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  Discovered in 1945 near the town of Nag Hammadi in Egypt, the Nag Hammadi Library is a collection of ancient texts that has profoundly influenced our understanding of early Christianity and Gnostic beliefs. This remarkable find, consisting of 13 codices and over 50 texts, sheds light on the diversity of early Christian thought and provides invaluable insights into Gnostic traditions. This article will focus on the history and discovery of the library, its composition, the translation process, and its impact on modern understandings of early Christianity and Gnosticism.   The History and Discovery of the Library Site identified by ‘Abd al-Naẓīr Yāsīn ‘Abd al-Raḥīm. Source: The Claremont Colleges Digital Library   In 1945 a man named Muhammad al-Samman came across a sealed jar that contained 13 leather-bound papyrus codices near the upper Egyptian town of Nag Hammadi. He found them at the base of Jabal al-Ṭārif Cliff with his brothers while they were in search of sabakh, a soil used as fertilizer.   While digging for the soil, they struck a clay jar. After digging it up, al-Samman hesitated to break it, as a jinn might be trapped inside, but the possibility that it might contain treasure was enticing. Al-Samman broke the jar, and the 13 leather-bound books were found inside. His mother ended up burning a few of the manuscripts as kindling, while others were sold on the black market until the Egyptian government caught wind and seized them.   The details of this story are questionable, however, as the number of people present at the discovery was changed a few times by al-Samman, he claimed there was a skeleton next to the jar, and his brother might have made the discovery instead without him. This led some scholars to speculate that he was just a simple grave robber. He knew that the texts were valuable and hid them with different people with the hope of selling them soon. Hiding the codices also hinged on the fact that police were investigating a murder that al-Samman and his brothers committed as revenge for their father’s death.   Muḥammad ‘Alī Khalīfah al-Sammān. Source: The Claremont Colleges Digital Library   Although incongruent with our modern idea of a library consisting of rows of shelves and books, the 13 codices contained a wealth of knowledge that would influence scholars of Gnosticism for decades to come. After the discovery, the codices eventually landed in the Department of Antiquities and thereafter were handed over to the Coptic Museum. The texts were declared the national property of Egypt, as there were fears that attempts would be made to sell them, and it was agreed that they would stay in their country of origin.   A single codex was sold, however, and made its way into the hands of the Carl Gustav Jung Institute in 1951. Interestingly, Carl Jung, the founder of analytical psychology, had a keen interest in Gnosticism and Gnostic texts, and this codex was intended as a birthday present. After his death in 1961, there was a disagreement over the ownership of the codex, and it was only returned to Cairo in 1975, where it (along with the other surviving codices) is preserved to this day.   Sanctus Pachomius, by Abraham Bloemaert and Boetius à Bolswert, 1619. Source: Wikimedia Commons   There are many theories as to who the texts originally belonged to. Some scholars believe that the codices belonged to a monk of the nearby Pachomian monastery who buried them when non-canonical texts were banned. Other scholars posit that it was the collection of a private individual and was buried along with them as funerary items. A more radical theory states that perhaps the codices weren’t buried together in a jar, but instead were buried and found in different places. After all, a story becomes more captivating when it involves a mysterious sealed jar found next to a skeleton.   Composition of the Library Leaves of Codex II. Source: The Claremont Colleges Digital Library   The library consists of 13 leatherbound codices, which contain around 52 individual gospels, apocalyptic texts, and treatises. These are works that were translated into Coptic, the original texts were in Greek and much older than the codices. The papyrus was dated to around 350-400 CE, while the original Greek texts are dated to around 120-150 CE, although scholars generally disagree on the exact dates.   These works are generally Gnostic in nature, however, three of the texts belong to the Corpus Hermeticum and one is a partial translation of Plato’s Republic. Even though most of the texts are Gnostic in nature, scholars agree that the differences between them are big enough to assume that they come from different places and were collected to form the library. They were either collected in antiquity and buried together, or they were collected in the modern era and the story of the jar was fabricated.   Impact on the Understanding of Gnosticism and Early Christianity The Virgin in Prayer, by Sassoferrato, 1640-1650. Source: National Gallery, London   The discovery and subsequent translation and interpretations prompted scholars to reconsider their modern understanding of Gnosticism. Along with the discovery of Manichaean texts, scholars had to recontextualize everything that was known. For the first time, these Gnostic texts revealed the ideas that orthodox Christians of the early centuries despised.   Not only is God the Father mentioned, but so is God the Mother. These texts reveal opposing thoughts about the nature of God, salvation, and sin. It focuses on self-knowledge as salvation, and instead of sin, disillusionment and ignorance lead to damnation. Self-knowledge is knowledge of the divine, and the divine and the self are identical. Another text found at Nag Hammadi titled Thunder, the Perfect Mind speaks in the strong voice of the divine feminine about the paradoxical nature of life and faith:   “Why, you who hate me, do you love me, and hate those who love me? You who deny me, confess me, and you who confess me, deny me. You who tell the truth about me, lie about me, and you who have lied about me, tell the truth about me. You who know me, be ignorant of me, and those who have not known me, let them know me.”   The codices also reveal more about the role of women in Gnosticism. The Nag Hammadi texts depict women as leaders and heroines, challenging the prevailing notion that Gnostic women were simply victims of circumstance.   Saint Irénée, by Lucien Bégule. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Not only did the Nag Hammadi Library provide invaluable knowledge on early Gnosticism, but it also provided context and an understanding of how early Christianity developed until it was mostly solidified as an institution by 200 CE.   It is well known that the early fathers of the church denounced any heretical texts, which included Gnostic texts like those found at Nag Hammadi. For example, Irenaeus of Lyons, an early orthodox bishop, denounced a particular text called the Gospel of Truth, which is the title of one of the Nag Hammadi writings. Being caught with any heretical writings was deemed a crime and many texts were subsequently destroyed or lost.   Nag Hammadi Codices. Source: The Claremont Colleges Digital Library   This left a gaping hole in what we know about early heretical religions, and Gnosticism in particular. What scholars knew about alternative forms of Christianity mostly came from the documented attacks on what were deemed heretical religions. However, the discovery of the Nag Hammadi Library managed to fill in some of the gaps, and even change what we know altogether.   It was once thought that early Christianity was more uniform, it was faith in its purest form, and that diversity in the church is a modern phenomenon. The Nag Hammadi Library forced scholars to reconsider this completely and to concede that early Christianity was way more diverse than previously thought. Early Gnostics did not consider themselves heretics, they considered themselves Christian, but held beliefs that were radically different from the norm at the time. In many ways, early Christianity was more diverse than the contemporary Christianity that we know.   Preservation and Translation International Committee for the Nag Hammadi Codices. Source: The Claremont Colleges Digital Library   The discovery of the Nag Hammadi Library generated international scholarly interest. The translation and interpretation of the texts was an international effort but also evoked a bit of competition between institutions and universities across the globe. Although it was discovered in 1945, translations happened slowly over the decades, owing to the unstable political landscape of Egypt. The director of the Coptic Museum, Dr Pahor Labib, initially kept strict control of the publishing rights, as the scholars who first published it would cement international publication. This meant that very few people had seen the manuscripts until French scholars alerted UNESCO to their existence in 1961.   Subsequently, UNESCO established an international committee to oversee translation, which initially only had European members (and one American). Later funding from the US meant that US scholarly input increased as well. A translation consisting of twelve volumes was published in the 1970s, which made it available to the wider academic community and the public.   Modern Relevance and Influence View of Jabal al-Ṭārif cliff from Local Lake, 1975. Source: The Claremont Colleges Digital Library   Today, studies of the Nag Hammadi Library are multi-faceted. Some scholars analyze the texts from a literary point of view, while others focus on what the codices can tell us about early Christianity. Not only has scholarly intrigue increased, but so has interest from the public, which coincided with the development of modern Gnostic churches.   The idea that hidden knowledge was found after centuries in a jar in Egypt was enough to entice any curious person in search of alternative religions. Thousands of websites focused on Gnostic teachings and philosophy have subsequently sprung up, and it remains a popular topic for internet users to research. The Nag Hammadi Library has truly become an invaluable source of information on early alternative Christian beliefs and philosophy.

  Alabama played a central role in some of the most important chapters of American history, from early statehood and frontier settlement to the Civil War and the Civil Rights Movement. Montgomery served as the first capital of the Confederacy. Birmingham and Selma became focal points during the 1960s struggle for voting rights. Today, the state is home to nationally recognized landmarks like Ivy Green in Tuscumbia, Gaineswood in Demopolis, and the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma. Beyond these sites, Alabama also features a number of smaller historic towns worth visiting, each offering preserved architecture, unique heritage, and a deeper look at the state’s past.   1. Mooresville Post office in Mooresville, Alabama. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Nestled just off I-565 in Limestone County, Mooresville is a living museum of early Southern life. Incorporated on November 16, 1818, one year before Alabama achieved statehood, it stands as the state’s oldest incorporated town. The entire village is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, earning it the nickname “Alabama’s Williamsburg.”   Visitors can explore the 1839 Brick Church, a Greek Revival gem built with handmade bricks, and the 1854 Church of Christ, where future President James A. Garfield, who was assassinated, once preached during the Civil War.   The circa 1840 Mooresville Post Office, still in operation, is the oldest in Alabama and among the oldest in the nation. Nearby, the Stagecoach Inn and Tavern, dating to the early 1820s, once served as a rest stop for travelers and now houses the town hall.   With its tree-lined streets, white picket fences, and historic homes, Mooresville offers a serene glimpse into 19th-century life. Guided walking tours led by local residents provide rich insights into the town’s storied past.   2. Eufaula Kendall Manor in Eufaula, Alabama. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Eufaula, gracefully perched on the banks of the Chattahoochee River, is a town where history and Southern charm converge. Established in 1834 on the site of former Creek Indian villages, Eufaula blossomed into a prosperous river port, exporting cotton and importing fine goods from distant ports like New York and Liverpool.   The town’s affluence is immortalized in the Seth Lore and Irwinton Historic District, Alabama’s second-largest historic district, boasting over 700 structures that showcase Greek Revival, Italianate, and Victorian architecture. Among these, the Shorter Mansion stands out, a neoclassical masterpiece built in 1884, now serving as a museum that delves into Eufaula’s rich past. Nearby, Fendall Hall, an Italianate-style home completed in 1860, offers a glimpse into 19th-century life with its period furnishings and intricate interior designs.   Eufaula’s unique character is further highlighted by the “Tree That Owns Itself,” a post oak granted ownership of its land in 1935, a symbol of the town’s whimsical spirit. Nature enthusiasts can explore the Eufaula National Wildlife Refuge, a haven for diverse bird species and wildlife. Additionally, Lake Eufaula, known as the “Bass Capital of the World,” offers ample opportunities for fishing and boating.   3. Mentone Mentone Springs Hotel, Mentone, Alabama. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Established in the late 19th century, Mentone began as a health resort, attracting visitors to its mineral springs believed to have healing properties. The town’s name, inspired by the French resort Menton, reflects its founders’ vision of a tranquil retreat.   Mentone’s rich history is evident in its landmarks. The Mentone Springs Hotel, built between 1884 and 1887, was once a grand resort that stood for over a century before its unfortunate destruction by fire in 2014. The Dr. J.A. Gorman House, known as the “Hanging Cottage,” showcases early 20th-century architecture and offers panoramic views from its perch on the mountain’s edge.   Nature enthusiasts can explore DeSoto Falls, a stunning 104-foot waterfall carved by the Little River. Nearby, the Old Union Crossing Covered Bridge, originally constructed around 1863, adds historical charm to the landscape.   Mentone’s cultural tapestry includes a legacy of summer camps like Camp DeSoto and Camp Skyline, which have welcomed generations of campers since the early 20th century. The town also embraces its artistic side, with local galleries and shops showcasing regional crafts and artworks.   4. Tuscumbia Historic downtown Tuscumbia, Alabama. Source: Picryl   Tuscumbia, nestled in the heart of the Shoals region, is a town steeped in history and Southern charm. Founded in the early 19th century, Tuscumbia is perhaps best known as the birthplace of Helen Keller. Her childhood home, Ivy Green, built in 1820, stands as a testament to her remarkable journey from isolation to inspiration. Visitors can explore the main house, the cottage where Helen was born, and the famous water pump where she first communicated with her teacher, Anne Sullivan.   Beyond Ivy Green, Tuscumbia’s historic downtown offers a glimpse into the past with its well-preserved architecture and local shops. The Colbert County Courthouse Square Historic District features structures dating back to the 19th century, including the 1881 courthouse and the Commercial Row buildings from the 1840s. Nearby, the Tuscumbia Historic District encompasses 232 acres of historic homes and buildings, showcasing architectural styles from Queen Anne to Tudor Revival.   For those interested in the broader historical context, the Tuscumbia Landing site marks a poignant chapter in Native American history as part of the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail System.   5. Magnolia Springs St. Paul’s Episcopal Church in Magnolia Springs, Alabama. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Established around 1800 through a Spanish land grant, Magnolia Springs flourished post-Civil War as families from both the North and South settled along its banks, drawn by the area’s natural beauty and the reputed purity of its spring waters.   Magnolia Springs is renowned for its unique river mail delivery system, the only one of its kind in the United States, where mail is delivered by boat directly to residents’ docks. The town’s historic district, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, features notable landmarks such as the Carpenter Gothic-style St. Paul’s Episcopal Church, consecrated in 1902, and the Governor’s Club, a testament to early 20th-century resort architecture.   Visitors can explore the Magnolia Springs Historic District, encompassing 163 acres of preserved homes and buildings that reflect the town’s rich heritage. For outdoor enthusiasts, the nearby Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge offers opportunities for birdwatching, kayaking, and enjoying Alabama’s coastal ecosystems.   6. Abbeville City Hall and Police Department building in Abbeville, Alabama. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Nestled in Alabama’s Wiregrass region, Abbeville is a town rich in history and Southern charm. Established in the early 19th century, it became the county seat of Henry County in 1833 and was officially incorporated in 1853.   Abbeville’s name is believed to derive from the Muscogee term “Yatta Abba,” meaning “grove of dogwood trees,” reflecting the area’s Native American heritage.   The town boasts several historic landmarks. The Bethune-Kennedy House, a rare Creole cottage built circa 1840, stands as the oldest remaining structure in Abbeville. Another notable site is the Oates House, constructed in the early 20th century and listed on the National Register of Historic Places.   Abbeville’s downtown area features tree-lined streets and preserved architecture, offering a glimpse into its storied past. Visitors can explore local shops and eateries that contribute to the town’s welcoming atmosphere.   A unique aspect of Abbeville’s culture is the legend of Huggin’ Molly, a folklore figure said to roam the streets at night, embracing unsuspecting individuals.   Abbeville also honors its agricultural roots, particularly its association with peanut farming, which remains a significant part of the local economy.   7. Greensboro Multiflora in Greensboro, Alabama. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Greensboro, incorporated in 1823, is located in Hale County in the heart of the Black Belt region. The town grew rapidly in the 19th century as cotton production expanded, and many of its original structures remain intact. Greensboro’s downtown area is part of the National Register-listed Greensboro Historic District, which includes a wide range of antebellum and early 20th-century commercial and residential buildings.   One of the town’s most significant landmarks is Magnolia Grove, a Greek Revival mansion built around 1840. It was the boyhood home of Richmond Pearson Hobson, a naval officer and Medal of Honor recipient.   Greensboro is also home to the Safe House Black History Museum, which preserves the legacy of the Civil Rights Movement and occupies the house where Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. took shelter in 1968 to evade the Ku Klux Klan.   8. Demopolis Gaineswood, a plantation house in Demopolis, Alabama. Source: Picryl   Demopolis, founded in 1817 by French expatriates, is a city rich in history and architectural heritage. The city’s name, meaning “City of the People,” reflects its origins as the Vine and Olive Colony, an ambitious agricultural settlement that ultimately gave way to a thriving river town.   At the heart of Demopolis’s historical significance is Gaineswood, a National Historic Landmark. Constructed between 1843 and 1861 by Nathan Bryan Whitfield, this Greek Revival mansion showcases elaborate domed ceilings and intricate plasterwork, exemplifying antebellum architecture.   Another notable site is Bluff Hall, built in 1832 by Allen Glover for his daughter and son-in-law. Originally designed in the Federal style, it was later modified to incorporate Greek Revival elements. Today, Bluff Hall serves as a museum, offering insights into 19th-century life in Demopolis.   The city’s historic downtown features the Demopolis Town Square, established in 1819. This park, one of Alabama’s oldest public squares, is surrounded by significant structures, including Rooster Hall, a building with a diverse history as a church, courthouse, and theater.   9. Moody’s Chapel (near Courtland) Buildings along College Street on the town square in Courtland, Alabama. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Moody’s Chapel, located near Courtland in Lawrence County, Alabama, is a historic site with limited publicly available information. While specific details about the chapel’s history and significance are scarce, it is recognized as a notable location within the region.   The surrounding area of Courtland is rich in history, featuring several landmarks listed on the National Register of Historic Places. These include the Courtland Historic District, which encompasses a variety of architectural styles and historical structures, and the John McMahon House, a Federal-style home built around 1830.   Additionally, the nearby Rocky Hill Castle, though demolished in 1961, was once a prominent plantation known for its unique blend of architectural styles and associated folklore.   Visitors interested in exploring the historical context of Moody’s Chapel may find value in touring these nearby sites to gain a broader understanding of the area’s heritage.   10. Marion Old Marion City Hall in Marion, Alabama. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Marion, established in 1817 and incorporated in 1819, serves as the county seat of Perry County. Situated in the Black Belt region, the town has a rich history encompassing antebellum architecture, educational institutions, and civil rights heritage.   The town is home to several historic districts listed on the National Register of Historic Places, including the Green Street Historic District, Marion Courthouse Square Historic District, Judson College Historic District, and West Marion Historic District. These districts feature a variety of architectural styles, such as Greek Revival, Gothic Revival, and Tudor Revival, reflecting the town’s development over time.   Notable landmarks include Kenworthy Hall, an Italian Villa-style mansion built between 1858 and 1860, recognized as a National Historic Landmark. Reverie, a Greek Revival mansion constructed circa 1858, now operates as a historic house museum.   Marion has a strong educational legacy, being the original location of Howard College (now Samford University) and home to Judson College, established in 1838. The Marion Military Institute, tracing its origins to 1842, is the nation’s oldest military junior college.   The town also played a significant role in African American education and civil rights. The Lincoln Normal School, founded in 1867, was among the earliest institutions for educating African American teachers and students. The Phillips Memorial Auditorium, built in 1937, stands as a testament to this legacy.

  The renowned Silk Road was a network of trade routes that spanned the Asian, North African, and European continents between 130 BCE and 1453 CE. For a long time, the network was considered to be one of the primary nerve-centers of the early global economy. In the era in which it existed, the world was much more difficult to traverse compared to modern times due to limited travel modes, and so it remained as a prime trade route for traders for centuries. The network was largely made up of land-based pathways and sea-routes. It stretched from China to Korea and Japan in the east, and connected China and India in the south. It also linked with modern-day Italy and Turkey in the west.   Which Religions Spread Along the Silk Road? A statue of Buddha. Source: TheConversation.com   For over a millennium, highly sought-after commodities such as silk, gold, wool, glass, silver, and spices were traded along the Silk Road. However, artistic and architectural styles, as well as philosophical and religious concepts, were also spread and exchanged along the trade network.   Buddhism and Islam were among the major religions that spread along the Silk Road. Other religions that spread along the routes included Christianity and Zoroastrianism. Naturally, some of the religions were warped due to constant interactions with new cultures that challenged their religious doctrines.   The Syrian Christian religion which started in Syria and Mesopotamia, for example, began to change as its people moved east along the Central Asian trade routes. This is because they interacted with different religions and ideologies along the way that included Zoroastrianism. At the time, the Zoroastrian religion was the main religion in the Persian Empire. The empire was controlled by the Sasanian leaders who ruled between 224 CE and 651 CE. Some of the influences came about as infighting caused breakaway denominations that adapted new religious practices such as  liturgical protocols.   What Major Religions Clashed Along the Silk Road? Sasanian era silver plate with gold coating. Source: Azerbaijan Museum, Tabriz, Iran   Because Syrian Christians had lived in Sasanian lands since the third century, they were in constant conflict with Zoroastrian rulers who tried to impose their religion on them. At some point, Christianity became the main religion of the Roman Empire. The situation caused Sasanian rulers to view Syrian Christians as a threat. This was because of the frequent conflicts between the Roman and Sasanian rulers.   There were opposing views as well. Some Christians discredited Zoroastrianism principles of dual forces which split the world into good and evil. Also, Zoroastrian ways, such as the veneration of natural phenomena such as earth, fire, water, and air in worship caused a section of Christians to label the religion’s adherents as idol worshippers. They accused them of worshipping superficial things instead of the one true maker.   Eventually, conflicts between Syrian Christians and the Zoroastrian Sasanian Empire as well as the Byzantine Empire weakened the groups allowing for an easy takeover of the region by the Muslim Rashidun Caliphate. Subsequently, the Sasanian Empire fell in the 7th century to the caliphate.    Which Ideological Influences Were Spread Along the Silk Road? Court Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk. Source: Wikimedia   Besides religion, unique information and ideologies flowed along the Silk Road as well. Silkworm eggs from China were, for example, sometimes concealed in walking sticks as they were smuggled to other regions. The ploys were used because the Chinese administration made it punishable to share silk-making secrets to outsiders due to the lucrative nature of the silk trade at the time. China had monopolized silk farming and weaving during that era and so the trade was critical to its economy.    However, the smuggling of silkworms and silk-making methods enabled the craft to get out. Silk-making techniques began leaking out of China from 550 AD, first reaching Khotan and then spreading to Central Asia, Iran, and the Byzantine region in the 6th century. At the same time, the craft of glassmaking moved from Mediterranean lands to Iran and Central Asia, reaching China in the 5th century. There are stories of Chinese workers sharing their secret paper-making methods in regions where they settled. The techniques allowed silk farming and papermaking to grow in places such as Central Asia.   Hemp paper, Western Han period of China, circa 100 BCE.   Additionally, skilled builders swapped design ideas along the Silk Road. The results of such exchanges were observable in architectural designs in regions such as Central Asia through Timurid buildings in Samarkand, and the Ak-Serai palace in Shahrisabz. Building styles from distant regions were also shared among architects from places such as Azerbaijan, Iraq, Iran, Syria, and India.   People from different regions also exchanged musical styles and dance moves. For example, music from regions such as East Turkestan and Central Asia was popular in China. Moreover, Iranian, Sogdian, and Turkic musicians contributed significantly to the diversity of musical styles in places such as Sogdiana and China. Besides musicians, actors from the East often performed in Constantinople where they also shared their skills.

  For Mesoamerican civilizations, time held a special value as it was considered a divine energy and a sacred cycle, a gift from the gods. It served as the central axis of their worldview, guiding daily life, rituals, personal destinies, and the future of society. Calendars were not just tools for measuring the passage of time; they were also essential for historical memory, social control, and synchronizing human life with the rhythms of nature, the influence of the gods, and the dynamics of the cosmos.   The Mesoamerican Worldview Tonindeye (Nuttall) Codex, a Mixtec pictorial manuscript that narrates stories of rulers and historical events, 14th century CE. Source: The British Museum   The term Mesoamerica refers to the region that stretches from the southern half of present-day Mexico through Guatemala, El Salvador, Belize, and parts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. While it is difficult to generalize such a large region over millennia when it was never integrated under a single power, thanks to significant commercial and technological exchange, cultural mixing, and military campaigns, common elements can be found. These include agriculture as the foundation of the economy, the domestication of cacao and corn, a vigesimal numbering system, the so-called Mesoamerican ballgame, the practice of sacrifices, polytheistic beliefs, and the use of two calendars: one ritual and another for everyday use.   Importantly, many of these shared characteristics reflected a similar way of interpreting the world, with the result that Mesoamerican peoples often shared beliefs, imagery, deities, and concepts. As most of the civilizations in the region were agricultural and warrior peoples, they had common survival needs, which were reflected in common gods, such as those dedicated to fertility and water. The observation of daily life and its dualities—life and death, day and night, man and woman, rainy season and droughts—led to the construction of a vision of binary oppositions of complementary elements.   Time in Mesoamerica: Both Natural and Divine A page from the Codex Borgia depicting Tonatiuh, a sun deity, with the canine features of Xolotl, 900-1521 CE. Source: FAMSI   The way each culture perceives and values time offers a key to understanding its worldview. In many ancient cultures, including in Mesoamerica, time was conceived as cyclical. This notion was tied to nature and the observation of physical states and processes: the sun rising and then setting when the moon appeared or rains bringing plants and animals to life, followed by a dry season where everything seemed to die. Observing such cycles was very important; being dependent on the environment for survival, it was necessary to anticipate the arrival of rainy cycles to manage food reserves and organize community survival means.   Their conception of time was not merely a mechanism for survival; it was influenced by human thought and action in order to create societal frameworks for understanding. It was a way of building a common vision by imbuing time with layers of meaning, enabling people to connect with their peers and ancestors, and giving sense and meaning to human activity.   In many pre-Hispanic cultures, time was considered a sacred element. It was not just a simple measure; as a creation of the gods, it was a vital force, a divine energy that permeated everything. It flowed through the human world with regulated rhythms and was essential for the creation and maintenance of the cosmos.   Mesoamerican Calendars: Tools of Empire An Aztec pictorial calendar wheel, commonly known as the Boban calendar wheel, is printed on amatl (fig bark) paper, 1545-46 CE. Source: The John Carter Brown Library   The need to connect events from the past, present, and future led these pre-Columbian peoples to systematically organize this information along natural cycles. The calendar, created from meticulous observations of the sky and mathematical calculations, provided a reference framework for both daily life and rituals. Calendars were an expression of the worldview, religion, science, and power of these civilizations.   Calendars reveal several layers of meaning. On one level, they were guided by natural phenomena, as the Mesoamericans viewed humans as an integral part of nature. This allowed them to align with natural rhythms and live in harmony with their environment. On a cosmic level, they sought to understand their place in the universe and establish a connection with the divine. Hidden and intertwined were other, more subtle aspects, such as tracking sacred dates related to deities and rituals essential for ensuring the fertility of the land, rains, health, and divine favor.   Calendars also became a tool for the powerful, as linking historical and dynastic events with cosmic cycles and divine myths allowed rulers to legitimize themselves as intermediaries between the divine and humans. They served as a mechanism to maintain social order by setting dates for religious ceremonies, dynastic events, agricultural work, commercial activities, and civic events. Additionally, they constituted the collective memory of the civilization, a means of passing down myths from generation to generation, strengthening shared identity and community bonds.   The Civil Calendar: 365 Days The Sun Stone, or Aztec Calendar, is a basalt disc believed to represent Mexica cosmogony. Source: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico   In Mesoamerica, there were various versions of the calendar with different names, meanings of days, important dates, and starting days. However, many common features can be found among the calendars of different cultures. Most had a 365-day cycle related to the movement of the sun and the tropical year. In Nahuatl (the language spoken by the Aztecs), this cycle is called xiuhpohualli or “count of the year,” while the Maya used the word Haab’. This was the civil calendar and consisted of 18 “months” of 20 days each, plus five additional days at the end of the year.   In the Aztec calendar, each of the 20-day periods was dedicated to a different deity, as each was believed to influence human life, nature, and the cosmos. These periods were marked by the preparation of a festival that culminated at the end of the period. For example, the fifteenth month of their calendar was called Pānquetzaliztli, near the winter solstice, celebrating the birth of Huitzilopochtli, the sun god, symbolizing the victory of light over darkness. During this ceremony, the merchants who owned the slave victims observed a fast while captives were sacrificed. A figure of the god made from amaranth dough and toasted maize mixed with maguey honey was consumed after the sacrifices.   Aztec ritual human sacrifice portrayed in the Codex Magliabechiano, 16th century. Source: FAMSI   Within the sequence of twenty-day periods, there was a subdivision into groups of five days, with every fifth day serving as a market day, providing daily life with a constant rhythm. This was not only relevant for economic activities but also held social and ritual significance as times for gathering, exchange, and celebration.   The five additional days at the end of the year were called nemontemi in Nahuatl and uayeb in Maya. The term nemontemi can be translated as “they fill up in vain” or “wasted days.” Although their full significance has not been deciphered, these days were considered unlucky and even dangerous, leading to the suspension of many activities, such as trading or cooking, to avoid attracting unfavorable spirits. However, they also represented an opportunity to connect with the sacred and initiate a new cycle. They could be used as a time of transition and reflection, for reconciling with oneself or others.   These days were crucial as they marked the end of one cycle and the beginning of a new one. For example, Tenochtitlan was designed so that during these days, the sun would rise between the Twin Temples of the Templo Mayor; once this alignment was completed, maize planting would commence, and the new year would begin.   The 260-Day Ritual Calendar Example of a trecena in the Codex Borbonicus, 1562 CE. Source: FAMSI   The second calendar was used as a ritual and divinatory almanac. Known as tzolk’in by the Maya and tonalámatl by the Mexica, this calendar spans 260 days. It does not have an obvious relationship with astronomical or geophysical cycles, so it is believed to be based on symbolic and ritual meanings, although the exact origins remain unclear. The tzolk’in is still used in some indigenous communities in the Guatemalan highlands and southern Mexico.   The foundation of this system is the combination of the twenty day signs, each associated with a specific deity, with the numbers one to thirteen, which are also imbued with deep symbolism. This system creates a complex network of days, each combination having its own representation and influence on daily and ritual life.   In the Maya calendar, the twenty deities are connected to aspects of daily life, nature, and the universe. For example, Ok means “dog” and is associated with guiding the sun through the underworld at night, symbolizing guidance, loyalty, protection, and justice. Kawak means “storm” and is linked to purification and electrical energy, representing the power of thunder and renewal.   The numbers from one to thirteen also carry symbolic weight. For instance, the number four, Kan, represents stability, order, and structure, closely tied to the four cardinal points. The number six, Wak, symbolizes balance and harmony, especially in interactions with others.   Representation of the 52-year period in the Codex Tovar, 16th century CE. Source: The John Carter Brown Library   The tzolk’in is not just used to count time; by combining both days and numbers, which form 260 different combinations, it exerted a special influence in guiding the community’s actions and spirituality. It served as a guide for making important decisions and holding ceremonial events, determining when to plant, harvest, celebrate marriages, and conduct military campaigns. The day on which one was born dictated their destiny and had implications for the rest of their life.   Additionally, the tzolk’in formed the basis for other astronomical time measurements with profound religious meanings. For example, the larger cycle of both calendars—when they converge and the count restarts—was fifty-two years. This was equivalent to the concept of a century in modern times and, for Mesoamerican cultures, represented not just a complete time cycle but also a cosmic reset.

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