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One of the greatest archeological discoveries of the twentieth century came only seven years before the new millennium. In 1993‚ Dr. Natalya Polosmak of Novosibirsk’s Institute of Archeology and Ethnography led a team of archeologists into the Eurasian steppe because of rumors of a grave robbery. The team began digging at a site on the Ukok Plateau in the Altai mountains‚ near the borders of Russia‚ China‚ and Kazakhstan‚ in what is now the Altai Republic. What they found would soon grant scientists insight into a nomadic society from 2500 years ago. Princess Ukok/Princess of the Altai: A mummy that was found in 1993 Excavating the Tomb As the team dug into the site‚ they discovered a large ice block under the dirt. Within the mountain range‚ burial sites would commonly flood and then freeze with the changing of the seasons‚ preserving the bodies within.  Using buckets of hot water‚ the team began to melt the block and uncover the mystery of the tomb. In the center‚ they found a young woman’s preserved body covered in tattoos‚ including one shaped like a griffin on her shoulder.  Surrounding her body were six horses. Each had been ritualistically killed with a pickaxe through the skull. There was also a feast of mutton‚ clear signs that the woman buried here had a high social status.  But without a clear sign of her identity‚ scientists can only speculate what her life was like. The team removed the body from the site and took it back to Novosibirsk. She would remain there for nearly the next two decades as scientists tried to draw every detail they could from her frozen and nearly perfectly preserved remains.  Uncovering Her Life Story Further investigations into the body granted more insight into the woman’s life and her role in Pazryrk society. The woman had been embalmed and had all of her organs removed‚ including her brain. This made determining a cause of death difficult.  However‚ scientists have conducted extensive research on the corpse‚ including multiple MRIs. They found that the woman suffered from chronic illness and suffered an injury late in life from falling off a horse. They theorized based on breast tissue‚ that the woman suffered from and may have died of breast cancer. Although cancer has been recorded in human records for thousands of years‚ this was the first time scientists could identify proof of cancer in mummified remains using modern technology.  Further analysis showed that the woman may have smoked marijuana‚ likely to cope with the pain of the tumor growing in her chest and her chronic pain. Research also showed that she regularly inhaled fumes of copper and mercury. This could imply that she commonly partook in rituals or ceremonies that required incense.  Princess or Shaman? After investigating the rest of the tomb and contextualizing the burial site with other knowledge of the region‚ scientists identified the woman as a member of the Pazyryk culture. This was a group of nomadic people who lived in the Altai mountains from the 6th to 3rd century BCE.  It is believed that the tribes spent most of their lives on horseback‚ rotating through the region with the seasons. Other burial grounds excavated support this theory‚ although many other uncovered tombs are more extravagant in nature than the Ice Maiden’s.  The tomb instead indicated that she was somewhere in the middle class of Pazyryk society. Archeological evidence points to the fact that her body may have been preserved for up to six months and transported with the tribe as they migrated.  When considering this alongside the woman’s marijuana and ceremonial incense inhalation‚ scientists theorize that she may have been a shaman‚ not a princess as originally posited. She was important enough to receive an extensive burial ceremony‚ but not to have an extravagant tomb.  A reconstruction of the tomb chamber of the mummified remains of a woman of the Pazyryk culture who lived in the 5th century BC Local Backlash The excavation of the tomb‚ while revolutionary for archaeology and ethnography‚ caused tension and anger within the local Altai Republic community. The woman had been part of local folklore for centuries and was an important connection to the community’s nomadic ancestors.  When the archaeologists excavated the site‚ the hot water they used to melt the ice damaged some of the relics and parts of the mummified remains. The body was then removed from the site and studied in Novosibirsk for nearly two decades. The body was also displayed around the world to showcase the woman’s tattoos.  In 2012‚ after much protest from the Altai people‚ Russia returned the body to a special mausoleum in the Altai capital of Gorno-Altaysk. While this appeased some‚ many Altai people are still calling for more.  They want the body reinterred on the plateau. Some see this as a dedication to respecting Pazyryk culture‚ while others believe removing the body had negative supernatural effects. By returning it‚ they can rectify a string of earthquakes and floods that have plagued the region.  The young shaman may have suffered in life‚ but in death‚ she has granted scientists a glimpse into the murky past of nomadic tribes in Russia. Her unique burial conditions and well-preserved remains have given scientists previously unknown details about the social hierarchy of the Pazyryk people.  Her body has also offered a glimpse into the realities of chronic pain and cancer in ancient societies‚ and the intricacies of early Siberian tattoos.  After 20 years of investigations and research‚ the body has finally been returned to its local community. Hopefully‚ the Russian scientists and Altai people can come to an agreement that allows for further investigations while also honoring the culture of Altai.  References Dasgupta‚ Prateek. “The Story Behind the Siberian Ice Maiden and Her Tattoos.” Medium‚ June 2‚ 2021. https://medium.com/teatime-history/the-story-behind-the-siberian-ice-maiden-and-her-tattoos-acfcacf70dc4.  Liesowska‚ Anna. “Iconic 2‚500 year old Siberian princess ‘died from breast cancer’‚ reveals MRI scan.” The Siberian Times‚ October 14‚ 2014. https://siberiantimes.com/science/casestudy/features/iconic-2500-year-old-siberian-princess-died-from-breast-cancer-reveals-unique-mri-scan/.  “Meet The 2500 Year Old Siberian Ice Maiden And Her Tattoos.” The Archaeologist‚ October 3‚ 2022. https://www.thearchaeologist.org/blog/meet-the-2500-year-old-siberian-ice-maiden-and-her-tattoos.  Readman‚ Kurt. “The Ice Maiden: Who was the Frozen “Princess” of Ukok?” Historic Mysteries‚ November 24‚ 2021. https://www.historicmysteries.com/princess-of-ukok/. The post Siberian Ice Maiden: The Well-Preserved‚ Tattooed Mummy first appeared on History Defined.

Op-ed by Summer Lane | Photo: Alamy At this year’s U.N. Climate Change Conference in Dubai (COP 28)‚ U.S. Special Envoy John Kerry declared that America needed to move away… The post COAL WORKERS: Trump wants to protect your jobs‚ while Biden seeks to destroy them first appeared on Right Side Broadcasting Network (RSBN).

Riley Gaines‚ Sarah Parshall Perry‚ Kim Russell‚ and Fatima Goss Graves will testify to the Subcommittee on Health Care and Financial Services regarding the importance of female athletics. Watch the… The post LIVE: Hearing on the Importance of Protecting Female Athletics and Title IX – 12/5/23 first appeared on Right Side Broadcasting Network (RSBN).

  The Parthenon is a must-see for any visitor to Athens. Built over 2000 years ago‚ the ancient temple is one of those iconic buildings that have come to symbolize Western civilization. Built as a temple for the goddess Athena‚ the Parthenon has served both as a Christian church and a mosque and has seen multiple transformations throughout its long history.   1. The New Parthenon Is Built on the Ruins of the Old Athena statue‚ part of the Old Parthenon Gigantomachy pediment‚ from circa 525-500 BCE‚ via Acropolis Museum‚ Athens   The 5th century BCE is often hailed as the golden time for Athens. This period was when most of the magnificent public buildings on top of the Acropolis were constructed‚ and democracy‚ arts‚ philosophy‚ and theatre flourished. After enduring five decades of warfare with the Persians‚ the Athenians achieved a momentous victory in the Battle of Plataea in 479 BCE. This triumph raised a sense of national pride‚ and the city thrived economically. The construction of the Parthenon‚ one of the most iconic structures of ancient Greece‚ was launched within this context.   The temple’s construction began in 447 BCE and finished in 438 BCE. The location chosen for the Parthenon on top of the Acropolis hill‚ was not random. There lied the ruins of two earlier temples. An older‚ unfinished temple‚ the Pre-Parthenon or Older Parthenon‚ occupied the same site. The Pre-Parthenon itself had been built on top of an earlier temple known as the Hekatompedon Temple. Both temples were dedicated to Athena‚ the city’s patron goddess.   Sculptures from the West pediment of the Hekatompedon temple‚ from circa 570 BCE‚ via Acropolis Museum‚ Athens   The Pre-Parthenon had faced destruction during the Persian sack of Athens in 480 BCE. When the Persians attacked the city‚ they mercilessly destroyed and burned the still unfinished Pre-Parthenon and other buildings. After the attack‚ the Athenians did not rebuild the Pre-Parthenon but left the ruins in place for the next 30 years as reminders of the Persian threat. Although little remains visible of the Pre-Parthenon today‚ fragments of metopes and pediment sculptures from the original temple can be admired at the Acropolis Museum in Athens.   2. The Parthenon Becomes a Christian Church A marble bust of Emperor Constantine I‚ the first Roman Emperor to convert to Christianity‚ circa 325-370 CE‚ via MET   The Romans took over Greece in 146 BCE‚ and Athens became a provincial Roman city. Athens kept most of its Classical and Hellenistic characteristics‚ which were much admired in Rome. Christianity was adopted as the state religion by the Roman Empire in 380 CE‚ meaning that many pagan temples and sacred sites were repurposed as churches and used Christian worship.   When the Roman Empire was split into two 15 years later‚ the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as Byzantine Empire) continued to promote Christianity over older pagan religions.   Byzantine painting showing the Panagia Athiniotissa‚ a Greek Orthodox Basilica‚ formed from the ruins of the Parthenon sometime during the 5th century CE‚ via ByzantineAthens.com   The Parthenon‚ a temple initially built to honor Athena‚ was transformed into a church dedicated to the Virgin Mary. The interior of the Parthenon was altered‚ with additions such as Christian iconography‚ an apse‚ and an altar. The Parthenon became one of the most important Christian pilgrimage destinations within the Byzantine Empire. The magnificent temple dedicated to Athena played a significant role in cementing Christian religious practices and rituals in Greece.   A modern recreation of the statue of Athena by the sculptor Phidias‚ by Alan LeQuire‚ made in 1990‚ Located in the Nashville Parthenon‚ via Wikimedia Commons   Sometime during this period‚ the massive statue of Athena‚ sculpted by the renowned artist Phidias‚ disappeared. Crafted from gold and ivory‚ the approximately 12-meter-tall statue stood at the heart of the Parthenon in all her beauty and grandeur. What exactly happened to the statue remains a mystery. Likely it was removed in pieces and transported to Constantinople.   It should also be noted that from 1204 and for 250 years‚ the Parthenon served as a Catholic church‚ as during that time‚ Athens was under the control of the Latin Dutchy of Athens‚ created after the fourth crusade that took down Constantinople.   3. The Parthenon Becomes a Mosque View of the Acropolis in 1670 with the minaret on the Parthenon‚ attributed to J. Carrey and published by Henri Omont in Paris in 1898‚ via Laskarides Foundation   After the Ottoman Empire captured Athens in 1458‚ the Parthenon on the Acropolis was transformed once again. The Ottoman Empire‚ which spanned from the 14th century to the early 20th century‚ had Islam as its dominant religion. Unlike other empires‚ however‚ the Ottoman Empire was tolerant toward other religions. The empire went through more conservative and strict periods‚ but Christian Orthodox Greeks were allowed to practice their religion and remained mainly Orthodox Christians.   The Parthenon became the symbol of Islamic conquest and dominance over the Greek people. The Parthenon was remodeled to serve Islamic practices. All signs of its Christian past were removed‚ the images of saints were painted over‚ and most notably‚ a minaret was added to the building. The conversion into a mosque represents a significant shift in the religious and cultural identity of the city.   The elaborate friezes‚ metopes‚ and pediments of the classical Parthenon suffered extensive damage during this period.   4. The Venetians Bombardment of the Parthenon The full destruction of the Parthenon roof‚ photograph taken between 1850-1870 by English photographer Francis Frith‚ via V&;A Museum in London   The Venetian siege of Athens in 1687 was part of the larger conflict involving the Ottoman Empire and a coalition of European powers‚ including the Republic of Venice. The primary goal of the Venetians was to weaken the Ottoman presence in the Eastern Mediterranean and to assert their influence in the region. The decision to target Athens was strategic. Athens was important as the Western heart of the Ottoman Empire and held symbolic significance.   During the siege‚ the Ottomans used the Parthenon and other buildings on the Acropolis as a fortress. As the largest building‚ the Parthenon was used to store gunpowder and ammunition. In their attempt to weaken the Ottoman defenses‚ the Venetians targeted the Parthenon with heavy artillery. When the Venetian mortar strike hit the Parthenon‚ it caused a massive explosion‚ which blew out the whole central portion of its roof. Several columns‚ sculptures‚ and other structures were destroyed.   The latter phase of the Parthenon serving as a mosque‚ by Pierre Peytier‚ 1830s‚ via Wikimedia Commons   The Venetians subsequently abandoned Athens in 1688. A small mosque was built inside the ruins of the Parthenon. This phase in the history of the Parthenon is well documented in several paintings and drawings by European travelers. There is even a daguerreotype photograph of this small mosque.   5. Elgin Takes the Marbles Watercolor painting by Edward Dodwell‚ from circa 1805‚ the work shows the workers removing the Parthenon frieze‚ also seen is a small mosque inside the Parthenon columns‚via Packard Humanities Institute‚ Los Angeles   The Parthenon regularly appears in the news due to the long-standing dispute between the Greek government and the British Museum in London. The controversy began with Lord Elgin‚ who was the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1799 to 1803. Elgin obtained permission from the Ottoman authorities to make plaster casts and documentation of Greek buildings‚ including the Parthenon. During this documentation process‚ a quick decision was made to remove sculptures and architectural fragments from the Parthenon.   Sir Elgin argued that he was acting to preserve the Parthenon marbles and protect them from further damage or destruction. He claimed that the Ottomans neglected the site and that the sculptures were exposed to weathering and vandalism. Assisted by a team of craftsmen‚ Sir Elgin dismantled numerous sculptures‚ including the famous Parthenon frieze and metopes‚ and shipped them to England.   Marble metope from the Parthenon‚ via British Museum   Ultimately‚ in 1816‚ Elgin sold the marbles to the British government. The marbles became part of the British Museum’s collection‚ now known as the Elgin Marbles or the Parthenon Marbles. The controversy surrounding Lord Elgin’s actions arises from questions of ownership‚ consent‚ and the ethical implications of removing cultural heritage from its place of origin. Greece has long contested the legitimacy of Elgin’s acquisition and has made ongoing efforts to have the marbles returned to Athens.   6. The Greek State Attempts to “Restore” the Classical Parthenon  The siege of the Acropolis by the Turks‚ image by Dimitrios Zografos after the detailed description by General Makriyannis‚ 1836-1839‚ via American School of Classical Studies at Athens   The Greek War of Independence‚ fought from 1821 to 1830‚ was a conflict which Greek revolutionaries sought to break free from Ottoman rule. The Greeks‚ inspired by nationalist sentiments and enlightenment ideals‚ rebelled against Ottoman governance. Support for the Greek cause‚ a movement known as Philhellenism‚ grew internationally. Fighters inspired by the Greek cause joined the battle from all over Europe. Notable figures like the poet Lord Byron aided the revolution.   An undated photograph showing the destroyed interior of the Parthenon‚ via V&;A Museum in London   Ultimately an independent Greek state was formed‚ recognized by the Treaty of Constantinople in 1832. The Parthenon continued to symbolize the Greek national identity‚ cultural heritage‚ and resilience.   Photograph from 1864 showing the newly-discovered and now-famous statues of Athena and the Calf-Bearer‚ via MET   The modifications done on the Parthenon during this early period of the Greek state’s existence focused on “restoring” the temple to its ancient‚ classical Greek appearance. Efforts were made to replace damaged or missing architectural elements‚ such as columns‚ friezes‚ and pediments‚ using available historical records and fragments discovered on the site. These interventions sought to reinstate the Parthenon’s original architectural state. Post-classical additions‚ including those of the Byzantine‚ Venetian‚ and Ottoman times‚ were removed.   7. Protecting the Parthenon from Tourism and Air Pollution  View of the Parthenon‚ photo by Constantinos Kollias‚ via Unsplash.   Greece is one of the busiest tourist destinations in Europe‚ and few visitors to Athens miss the chance to climb the Acropolis to witness the timeless wonder of the Parthenon. In 2022 the Culture Ministry of Greece estimated that about 16‚000 people visit the Acropolis daily during the high season.   Safeguarding the monuments from this number of visitors means restricting touching the monuments with protective bars and limiting access to certain areas. It is a careful balance to allow people to admire and appreciate the Parthenon while also protecting it.   Another modern-day threat to the Parthenon is air pollution‚ which causes erosion to the marble. Climate change causes extreme weather conditions‚ and long periods of either drought or heavy rain can damage the structures of the ancient walls and temples. Efforts are also made to monitor and analyze the impact of air pollution on the Parthenon through regular inspections and scientific studies. Protective coatings and cleaning techniques that balance conservation with minimal intervention are being developed to safeguard the marble surfaces. It is also important to raise awareness about preserving this architectural masterpiece for future generations.

  In one of his Letters‚ Pliny the Younger describes the only known instance when the Roman Senate was forced to vote between three alternatives‚ instead of making the usual binary choice. Three factions were formed‚ each of them favoring a different outcome. Pliny’s faction had the most supporters‚ but not the absolute majority‚ while the other two factions were preparing to form a coalition. To prevent such an outcome‚ Pliny‚ who presided over the meeting‚ decreed that all three outcomes should be voted on simultaneously. Was Pliny simply trying to rig the vote? Or was he on the verge of discovering some curious features of collective decision-making?   Pliny the Younger and His Letters Pliny the Younger and his Mother at Misenum AD 79‚ by Angelica Kauffmann‚ 1785 CE‚ via Princeton University Art Museum   Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus‚ commonly known as Pliny the Younger‚ was a prominent figure in ancient Rome during the first century CE. He owed much of his influence and inspiration to his uncle‚ Pliny the Elder‚ a renowned naturalist and author. Pliny the Younger’s life was marked by significant events and accomplishments‚ as well as his exceptional skill in letter writing. One of the defining moments in Pliny the Younger’s life occurred when he was just eighteen years old. He personally witnessed the catastrophic destruction of Pompeii‚ where his uncle tragically lost his life during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. This experience undoubtedly had a profound impact on him and shaped his worldview.   The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum‚ by John Martin‚ 1821‚ via Wikimedia Commons   Pliny the Younger quickly rose to prominence in Roman society‚ establishing himself as a distinguished prosecutor and defender of public officials. His legal prowess and dedication to justice earned him a high position within the civil service hierarchy. Moreover‚ his talent for financial matters made him an efficient administrator who contributed to the smooth functioning of the Roman state. In the later years of his life‚ Pliny the Younger was appointed as the governor of the Roman province of Bithynia-Pontus‚ located in modern-day Turkey. As a skilled diplomat‚ he successfully navigated the complexities of Roman political life and survived the rule of three different emperors. Pliny the Younger’s reputation as an honest and capable public official earned him respect and admiration among his contemporaries.   However‚ Pliny the Younger’s enduring legacy lies in his prolific letter-writing. He meticulously crafted numerous letters‚ of which about 300 hundred have survived to this day. These letters provide valuable insights into the everyday life of the Roman Empire during the first century CE. Pliny made letter-writing an art form (Szpiro‚ 2010). In them‚ he addressed not only the intended recipients but also a wider audience. It is apparent that he intended to publish his letters eventually so that he could share his knowledge and experiences with a broader readership. Each letter often focused on a specific question or topic‚ allowing Pliny to delve into various aspects of Roman society‚ politics‚ and culture. Through his correspondence‚ we gain a vivid and intimate understanding of life in ancient Rome‚ as well as the challenges faced by its inhabitants.   The Mysterious Death of Afranius Dexter Roman military diploma‚ mentioning Dexter as a consul‚ c. 2nd century CE‚ via Wikimedia Commons   One of the many letters penned by Pliny the Younger addressed to his close friend Titus Aristo (VIII‚ 14)‚ reveals a mysterious account that continues to puzzle readers: the death of Afranius Dexter‚ a distinguished Roman senator and former consul. On the fateful day of June 24‚ 105 CE‚ Dexter’s lifeless body was discovered within the confines of his own home and left behind a trail of unanswered questions (Szpiro‚ 2010).   The circumstances surrounding Dexter’s demise remain cloaked in ambiguity since Pliny’s letter fails to provide details about the discovery of the body‚ the nature of the weapon used‚ and whether any evidence was found at the scene. What is certain‚ however‚ is that Dexter met a violent end. In the absence of concrete evidence‚ three possible scenarios emerged. The first suggests that Dexter may have taken his own life. The second possibility is that members of Dexter’s household might have committed a foul murder. The third‚ and perhaps the most interesting possibility‚ is that Dexter‚ lacking the will to end his own life‚ ordered others to carry out the act.   The investigation naturally focused on Dexter’s freedmen‚ as they were the only individuals with the means to commit the crime–if indeed it was a crime. According to Roman law‚ killing one’s master was punishable by death. However‚ if the freedmen were innocent‚ they should be granted their freedom. But if Dexter himself had indeed commanded them to kill him‚ they may bear partial guilt. Since the authorities were unable to ascertain the circumstances surrounding Dexter’s death‚ the matter has been brought before the Senate. Pliny‚ who presided over the Senate meeting‚ provides us with a firsthand account of the ensuing events.   The Divided Senate: Acquittal‚ Banishment‚ or Execution Cicero Denounces Catiline‚ by Cesare Maccari‚ 1888 CE‚ via Wikimedia Commons   In the Senate‚ the death of Dexter led to the formation of three distinct factions‚ each advocating for a different sentence. The first faction argued for the acquittal of the freemen‚ believing that if Dexter’s demise was indeed a result of suicide‚ they should be absolved of any guilt. The second faction proposed banishment to an island – presumably‚ the senators favoring this option believed that Dexter had ordered his servants to end his life and as such‚ they were only partially guilty. The third faction called for the death of the freedmen. Their argument rested on the assumption that if the servants had murdered Dexter of their own accord‚ they should bear the full weight of the law.   As a result‚ the Senate faced a ternary choice: acquittal‚ banishment‚ or execution. Unlike the modern-day legal system‚ where courts typically reach a verdict before pronouncing the sentence‚ the Senate did not make such a division. The verdict and the sentence were not separate; by pronouncing the sentence‚ the senators implied the verdict. However‚ two of these options (banishment and death) implied guilt for the freemen‚ while the third implied their innocence. At the same time‚ two options (banishment and acquittal) would spare the freemen’s lives‚ while the third would see them killed.   The Roman Forum‚ by Hodgkin‚ 19th century‚ via the British Museum   In a binary choice‚ one option always wins the majority support. However‚ with three or more options‚ this is not necessarily the case‚ and that’s exactly what happened in this situation. According to Pliny‚ who belonged to the acquittal faction‚ they had the most support but not the absolute majority‚ while the other two factions were roughly equal in size.   We can presume that the first option had approximately 40% support from the senators‚ while the remaining two had around 30% each. This created fertile ground for manipulation‚ and Pliny‚ being a skilled diplomat‚ seized the opportunity. He cunningly advocated for a course of action that would serve the interests of his faction‚ but his troubled conscience began to weigh on him afterward. It was this internal turmoil that compelled Pliny to seek Aristo’s opinion on whether he had overstepped his boundaries.   Pliny’s Proposal for Simultaneous Decision Statue of Pliny the Younger‚ Cathedral of Santa Maria Maggiore in Como‚ c. 15th century CE‚ via Britannica   Pliny did not raise any questions concerning public law. Instead‚ his primary concern lay in the procedural issues surrounding the matter at hand. As the debate progressed‚ it became evident that most senators leaned towards acquittal among the three available options. Consequently‚ the proponents of the other two factions decided to join forces and form a coalition. In the Roman Senate‚ it was customary for senators to physically move from their seats and gather on one side of the Senate chamber‚ aligning themselves as a unified group. This practice allowed for a swift determination of numerical advantage‚ obviating the need for an actual vote. In this case‚ the larger group‚ comprising approximately 60% of the senators‚ held the view that the freemen should not be acquitted.   Pliny contested the legitimacy of such a coalition. He argued that the division among the senators should not align with the distinction between guilty and non-guilty. Pliny expressed this sentiment by stating that the execution was roughly as far removed from banishment as banishment was from release. Consequently‚ it seemed highly unreasonable to him that those favoring banishment would align themselves with those advocating for the death penalty. If there must be a coalition‚ he claimed it would be more natural for the banishment faction to ally themselves with the acquittal faction. Nevertheless‚ he defended the idea that no coalitions should be formed since each option represented a distinct choice in itself.   Epistolæ et Panegyricus‚ by Pliny‚ 1653 CE‚ via World History Encyclopedia   Given the customary practice of senators sitting with those who shared their preferred option‚ Pliny‚ as the presiding authority‚ made an unprecedented request. He called for the senators to sit in three separate locations‚ reflecting the three available options. Essentially‚ Pliny sought a simultaneous decision on all three choices — a novel approach in the Senate. To support his stance‚ he referenced the law stipulating that senators should vote according to their honest convictions‚ thereby disallowing contrived coalitions. It was precisely due to this concern that he reached out to Aristo‚ seeking his opinion on whether such actions were lawful or if he had overstepped his role as chairman. Unfortunately‚ the response from Aristo remains unknown.   Pliny the Younger: Manipulation of the Agenda or a Profound Discovery? Appio Claudio Cieco in the Senate‚ by Cesare Maccari‚ c. second half of the 19th century CE‚ via Wikimedia Commons   Pliny‚ however‚ was well aware that his proposal favored his own faction and would likely lead to their victory. He believed that in a three-way vote‚ the relative majority supporting the acquittal of the freemen would prevail due to their larger vote count. Pliny anticipated that the members of the other two factions would remain in their separate corners. However‚ it appeared that he had underestimated his opponents. The leader of the faction advocating for execution discerned Pliny’s plan and once again aligned himself with the banishment faction‚ rallying his allies to do the same. Consequently‚ even with Pliny’s revised procedure‚ the 60% majority of senators ultimately voted in favor of banishment.   Was Pliny justified in acting as he did? Undoubtedly‚ he tried to manipulate the agenda to ensure the victory of his preferred option. Such an act was clearly wrong from a procedural point of view. A ternary choice can be a legitimate way to make a decision‚ but only if it was agreed upon in advance. Making up a procedure while the meeting is ongoing was a wrong move on Pliny’s part.   However‚ Pliny did not claim that choosing between three options should be allowed no matter what. He provided reasons for his decision‚ based on the relationships between the options themselves. Specifically‚ he maintained that a ternary choice was a preferred way of making a decision only because the three options are so distinct that no option can be considered subordinate to another. He claimed that the option of banishment sits perfectly between acquittal and execution. What Pliny meant to say is that a rational individual could form their opinion on the three options only in a certain way.   View of the Capitol and Forum at the time of the emperors‚ by Buchetii‚ 1896 CE‚ via the New York Public Library Digital Collections   Those who favor acquittal the most must also prefer banishment over execution‚ while those who prefer execution must prefer banishment over acquittal. As for those who preferred banishment‚ they could prioritize the remaining two options in either order (depending on whether they felt more strongly that the freemen should be punished or that they should be left alive). In more technical terms‚ Pliny recognized that said options formed a continuum. In other words‚ this is likely the first time in history that somebody stumbled upon the notion of single-peaked preferences. In fact‚ the idea that only when individual preferences are single-peaked‚ a choice between three or more options is viable‚ became prominent only in the twentieth century (Black‚ 1998).   Pliny’s attempt to manipulate the agenda in the Roman Senate was a procedural misstep that ultimately failed. However‚ his claim that ternary choice is viable only when individual preferences form a continuum was a profound insight ahead of its time. Pliny’s actions may have been flawed‚ but his exploration of decision-making dynamics sheds light on the concept of single-peaked preferences‚ a notion that gained prominence much later in history.   Bibliography   Black‚ Duncan (1998). The Theory of Committees and Elections. New York: Springer Science. Szpiro‚ George G. (2010). Numbers Rule: The Vexing Mathematics of Democracy from Plato to the Present. Princeton: Princeton University Press.