born 1817). Around eighteen months later‚ a younger sister‚ Anne‚ was born on 17 January 1820‚ and in April of that year‚ the family moved to the parsonage in Haworth with which they are so closely associated.   The children’s mother‚ however‚ developed uterine cancer. A year after their move to Haworth‚ her sister‚ Elizabeth Branwell‚ arrived at the parsonage to nurse her. She died later that year on September 15‚ 1821. Her sister‚ known to the children as Aunt Branwell‚ remained at the parsonage to care for them.   Reproduction of the profile portrait of Emily (originally part of a group painting of the Bront&;euml; siblings) by Branwell Bront&;euml;‚ c. 1833-34. Source: Encyclopedia of Trivia   On November 25‚ 1824‚ Emily was sent to board at the Clergy Daughters’ School at Cowan Bridge‚ where Maria and Elizabeth had been sent in July of that year‚ with Charlotte following them in August. This was her first time away from home‚ and Charlotte would later immortalize the school as Lowood in her 1847 novel Jane Eyre. While conditions were typically miserable‚ in 1824-25‚ a typhoid epidemic at the school killed many pupils.   It was not typhoid‚ however‚ but tuberculosis that Maria and Elizabeth caught. Maria was sent home to Haworth in February 1825 to recover but died on May 6. Three weeks later‚ Elizabeth returned to Haworth‚ also with tuberculosis‚ and died on June 15. Charlotte and Emily were then brought home the day after Elizabeth returned to Haworth in fear that they might succumb to the same fate if they remained any longer at Cowan Bridge.   Education &; the Creation of Imaginary Worlds Photograph of Charlie Murphy (who played Anne)‚ Chloe Pirrie (who played Emily)‚ and Finn Atkins (who played Charlotte) in the 2016 BBC dramatization of the lives of the Bront&;euml;s‚ To Walk Invisible: The Lives of the Bront&;euml; Sisters. Source: IMDb   After returning home from Cowan Bridge‚ Charlotte and Emily remained at Haworth to be taught at home alongside their two remaining siblings. She therefore received little by way of formal education‚ though her father’s evening oral lessons in history and religious teachings also far exceeded the educational lot of most middle-class girls of the period. Later‚ in 1829‚ the children would also receive art lessons from John Bradley.   While their father attended to the needs of his parishioners in the afternoon‚ the children would go for walks on the moors. In September 1824‚ Emily‚ Branwell‚ and Anne were accompanied by the family’s servants‚ Nancy and Sarah Garrs‚ for one such walk when a bog at Crow Hill (located behind the parsonage) erupted‚ creating a seven-foot-high wave of peat‚ mud‚ and water that catapulted boulders into the air.   Emily Bront&;euml;’s diary page‚ 26 June 1837. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The moors proved to be a place of lifelong inspiration for the children – and for Emily in particular. On June 5‚ 1826‚ Patrick returned home from a clerical conference in Leeds with presents for each of his children: ninepins for Charlotte‚ a toy village for Emily‚ a dancing doll for Anne‚ and a box of toy soldiers for Branwell. It was the latter present‚ however‚ that most delighted all four siblings. In a diary paper from three years later‚ Charlotte writes:   “I snatched up one and exclaimed this is the Duke of Wellington it shall be mine&;#33;&;#33; When I said this Emily likewise took one and said it should be hers. When Anne came down she took one also. […] Emily’s was a grave looking fellow [and so] we called him Gravey. Anne’s was a queer little boy thing much like herself. He was called Waiting-Boy. Branwell chose Bonaparte.”   Extract from Emily Bront&;euml;’s “Gondal Poems” notebook. Source: DP Traduction   In fact‚ Anne’s toy soldier went on to become Ross – after John Ross‚ the Arctic explorer – and Emily’s became Parry‚ after Sir William Edward Parry‚ John Ross’ companion-turned-nemesis and fellow explorer who led five expeditions to the North-West Passage. Emily thus made Parry King of Parry’s Land‚ which geographically resembled the wild moors of West Yorkshire and was one of the four islands that made up the siblings’ fictional city of Glass Town‚ the capital of Angria.   Charlotte and Branwell‚ however‚ as the two oldest children‚ dominated the stories the siblings played out in this imaginary world. Therefore‚ when Charlotte left Haworth to attend Roe Head School in January 1831‚ Emily and Anne created their own imaginary kingdom of Gondal – somewhere Emily would imaginatively return to for the rest of her life and would never cease writing about.   Charlotte remained at Roe Head (where she made two lifelong friends in Ellen Nussey and Mary Taylor) until June 1832. She later returned to Roe Head as a teacher‚ taking Emily with her as a pupil on July 2‚ 1835 (Miss Wooler‚ who ran the school‚ offered Charlotte the position on the suggestion that her wage would subsidize Emily’s tuition fees).   However‚ after spending three months at Roe Head‚ Emily returned to Haworth in October‚ and Anne took her place at the school. Many reasons have been suggested as to why Emily left the school relatively soon after arriving‚ including her shyness‚ homesickness‚ and (as Robert Barnard suggests) that she may well have found the level of teaching at Roe Head to be “childish and unstimulating” after the informal but far more advanced education she had received from her father (see Further Reading‚ Robert Barnard‚ p. 27).   The World of Work Photograph of Chloe Pirrie (who played Emily)‚ Charlie Murphy (who played Anne)‚ and Finn Atkins (who played Charlotte) in the 2016 BBC dramatization of the lives of the Bront&;euml;s‚ To Walk Invisible: The Lives of the Bront&;euml; Sisters. Source: IMDb   Whatever her reasons for returning home‚ Bront&;euml; was nonetheless determined to earn a living. In September 1838‚ she took up a teaching position at Law Hill School in Halifax. She had forty pupils‚ of whom she said that she preferred the school dog (Emily Bront&;euml; was an animal lover and had a particularly strong bond with her dogs Grasper and‚ later‚ Keeper). She returned home in March 1839 as her health deteriorated. Once back at the parsonage‚ her lessons with her father resumed‚ during which she read the Four Gospels and learned Latin.   As the daughters of an impoverished clergyman‚ however‚ all three of the Bront&;euml; sisters had been educated with a view to them going on to earn their livings as teachers or governesses. Led by Charlotte‚ the three sisters planned to open their own school. In pursuit of this aim‚ Charlotte asked their Aunt Branwell to finance further education for Emily and herself in Brussels to improve their language skills. Aunt Branwell consented‚ and in February 1842‚ Charlotte and Emily made their way to Brussels to attend the Pensionnat H&;eacute;ger.   Here‚ Emily made quite the impression on the school’s master‚ M. Constantin H&;eacute;ger‚ who would later recall her “stubborn tenacity of will” and that Emily “strongly – and vocally” expressed disapproval of his pedagogical methods. Nonetheless‚ he also recognized her genius.   However‚ the sisters’ time in Brussels was cut short when they learned that Aunt Branwell was ill. They prepared to make the journey back home‚ arriving in early November‚ by which time‚ however‚ Aunt Branwell had already passed away. The siblings each inherited £350 from their aunt. As her inheritance relieved some of the pressure on her to earn a living by teaching‚ Emily decided to stay behind‚ taking on housekeeping duties for her father at the parsonage.   Writing Title page of an 1858 edition of Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey. Source: Jonkers Rare Books   Back at home‚ Emily began learning German‚ and in 1844‚ she began dividing and transcribing her poems in two notebooks: one titled “Gondal Poems” and the other untitled‚ though it is now known as the “Honresfeld manuscript.” One year later‚ Charlotte opened the drawer of Emily’s writing desk and found one of these notebooks open. On reading the poems‚ Charlotte was amazed by their quality‚ immediately noticing “that these were not common effusions” but “condensed and terse‚ vigorous and genuine.”   Convinced that the poems merited publication‚ she approached Emily – who was (understandably) furious that Charlotte had invaded her privacy – with this suggestion. Charlotte‚ however‚ persisted‚ and when Anne offered some of her own poems to form part of a joint publication‚ Emily relented.   Between September 1845 and January 1846‚ she systematically reviewed her notebooks to select and refine the poems for publication. Using the pseudonyms Currer‚ Ellis‚ and Acton Bell‚ the collection – containing 21 poems by Emily‚ another 21 by Anne‚ and 19 by Charlotte – was published (at the sisters’ own expense) in 1846. Despite receiving some favorable critical reviews‚ the collection only sold two copies in the first year of publication.   This convinced Charlotte that the sisters should turn their attention to the more lucrative business of writing novels. In December 1847‚ Emily’s Wuthering Heights and Anne’s Agnes Grey were published in a single edition by Thomas Cautley Newby. Wuthering Heights scandalized readers with its portrayal of fierce love and equally fierce hatred‚ with one reviewer advocating for “burn[ing] Wuthering Heights.” Nonetheless‚ in one review kept by Bront&;euml; herself‚ her writing was deemed “better in its peculiar kind than anything that had been produced since the days of Fielding.”   Illness and Death Anatomical drawing of the lungs of a patient who died of pulmonary tuberculosis‚ Plate V‚ by Samuel George Morton‚ 1834. Source: Wellcome Collection   A year after the publication of Wuthering Heights‚ her brother‚ Branwell (who had become an alcoholic and an opium addict)‚ died on September 24‚ 1848. His cause of death was listed as “Chronic bronchitis” and “Marasmus” (meaning emaciation)‚ though it is likely that he died of tuberculosis‚ as four days after his death‚ Emily caught what was thought to be a cold at his funeral.   Despite her family’s concern‚ she carried on with her household duties as her tuberculosis “galloped.” She refused to see a doctor until‚ at midday on December 19‚ 1848‚ she relented. She died later that day at two o’clock‚ aged 30‚ with her dog‚ Keeper‚ by her side.   At the time of its publication‚ Wuthering Heights (and‚ by extension‚ its author) was widely vilified by the critics. Even Emily Bront&;euml;’s sister‚ Charlotte‚ would go on to disparage the novel‚ albeit in an attempt to mitigate some of the criticism being leveled at her sister posthumously‚ casting Emily as a “nursling of the moors” – that is‚ as an innocent who knew not what she did.   “Whether it is right or advisable to create beings like Heathcliff‚” Charlotte wrote in her 1850 preface to Wuthering Heights‚ “I do not know: I scarcely think it is.” Today‚ however‚ Wuthering Heights is celebrated as a masterpiece of English fiction‚ and Bront&;euml;’s achievement is all the more remarkable when one considers that she was not yet thirty when she wrote it. Despite her untimely death‚ therefore‚ Emily Bront&;euml;’s legacy as one of the greatest English writers of all time is assured.   Further Reading:   Barnard‚ Robert‚ Emily Bront&;euml; (Oxford: Oxford University Press‚ 2000). O’Callaghan‚ Claire‚ Emily Bront&;euml; Reappraised: A View from the Twenty-First Century (Salford: Saraband‚ 2018).

  In a particularly striking scene from Gabriel Garc&;iacute;a M&;aacute;rquez’s Nobel prize-winning novel One Hundred Years of Solitude‚ a trickle of blood takes on a life of its own‚ flowing from room to room‚ going around the carpets‚ crossing terraces‚ and climbing over curbs as it makes its way across town‚ unnoticed by all. Notably‚ this supernatural event is told in a most matter-of-fact language‚ blurring the line between the real and the magical—a literary mode that came to be known as magical realism.   In magical realism‚ supernatural elements seamlessly integrate into ordinary settings‚ assuming an unquestioned faith on the reader’s part. Many renowned works from this genre interlace magical elements to defy Eurocentric notions and write marginalized voices back into history. Here are 4 ways this literary movement accomplishes this.   1. Writing Subalternized Voices Back into History  La jungla (The Jungle) by Wilfredo Lam‚ 1943. Source: Museum of Modern Art‚ New York   Magical realism became a potent political instrument for rewriting history from the lens of colonized communities throughout the 1960s and 70s. Alejo Carpentier‚ a Cuban writer who introduced the concept of the marvelous real–a counterpart to magical realism–famously asked: “After all‚ what is the entire history of America if not a chronicle of the marvelous real&;#63;” For Carpentier and his contemporaries‚ the intricate realities of Latin America were impossible to depict with conventional forms of literary realism.   Bwa Kayiman Haiti 1791 by Nicole Jean-Louis‚ 2011. Source: Fine Art America   Carpentier introduced his theory of the marvelous real as a prologue to his 1949 novel‚ The Kingdom of This World. Set against the tumultuous backdrop of the Haitian Revolution‚ the novel offers a subjective perspective on history from a slave’s viewpoint. Carpentier portrays the struggles of enslaved populations of Haiti through the eyes of Ti Noel‚ the protagonist whose life spans the turbulent events before‚ during‚ and after the Haitian Revolution.   Within this narrative‚ Makandal‚ an enslaved Black person embodying the Afro-Caribbean hybrid identity‚ gains recognition for his supernatural powers‚ becoming a symbol of resistance against colonization. Carpentier’s idea of the “marvelous real” comes to life through this character who has the power to shape-shift into different animals‚ miraculously evade colonial authorities‚ and defeat them with potent mountain herbs. By blending historical events with magical occurrences‚ Carpentier invites the Afro-Carribean perspective and identity into the retelling of the history of Haiti and its struggle for freedom.   2. Defying Conventional Notions of Time The Aftermath of Macondo by Michael Young‚ circa 2016. Source: Michael Young Fine Art   In his most famous novel‚ entitled Hopscotch‚ Argentine Julio Cort&;aacute;zar allows his readers to hopscotch around the text and read it in multiple chronologies. For many authors representing Latin America’s literary boom era‚ such non-linear narratives were a brilliant way to play with Eurocentric and conventional notions of time and history.   With origins in Europe‚ magical realism gained resonance in Latin America in the 1960s as both an effort to subvert European literary norms and craft narratives that could revise the colonial past. Literary critic Steven Stern notes that the unresolved colonial legacy in Latin America “unsettles unilinear notions of the march of historical time” (1996). The following line from M&;aacute;rquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude perfectly encapsulates this endeavor: “Melqu&;iacute;ades had not put events in the order of man’s conventional time‚ but had concentrated a century of daily episodes in such a way that they coexisted in one instant.”   Illustrations for the 50th anniversary edition of M&;aacute;rquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude by Luisa Rivera‚ 2017. Source: Luisa Rivera   Like many other authors from this epoch‚ M&;aacute;rquez challenges chronology and historical time to suggest that there is no single way of perceiving time. The Colombian author takes the reader from past to present in a non-linear manner over multiple generations of the Buend&;iacute;a family. The novel opens with Colonel Buend&;iacute;a’s execution as he faces the firing squad‚ as though looking at his past unfold right in front of him while he waits for the reader to catch up to that present moment. It is as if the hundred years in M&;aacute;rquez’s fictional town of Macondo coexisted in that single instant.   This endeavor of unsettling notions of time is far from arbitrary; it grounds itself in the beliefs of many indigenous cultures of Latin America. For the Aymara people of the Andes‚ for instance‚ the past lies ahead of us while the future resides behind us. In this stark departure from European frameworks of time‚ the future remains concealed from view‚ and one must gesture towards their back to refer to it. The past‚ however‚ is visible‚ lying right before our eyes.   Above all‚ One Hundred Years of Solitude comments on the cyclical nature of history in the postcolonial experience. The narrative moves back and forth between the past‚ present‚ and future. Yet‚ nothing ever seems to happen in Macondo. There is only solitude.   3. Offering Postcolonial Critique through Local Cosmogenies Banana workers carrying bananas during early 20th century Colombia. Source: Collecteurs‚ the Museum of Private Collections   Alongside challenging notions of time‚ magical realist authors created a space for European and indigenous cosmogenies to intermingle and provide a widened perspective of time‚ history‚ and what is considered real. Numerous texts from the Latin American Boom era set out to re-imagine pre-Columbian civilizations and re-articulate postcolonial realities in Latin America. This effort implied weaving pre-Columbian cosmovisions into literary fiction and providing fictional renderings of historical episodes.   In One Hundred Years of Solitude‚ M&;aacute;rquez provides an account of the tragic event known as the Banana Massacre. The event took place in Ci&;eacute;naga‚ Colombia‚ in 1928‚ following a labor strike by banana plantation workers‚ who were demanding improved working conditions. M&;aacute;rquez’s portrayal of the tragic event‚ in which plantation workers were killed by the Colombian military forces at the behest of the United Fruit Company‚ challenges the official historical narrative and provides an alternative account. Magical realism‚ then‚ as Homi Bhabba puts it‚ “becomes the literary language of the emergent postcolonial world” (Bhabha‚ 1990).   The Aztec Stone of the Sun (also referred to as the Calendar Stone). Source: American Museum of Natural History‚ New York   The inclusion of pre-Columbian perspectives and cosmogenies further contributed to the creation of this distinctive literary language. This intention is brilliantly exemplified in Julio Cort&;aacute;zar’s “The Night Face Up‚” a short story that blurs the line between dream and reality‚ past and present. Following a motorcycle accident‚ the story’s protagonist finds himself drifting between two realms. In one‚ he is lying on a hospital bed in modern-day Mexico‚ receiving medical treatment. In the other‚ he is a captive warrior about to be sacrificed to the gods of a fictional Mesoamerican civilization called Motecas (a witty wordplay between Spanish “motocicleta” (motorcycle) and “Aztecas” (Aztecs)).   As the protagonist travels from one world to another‚ unable to tell which one is real‚ so does the reader. The ending of the story is nothing short of unexpected. Implicitly‚ the story seems to suggest that the real world experienced by the protagonist is not the hospital bed in present-day Mexico but rather the ancient world of the Motecas. The protagonist’s accident and his subsequent treatment in the hospital is‚ in fact‚ the hallucination or the dream. With this reversion of historical time‚ Cortazar poignantly re-inserts a pre-Coloumbian perspective back into history to disturb Eurocentric perceptions of time. This comes as a subtle wink to the implied reader‚ playfully teasing their expectations.   4. Reclaiming Female Stories Illustrations for the 50th anniversary edition of One Hundred Years of Solitude by Luisa Rivera‚ 2017. Source: Luisa Rivera   While male voices dominated magical realism in Latin America throughout the 1960s and 70s‚ a feminist approach did not take too long to emerge‚ the most vivid example being Isabel Allende’s bestselling 1982 novel The House of the Spirits. Released 15 years after the original publication of One Hundred Years of Solitude‚ the novel has often been interpreted as the feminist counterpart to the quintessential Latin American magical realist novel.   Originally written as a letter to her dying grandfather during her time in exile in Venezuela‚ Allende’s novel interlaces magic and the female experience to address the country’s complex socio-political realities. In an interview‚ Allende mentions that she wanted to write a letter to her grandfather so she would not forget her family’s history. As the niece of the former Chilean President Salvador Allende‚ who tragically ended his life during the coup orchestrated by General Augusto Pinochet‚ the writer experienced firsthand the effects of the subsequent military dictatorship and exile.   Military coup‚ Santiago de Chile‚ September 11‚ 1973‚ by Koen Wessing. Source: The Guardian   As a magical realist text that weaves a multi-generational story‚ comparisons were inevitably drawn between The House of Spirits and One Hundred Years of Solitude. Markedly centered around women‚ however‚ Allende’s text goes beyond mere imitation. The Chilean writer creates a stellar parody of M&;aacute;rquez’s text while putting female characters and their magical abilities at the core of her narrative. The unmistakable magical realist cues interwoven in the novel serve as a witty nod to the M&;aacute;rquezian world but masterfully transcend it by drawing upon a distinctively female perspective.   The House of Spirits‚ which propelled Allende to international bestseller status‚ remains one of the most prominent magical realist novels that intends to write female voices back into history and the genre. Amid the backdrop of political events and social injustices‚ Allende weaves in magical occurrences‚ clairvoyance‚ and spirituality‚ masterfully writing women as a “site of history” (Foreman‚ 1992). Other notable works that took the magical realist route to delve into feminist perspectives are Like Water for Chocolate (1992) by Mexican Laura Esquivel and So Far From God (1993) by Mexican-American author Ana Castillo.   References:    Bhabha‚ K. H.  (1990). Nation and narration. Routledge.   Foreman‚ G. (1992). Past-on stories: History and the magically real‚ Morrison and Allende on call. Feminist Studies 18(2)‚ 369–88.   Stern‚ J. S. (1996). The tricks of time: Colonial legacies and historical sensibilities in Latin America. The Princeton University Library Chronicle‚ 57(3)‚ 371–92.

  Sor Juana In&;eacute;s de la Cruz‚ hailed as Mexico’s Tenth Muse‚ is among Latin America’s most celebrated nuns and female authors. A self-taught scholar‚ Sor Juana’s literary contributions are wide-ranging‚ from eloquent sonnets to popular villancicos‚ essays‚ and plays. Her erudition and wit earned her recognition in the elite circles of Mexico’s colonial society but did not ensure a trouble-free life. Sor Juana continuously faced strong opposition from the Catholic Church. Despite this‚ she left a huge literary legacy and is widely regarded as the first published feminist of the New World.   Childhood &; Early Years  The first portrait of Sor Juana In&;eacute;s de la Cruz by Anonymous‚ 1673. Source: Jaime Eguiguren Art &; Antiques   Sor Juana was born in 1948 or 1951 in the viceroyalty of New Spain (present-day Mexico) to Do&;ntilde;a Isabel Ramirez de Santillana and Pedro Manuel de Asbaje‚ a captain from the Basque region of Spain. Sor Juana grew up in a single household and her father never recognized her as his legitimate daughter‚ a circumstance that presented a detriment in colonial Mexican society. The nun was acutely aware of this and went on to eloquently address it in one of her poems. To Sor Juana’s advantage‚ her mother held a respected position in society as an independent woman of entrepreneurial character‚ something that was not common in her time. In a feminist reconstruction of Sor Juana’s biography‚ Theresa A Yugar notes that her mother ran a hacienda by herself‚ modeling strength and independence to her daughters.   A child prodigy‚ Sor Juana demonstrated a thirst for knowledge from an early age and knew how to read by the age of 3. The nun claims to have followed her older sister to a school for young girls called “Amigas.” Since higher education was denied to women in 17th-century Mexico‚ Sor Juana had limited access to books as a young adult. In one of her essays advocating for women’s right to education‚ she describes how she would insist on dressing up as a boy to be able to attend a university in Mexico City.   Portrait of Sister Juana In&;eacute;s de la Cruz‚ attributed to Nicol&;aacute;s Enr&;iacute;quez de Vargas‚ c. 1720-1770. Source: Philadelphia Museum of Art   At the age of 13‚ Sor Juana moved to Mexico City to live with her mother’s sister. This is where she entered higher society and gained admiration in elite circles. Her encounter and later friendship with the viceroy of Puebla and his wife marked the beginning of a new chapter in Sor Juana’s life‚ as their patronage afforded her the freedom to fully dedicate herself to intellectual pursuits and writing.   Convent Life &; Relationship with the Church A still from the film I‚ the Worst of All by Maria Luisa Bemberg‚ 1990. Source: Museum of Modern Art‚ New York   At the age of 17‚ Sor Juana had to make a life choice: to enter the convent or marry. These were the only socially acceptable ways for a woman in 17th-century Mexico to protect her social status‚ economic security‚ and respectability. Sor Juana chose the convent and dedicated her life to learning‚ writing‚ and charity.   Why would Sor Juana choose convent life instead of securing herself through marriage&;#63;   Her decision was influenced by several factors. First‚ the convent was a place where she could access a library and continue her intellectual pursuits‚ which were limited for women outside the convent walls‚ and would not be possible as a married woman. Second‚ taking religious vows allowed her a degree of independence and self-reliance that was otherwise unavailable to women in her time. The Convent of San Jer&;oacute;nimo in Mexico City became a refuge for her to pursue her intellectual interests and protect her autonomy at the same time.   Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz by Jennifer Randall. Source: Jennifer Randall Official Site   Life in the convent came with its own challenges. Although Sor Juana served the convent in numerous ways‚ her intellect was questioned and tested by male authorities throughout her life. This led to her engaging in intellectual debates and examinations with prominent scholars of the time. These exchanges not only showcased her scholarship but also brought her recognition as a respected scholar while precariously positioning her as an advocate for women’s education.   As a writer working across different genres and themes‚ her secular writings‚ in particular‚ garnered the discontent of clerical authorities. Sor Juana lived during an epoch when the Catholic Church held immense power and the Inquisition was active in colonial Mexico. Not surprisingly‚ the nun’s passionate pursuit of knowledge and expression of her ideas often put her at odds with the Church.   Advocacy for Women’s Education  Carta atenag&;oacute;rica by Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz‚ 1690‚ National Library of Spain. Source: Biblioteca Digital Hispanica   Sor Juana’s defense of her right to pursue knowledge and self-expression was a point of conflict with ecclesiastical authorities throughout her life. Controversial writings that challenged established norms‚ such as women’s education and women’s right to engage in intellectual discourse‚ garnered scrutiny and criticism. Fortunately‚ Sor Juana enjoyed friendship and protection from the viceregal authorities‚ which had equal power in colonial Mexico‚ and little could be done to stifle her self-expression. Notably‚ Sor Juana shared a deep friendship with the viceroy and vicereine of Puebla‚ who helped publish her works in Spain. With their departure from New Spain‚ Sor Juana’s relationship with the Church became more challenging.   Sor Juana did not delay in responding. In her essay titled Respuesta a Sor Filotea de la Cruz (“Response to Sister Filotea of the Cross”)‚ Sor Juana presents a trajectory of her life and the obstacles she needed to overcome in order to receive an education. She peppered her argument with the wisdom of great philosophers and biblical sources‚ avidly defending women’s right to education. Her essay is not only a testament to her erudition and argumentative abilities but also conveys a unique sense of humor. Noting her love for cooking‚ Sor Juana defends her natural “inclination to letters” wittily suggesting that “if Aristotle had cooked‚ he would have written a great deal more.” Amidst the challenges and criticisms she faced‚ Sor Juana courageously defended her “inclination to knowledge” as a gift from God that she could not resist. Her writings left an indelible mark on colonial literature‚ challenging the prevailing patriarchal norms of the era.   Secular Works &; Feminist Themes Portrait of Sor Juana by Mauricio García Vega   A prolific writer‚ Sor Juana’s literary repertoire includes plays‚ essays‚ and a wide array of secular works. She stands as one of the most prominent figures of the Hispanic Baroque and Spanish Golden Age literature. Sor Juana’s literary legacy speaks of her resilience as a woman writing under the scrutiny of ecclesiastical authorities. Among her notable works is “Primero Sue&;ntilde;o‚” a 975-line baroque poem translated into English as “First Dream‚” an enigmatic and mystical poem‚ considered by many to be Sor Juana’s masterpiece. The poem‚ which describes the soul’s quest for knowledge as the body falls asleep‚ is a testament to Sor Juana’s imaginative prowess‚ erudition‚ and ability to navigate philosophical themes.   “El Divino Narciso‚” one of her notable plays‚ reflects her deep engagement with theological and allegorical narratives. The play subtly blends Catholic and Aztec beliefs‚ a feature prominent in the Spanish-American baroque. In a more popular vein‚ Sor Juana authored numerous villancicos that she composed specifically to be sung in the cathedral. According to one of Sor Juana’s biographies‚ these villancicos not only celebrate women but also challenge patriarchal attitudes toward them‚ for example‚ this carol dedicated to St. Catherine of Alexandria‚ with whom she shared similar struggles.   Catherine bears the victory&;#33; For with knowledge pure and holy She’s convinced the learned men And has emerged victorious — with her knowledge glorious — from their arrogance profane‚ which would convince and conquer her. But Catherine is the victor&;#33; Other feminist themes imbue Sor Juana’s poetry. Her poem “You Foolish Men” is one of the most notable examples‚ largely interpreted as a criticism of the “hypocrisy of the relations between men and women in New Spain.”   You foolish men who lay the guilt on women‚ not seeing you’re the cause of the very thing you blame; If you invite their disdain with measureless desire why wish they well behave if you incite to ill.   Love Poems &; Legacy Sor Juana and Mar&;iacute;a Luisa‚ a still from the film I‚ the Worst of All by Maria Luisa Bemberg‚ 1990. Source: Habana Film Festival   Sor Juana authored dozens of love poems‚ many of which were dedicated to the vicereine of Puebla—Mar&;iacute;a Luisa Manrique de Lara y Gonzaga.   Much has been written about the nun’s friendship with the vicereine‚ hinting at Sor Juana’s homosexuality and her impossible love for Mar&;iacute;a Luisa‚ the sole source for this speculation being Sor Juana’s poetry itself. Below is an excerpt from a poem Sor Juana dedicated to Mar&;iacute;a Luisa‚ or Lysis‚ as she calls her.   My divine Lysis: do forgive my daring‚ if so I address you‚ unworthy though I am to be known as yours. I cannot think it bold to call you so‚ well knowing you’ve ample thunderbolts to shatter any overweening of mine.   Sor Juana concludes the poem with the following verses:   There are women more deserving‚ yet in distance from heaven the humblest of valleys seems no farther than the highest peak. In sum‚ I must admit to the crime of adoring you; should you wish to punish me‚ the very punishment will be a reward.   Taking into consideration Sor Juana’s religious vows as well as the societal norms of her time‚ it’s most likely that the relationship between the two women was strictly platonic.   Today‚ Sor Juana’s legacy lives on‚ making her one of the most celebrated authors‚ nuns‚ and feminist voices in the Latin American literary tradition. Chilean Maria Luisa Bemberg’s 1990 film‚ I‚ the Worst of All‚ brilliantly captures Sor Juana’s journey within the confining walls of the convent and her complex relationship with the Church. Inspired by Octavio Paz’s biography of Sor Juana‚ the title of the film alludes to a phrase with which Sor Juana signed documents toward the end of her life. Sor Juana’s last days were filled with the turmoil of having to give up her library containing thousands of books and musical and scientific instruments. Sor Juana died soon thereafter due to an epidemic that swept through the convent in 1695.   Sor Juana’s remains at the University of the Cloister of Sor Juana in Mexico City. Source: University of the Cloister of Sor Juana   At the end of her life‚ Sor Juana fully dedicated herself to charitable activities within the convent. The San Jer&;oacute;nimo Convent where Sor Juana spent nearly three decades of her life has now been converted into the University of the Cloister of Sor Juana‚ which houses Sor Juana’s remains. A plaque accompanies the coffin‚ which roughly translates to “I want to see who kills me triumphant‚ and kill who wants to see me triumphant.”   References:   De la Cruz‚ Juana In&;eacute;s (2014). Selected Works. (E. Grossman‚ Trans.). W.W. Norton &; Company.   De la Cruz‚ Juana In&;eacute;s (1988). A Sor Juana Anthology. (A.S. Trueblood‚ Trans.). Harvard University Press.   Yugar‚ Theresa A (2014). Sor Juana In&;eacute;s de la Cruz: Feminist Reconstruction of Biography and Text. Wipf &; Stock Publishers.

Sen. Josh Hawley believes President Joe Biden's &;quot;green&;quot; policies may be fueled by dark money -- and the Missouri Republican took one official task over it. Hawley engaged in a contentious exchange with Interior Secretary Deb Haaland on Thursday over alleged meetings with &;quot;foreign dark-money groups that actively fund left-wing...

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