Modern Western culture is indebted to the ancient Greeks and Romans in many ways. Writing‚ religion‚ government‚ and art all came to medieval Europe through the Greeks and Romans. Banking is another concept that originated in the Hellenic world‚ although its influence on medieval Europe was not as direct. The Athenians developed a sophisticated banking system in the 5th century BCE that eventually influenced economies throughout the Greco-Roman world. Hellenistic kingdoms adopted Athenian banking and later the Romans would expand upon this system with their own monetary theories.   The Treasury of the Delian League Roman copy of a bust of Pericles‚ Imperial Roman‚ ~2nd Century CE. Original: Classical Greek‚ 5th Century BCE. Source: British Museum   In the years between the Greco-Persian Wars (499-449 BCE) and the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) Athens became the premier Greek city-state. The Athenians achieved their status through a combination of shrewd political moves‚ naval prowess‚ and effective economic policies.   Control of the Delian League was another crucial component of Athenian hegemony in the Hellenic world. The Delian League began as an anti-Persian alliance of Greek city-states in 478 BCE‚ during the latter stages of the Greco-Persian Wars. Although Athens was the leading state in the league‚ the ships and gold the alliance collectively used were initially held on the island of Delos. Other prominent cities that had significant sanctuaries‚ such as Delphi and Olympia‚ also had notable treasury houses. These early treasury houses were a mixture of sacred‚ state‚ and financial institutions‚ housing a plethora of goods including votive offerings‚ cult statues‚ weapons‚ gold‚ and silver. The shrewd Athenian statesman‚ Pericles (495-429 BCE)‚ saw great economic potential in this system‚ so he made the decision to move the Delian League’s treasury to Athens in 454 BCE.   When Pericles and the Athenians took control of the Delian League’s treasury‚ it ensured that the Greco-Roman economies would follow a new path. The Athenians decreed that their allies would adopt Athenian coins‚ weights‚ and measures‚ thereby elevating Athens’ economic position in the Greek world. The move also meant that the Athena cult would essentially become the Bank of Athena.   The Bank of Athena Athenian Coin‚ 410-400 BCE. Source: British Museum   The Parthenon in Athens was another achievement of Pericles‚ as the wonder was built during his tenure as strategos of Athens. Dedicated as a temple for the city’s patron goddess‚ Athena‚ the Parthenon also began operating as a bank during the Peloponnesian War. The 5th century BCE historian‚ Thucydides‚ wrote how the Delian League’s war effort was funded by this Bank of Athena:   “Their strength came from the financial income they paid and that‚ for the most part‚ success in war was a matter of judgment and abundant revenues. He told them they could take confidence‚ since six hundred talents in tribute usually came in every year from the allies apart from other revenue‚ and on the acropolis there was still six thousand talents in coined silver remaining at that time (the largest amount had been nine thousand seven hundred‚ from which they had made expenditures for the gateway of the acropolis and the other buildings as well as for Portiada) and‚ apart from that‚ uncoined silver in private and public dedications‚ and there was all the sacred equipment for processions and contests and booty from the Mede and everything else of that sort‚ not less than five hundred talents; going further‚ he added the considerable amount from the other sanctuaries.”   Greek hoplite on a silver coin‚ Late Classical Greek‚ 390-340 BCE. Source: British Museum   Bullion from the Parthenon as well as golden statues were used to make minted coins‚ but the banking activities of the Athena Temple were not limited to holding and minting currency. The Temple made interest bearing loans for secular purposes‚ which it used to fund the war effort and building projects. The administrative structure of the Bank of Athena quickly assumed a character that very much resembled that of a modern bank.   Copy of Varvakeion Athena‚ Imperial Roman‚ 200-250 CE. Original: Classical Greek‚ 438 BCE. Source: National Archaeological Museum‚ Athens   Another decree from the Athenian authorities established a board of treasurers who oversaw operations of the Athena treasury. The board of treasurers managed all aspects‚ not only of the Athena bank‚ but also of the other local sanctuaries. The records indicate that each deity had property and funds assigned to them that were listed separately. The Athenian banking system was quite efficient and effective in the early stages of the Peloponnesian War‚ but things changed as the war endured. As the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League got the upper hand‚ the Athenian banking system began experiencing significant monetary problems. By the end of fiscal year 423/422 BCE‚ the Athenian debt to the sacred treasuries had reached 5‚600 talents with an accumulated interest of 1‚400 talents. Spartan victory in the war proved to be the final blow to Athenian hegemony‚ but Athenian banking concepts survived.   Banking in the Hellenistic World Gold pentadrachm of Ptolemy II‚ Ptolemaic Egyptian‚ 282 BCE. Source: Museum of Fine Arts‚ Boston   When Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE‚ his empire was divided by his generals into several kingdoms‚ signaling the start of the Hellenistic Era. This period was marked by the spread of Greek art‚ language‚ and culture in general‚ which also included coinage‚ monetary theory‚ and banking. Greek inspired banking and economics was perhaps the most evident in Ptolemaic Egypt.   Egypt was a fertile location for the adoption of Greek banking and monetary theories because it was home to preexisting advanced economic ideas. Egyptian documents show that from about 3100 BCE Egyptians used weights and measures that functioned as a type of currency. In the 12th dynasty (c. 1985-1773 BCE)‚ the Egyptians standardized these weights into an advanced system. The deben was a unit of measure that equaled about 93.3 grams‚ while a kite equaled slightly less than ten grams. One deben equaled ten kites. The deben was used as a measure of copper‚ silver‚ or gold while the kite was used only to measure the more precious elements of gold and silver. This system of proto-currency made it more likely that the Egyptians would adapt to the other advanced economic ideas introduced by the Ptolemies.   Three deben in weight in the shape of a gazelle‚ Egyptian New Kingdom‚ Reign of Amenhotep III (1390-1352 BCE). Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   The second king of the Ptolemaic dynasty‚ Ptolemy II (ruled 284-246 BCE)‚ was an active ruler who commissioned many public works projects. Ptolemy II funded the construction of the Lighthouse of Alexandria and possibly the Library of Alexandria‚ although the latter was likely started during the rule of his father. A canal that linked the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea was also built during Ptolemy II’s rule. All of these ambitious projects were expensive and required sound monetary and banking policy to fund them.   Ptolemy II embarked on these energetic public works projects while adopting some Greek banking and monetary policies. Coin currency obviously made person-to-person transactions easier‚ but it also opened the door for the emergence of banking in Egypt. Ptolemy I (ruled 302-282 BCE) introduced coinage to Egypt‚ which was based on the drachma used throughout the Greek world. Due to a lack of silver mines in Egypt‚ the Ptolemaic drachma weighed less then other drachmas and those used within Egypt were made of bronze. The amount of bronze coins circulating greatly increased during Ptolemy II’s rule‚ partially due to the requirement to pay taxes with coins. The ubiquitous yet cumbersome nature of hard currency meant that a banking system was needed for the collection of taxes and the loaning of credit.   Silver coin of Ptolemy II‚ Ptolemaic Egyptian‚ Reign of Ptolemy II (246-221 BCE). Source: British Museum   Ptolemy II oversaw the formation of a banking system in Egypt that borrowed from the Athenian system‚ but also added some new details. There were both state and private banks that were licensed and franchised by the crown‚ with at least one bank in the capital of every nome (province). Royal banks collected coin taxes and both royal and private banks awarded credit and loans to private individuals at the exorbitant rate of 24%. Needless to say‚ the high‚ fixed interest rate prevented the development of a credit and debt economy.   Roman Banking and Monetary Policies Silver denarius of Octavian‚ Imperial Roman‚ 29-27 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   As the Ptolemies refashioned Egypt’s economy to more closely align with that of the Greek world‚ the Romans were initiating their own banking and monetary changes while drawing inspiration from Greek precedents.   The first Roman silver coins were probably minted to commemorate the completion of the Via Appia from Rome to Capua in 312 BCE. Instead of using the widespread drachma as a currency standard‚ the Romans created the silver denarius as their standard coin. In addition to the denarius‚ the Romans also minted the sesterce‚ which was a bronze coin. Four sesterces equaled one denarius‚ and in an order below was the copper as‚ four of which equaled one sesterces. As the medium valued in currency among the three denominations‚ the sesterce was the most commonly used coin for peer to peer transactions. Roman coins were technically worth their weight in silver‚ bronze‚ or copper‚ but the state did hold large amounts of gold. The coins were also minted by the state‚ which is where Roman banking and monetary theory emanated.   Portrait of Augustus‚ Imperial Roman‚ Reign of Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE). Source: Museum of Fine Arts‚ Boston   Romans generally considered banking a lowly profession that was on par with acting. This was likely due to the fact that making money from interest on loans was seen as an unworthy profession. Not all Roman banks and bankers profited from interest‚ but it appears several did and many utilized relatively modern monetary policies such as fractional reserve banking. This simply means that banks that practiced this policy would lend a portion of their reserves at interest. Roman records show that loans were referred to as a nomen or nomina (name)‚ as they referred to the names of the debtors.   Roman banks were structured similar to the Ptolemaic model‚ with the state bank having a monopoly on minting but also allowing for private bankers. Banks and bankers were further divided into two primary categories by function. The faeneratores were moneylenders who functioned more like modern brokers and intermediaries while argentarii were similar to traditional bankers.   Gold coin of Vespasian‚ Imperial Roman‚ Reign of Vespasian (69-79 CE). Source: British Museum   Primary historical sources offer a glimpse into how Roman banking worked and how the average Roman perceived the profession. The 1st century CE Roman biographer‚ Suetonius‚ wrote that two of Rome’s illustrious emperors had bankers in their families. None other than Augustus (ruled 27 BCE – 14 CE) had a grandfather who was described as a “money-changer‚” possibly a faeneratore. And Suetonius wrote that one of Vespasian’s (ruled 69-79 CE) grandfathers “later turned banker among the Helvetii.” Apparently the fact that bankers were in those two emperors’ families did not inhibit their rises to power. Banking was obviously a relatively complicated system in the way it functioned as well as how it was perceived by the people.

  Ancient Egyptian mythology tells of the first moment in time when the first land emerged from Nun‚ the dark and endless waters in which nothing existed. A falcon (a form of the sun god and closely associated with the king) or a benu-bird (a phoenix-like creature representing the creator god Atum) alighted upon the mound‚ and so sparked the creation of the world. These actions are at the center of Ancient Egyptian belief in their gods and the divinity of the king. These concepts and imagery can be seen in the earliest sacred spaces dating to the fifth millennium BCE‚ well before the beginning of what we generally recognize as the pharaonic period.   Excavations have revealed foundations‚ deposits‚ structures‚ and artifacts technologically and stylistically similar to much later examples‚ down to the 4th century CE when Egypt was under Roman rule. Elements of temple architecture‚ artistic styles‚ royal practices‚ and more changed‚ but at the heart of it all‚ certain concepts and beliefs remained constant.   Hierakonpolis: Ancient Egypt’s First Power Center Narmer Palette. Source: Wikimedia Commons   One of the most famous artifacts from Ancient Egypt is the Narmer Palette. It was assumed for a long time that it showed the act of unification between the north and south of Egypt‚ but recent scholarship indicates that the emergence of the state did not happen as a single event. However‚ the findspot of the Palette is still regarded as one of the most important sites in the entire history of Egypt. The city of Hierakonpolis (ancient Nekhen) is where we see some of the earliest evidence of the relationship between state and religion‚ c. 3100 BCE — a cult center of the falcon god‚ Horus.   Hierakonpolis was excavated in the late 19th century CE by James Quibell (1867-1935) and Frederick W. Green (1869-1949). Their work revealed an extensive ritual landscape spanning the river Nile‚ with settlements and ceremonial areas focusing on a temple complex. The finds included an exquisite gold falcon statuette‚ a copper statue of a king‚ the ‘Scorpion Macehead’‚ and the Narmer Palette. The quality of these artifacts‚ their deposition in a clearly delineated sacred area‚ and the imagery of kingship together confirmed Hierakonpolis and its temple as the primary focus of the ruling class. Excavations at the site continue today under the direction of the Hierakonpolis Expedition.   Saqqara: the first pyramid complex The Step Pyramid Complex. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Pyramids are not individual‚ stand-alone monuments‚ but are part of much larger complexes which include temple structures. Saqqara was the setting for an escalation in the presentation of power and prestige‚ and innovation in how the king’s mortuary cult was celebrated — while retaining the fundamental mythological and religious themes established at Hierakonpolis.   The Step Pyramid‚ constructed around 2650 BCE‚ was the world’s earliest building in stone‚ the design attributed to king Djoser’s master architect‚ Imhotep. The impact of this achievement ensured Imhotep’s immortality‚ with his deified image still present centuries later‚ worshiped as a patron of craftsmen‚ architects‚ magicians‚ etc.   The earlier form of elite tomb took the shape of a large structure known as a mastaba (Arabic for ‘bench’). The upper part was where storage chambers and the presentation of the life of the deceased were laid out‚ along with a tomb chapel for visitors to bring offerings. Below ground was the burial chamber‚ not intended to be accessed after being sealed off. Some of these mastabas are immense‚ with many rooms and exquisitely painted reliefs. The Step Pyramid developed from this style‚ with graduating layers reaching towards the sky‚ reinforcing the belief that the king would return to the stars. The pyramid was enclosed by a boundary wall to separate the sacred space from the outside world‚ and shrines and ceremonial spaces allowed the king to demonstrate his dominion over the land of Egypt and his continuing fitness to rule in life.   The Scorpion Macehead. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Scorpion Macehead from Hierakonpolis shows aspects of this ritual‚ again confirming that the rules of art and power were established long before. The Valley Temple was a processional way which enabled maintenance and access for those permitted. After Djoser’s death‚ the complex continued to be used in ceremonies celebrating the now fully divine king in his own right and as part of an enduring lineage that stretched back to the dawn of time and was intended to last for eternity.   Giza: The Pyramid Age The Giza Plateau‚ with the Great Sphinx. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Giza Plateau‚ with its magnificent pyramids dominating the skyline‚ was the culmination of these earlier ideas. Variations‚ such as the so-called ‘Bent’ Pyramid at Dahshur‚ the pyramid at Meidum‚ and the slightly later ‘Sun Temples’ at Abusir likely show further experimentation‚ but the three iconic pyramids of the kings Khufu‚ Khafre‚ and Menkaure are the most impressive and well-preserved manifestations of the power of Egypt‚ the religious ideas which placed the king at the beginning of creation‚ and that continuing legacy enduring for all time. The Great Sphinx has stood watch before the pyramids since c. 2550 BCE‚ itself a symbol of the dual nature of the king — mortal and immortal‚ with the wisdom of his divinity and the invincibility of his earthly form.   Statue of Khafre from his Valley Temple at Giza. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Khafre’s Valley Temple is made with limestone from local quarries and granite from Aswan‚ 1000 miles to the south‚ representing his control of all of Egypt and a statement for the gods — the finest stone and craftsmanship are dedicated to the temple‚ which was intended to last forever‚ like the king himself. The image of the king was also replicated in statue form to encapsulate these same ideas.   Thebes: Re-unification and Expansion Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri. Source: Wikimedia Commons   A shift in religious beliefs away from a core focus on the sun led to later alterations in the design of temples‚ as well as a change of primary location. Previously‚ the most important religious buildings were in the Memphis and Saqqara area‚ but political events‚ the undulating balance of power‚ and a need to reconcile these changes without compromising on tradition and belief saw new building projects around Thebes (modern Luxor).   The symbolism of the earliest times‚ the traditions established in the Pyramid Age‚ and the progression on the world towards New Kingdom Egypt (c. 1550-1070 BCE) resulted in temples of great beauty and complexity‚ probably best seen in the mortuary temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri. The temple and its precinct were modeled after the one directly beside it — that of the great unifier of the Middle Kingdom‚ Montuhotep II‚ which incorporated (for the first time) the actual burial space of the king and his family and his mortuary temple space. Religious beliefs were shifting towards a system focusing more on the concept of an underworld afterlife‚ and the association of the dead with the god Osiris.   Therefore‚ Hatshepsut’s temple was designed with elements of Predynastic/Old Kingdom ritual space — the primeval mound‚ possibly topped with an obelisk or pyramid capstone; lines of sycamore trees‚ sacred to the goddess Hathor‚ whose cult was already ancient; and the rising causeway emulating the Valley Temple and the primeval mound.   The Middle Kingdom was represented in the emulation of Montuhotep II; the proximity of another great king’s statues in the wider complex — those of Senwosret III; and the continuation of archaism from the Old Kingdom. Hatshepsut was stepping into a new age of prosperity‚ and her temple was a statement of her status as the latest in the long line of rulers of Egypt‚ being divine of birth‚ powerful‚ and accomplished. The reliefs of her famed voyage to the land of Punt are typical of mortuary temples‚ which are designed to not only celebrate the late king’s life‚ but to record their achievements and offer them to the gods‚ with whose beneficence they have succeeded.   The Great Temples of Karnak and Luxor Luxor Temple. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Like Deir el-Bahri and others before it‚ the temples of Karnak and Luxor were built for the practicalities of life as well as the worship of gods and the king. The temples were connected by processional routes‚ and the area was the largest religious complex in the world. At the heart of Karnak was the precinct of Amun-Ra‚ the principal god of Thebes and ‘Lord of All‚’ although other gods were represented in and around the main temple. Karnak’s origins dated from the Middle Kingdom‚ being a sacred space built upon and expanded over time by many rulers. Thebes (ancient Waset) was now the political capital‚ and the temple was the setting for processions‚ ceremonies‚ proclamations‚ and the official machinations of justice‚ administration‚ and the economy‚ as well as worship.   Priests had a lot of control in Thebes because of their close relationship with the temple as the center of power‚ and eventually the High Priests of Amun became de facto rulers in the south not too long afterwards. Karnak also had segregated areas‚ becoming more restrictive the further one went into the temple. Today‚ Karnak and Luxor are open to the skies‚ and there are no barriers to exploring; in ancient times‚ it would have been roofed‚ with great doors at the entrance and inside.   The hypostyle hall of the temple of Karnak. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Architecturally‚ Karnak and Luxor maintained the by now millennia-old features of the oldest religious spaces — rising floors and columns‚ shaped like papyrus and lotus plants; in fact‚ before the construction of the Aswan Dam in the 1960s‚ the annual flooding of the Nile partially submerged the temples in a recreation of emergence of life from the waters of Nun. Other features included orientation to the cardinal directions‚ and a duality to decoration and inscriptions representing the two ‘halves’ of Egypt. This duality extended to the sky and the earth‚ the river and the desert‚ the living and the dead‚ and the divine/mortal nature of the king. Many such reliefs and scenes have a ‘mirror’ scene‚ perhaps on the opposite wall or even at the other side of the temple.   Furthermore‚ mortuary temples are usually on the west bank of the Nile‚ in the land of the dead‚ where the sun sets; other types‚ such as those dedicated to a god‚ tend to be on the east‚ where the sun rises.   Thutmose III smiting captives‚ temple of Karnak   The great walls of the temples were decorated with scenes of triumph‚ such as pharaoh returning from battle to present captives to the gods‚ bringing exotic goods‚ showing the spoils of war and the execution of prisoners. Whereas the inner parts of the temple reflected the restricted‚ inaccessible aspects of the king and his power‚ and his relationship with the gods‚ the outer areas were his public face‚ shown as powerful‚ undefeated‚ merciless‚ wealthy‚ possessing the blessing of the gods and‚ therefore‚ so was Egypt itself.   The Last Temples The temple of Horus at Edfu. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The most well-preserved temple today is that dedicated to the god Horus at Edfu. Construction began around 237 BCE in the reign of Ptolemy III‚ and it is a testament to the endurance of Ancient Egyptian beliefs. The extant buildings and remains confirm that the practices and beliefs‚ and the presentation of the king and the gods‚ had changed very little overall. Even the Greek and Roman rulers depicted themselves as rulers of Egypt in the standard fashion‚ with their own decorative adjustments to suit their origins.   The temple remained as the cultural center of society‚ from the Predynastic Period through to the decline of temple use in the 4th century CE. Those from the Graeco-Roman Period tended to be smaller versions of their earlier models.   That they have such appeal to visitors today is a testament to their magnificence and encapsulation of the hallmarks of this ancient civilization‚ which are still so present in the landscape and in the cultural heritage of modern Egyptians.

  Ancient Greek art occupies a central space in many museums around the world. Whether it is geometric vases‚ beautiful sculpture‚ or fine jewelry‚ Classical Greek art is distinctly beautiful and impressive. The Romans were so impressed with Greek art‚ especially sculpture‚ that they replicated the style and in some cases even made direct copies of Greek masterpieces. But long before Greek artists inspired Roman art‚ an examination of Greek art reveals that‚ although Hellenic art is truly unique‚ it was influenced by artistic traditions from ancient Egypt‚ Mesopotamia‚ and the Levant.   Early Greek-Near Eastern Contacts Marble sphinx‚ Late Archaic Greek‚ 570-550 BCE. Source: National Archaeological Museum‚ Athens   Near Eastern artistic influences were not forced on the Greeks‚ nor did they happen suddenly‚ but they were the result of centuries of cultural exchange. The cultural ancestors of the Classical Greeks – the Minoans and Mycenaeans – developed extensive trade and diplomatic contacts with several Bronze Age Near Eastern cultures. When the Bronze Age system collapsed around the year 1200 BCE‚ the contacts between the Aegean and the Near East diminished but did not totally disappear.   When the Greek-speaking world emerged from its “dark age” and Classical Greek culture was born in the 8th century BCE‚ extensive contacts with the Near East were redeveloped. Eastern influence can be seen from this early time in rings and other small artifacts. The early Near Eastern influence on Greek art originated in three locations: Phoenicia‚ Syria‚ and Uratu. Uratu provided early metalworking influences while central Syrian artisans gave their ivory working expertise and sculpture from northern Syrian cities provided the Greeks with early templates. The Phoenician “composite style‚” which incorporated elements from throughout the Near East‚ was another important influence on Archaic/early Classical Greek art. These styles and techniques would provide the foundation for those of Classical Greek art.   Near Eastern Motifs and Iconography in Greek Art Corinthian black-figure trefoil oinochoe with lid featuring Near Eastern creatures‚ Archaic Greek‚ 600-575 BCE. Source: National Archaeological Museum‚ Athens   Before proceeding‚ it is important to establish that the modern concept of art is quite different than it was in the ancient world. Today‚ art is produced for its own sake and although the most notable works have deep meaning‚ they usually serve no practical function. In the ancient Near East‚ almost all art was produced for specific purposes – funerary‚ ritual‚ and propaganda‚ for example. Although aesthetics played a role in what are today considered masterpieces of Near Eastern art‚ functionality was more important. For the Greeks‚ art occupied a place in their society that was somewhere between that of the ancient Near East and the modern world. The Greeks produced art for cultic functions‚ but they also created pieces‚ especially sculpture in the Hellenistic Period‚ purely for visual enjoyment. So with that in mind‚ an examination of some Near Eastern motifs in Greek art is a good starting point.   Orientalizing amphora featuring a lion‚ Archaic Greek‚ c. 700 BCE. Source: British Museum   Images of mythical creatures of Near Eastern origin started to become a popular motif in Greek art in the 7th century BCE. Tripods‚ amphorae‚ bowls‚ and other devices and utensils were commonly adorned with griffins‚ sirens‚ and sphinxes‚ among other creatures. Although many of these creatures later made their way into Classical Greek literature‚ they can also be seen in the much earlier art of Mesopotamia‚ Egypt‚ and the Levant.   Orientalizing cauldron fitting‚ Archaic Greek‚ 700-600 BCE. Source: British Museum   Real animals that had spiritual significance in earlier Near Eastern societies also made their way into Greek art. The Greeks had a particular fondness for lions‚ although the ferocious feline was only native to the Macedonian region of the Greek speaking world. It is very likely that‚ in the absence of native lions in mainland Greece‚ Greek artists were influenced by the many images of lions in Near Eastern art. For example‚ lion hunts and lions in general were a popular motif in Assyrian art‚ which may have been borrowed by Greek artists.   Relief of a lion and lioness from the Royal Assyrian Palace in Nineveh‚ Neo-Assyrian‚ 645-640 BCE. Source: British Museum   Early Greek artists also adopted artistic techniques from the Near East. In addition to the techniques mentioned earlier that the Greeks borrowed in the 8th century BCE‚ they also learned the “lost wax” method of bronze statue production from Egypt. This process involved making a sculpture in wax over a clay core that was then covered in bronze. This method was used for the first life-sized Greek statues in the late 6th and early 5th centuries BCE. But this method was only introduced after ancient Egyptian sculpture methods had already made a profound impact on Greek sculpture.   Egyptian Sculpture and Classical Sculpture  Statue of a female figure from Delos‚ Archaic Greek‚ c. 650 BCE. Source: National Archaeological Museum‚ Athens   Greek sculpture emerged out of the dark age in the 8th century BCE with little precedent or influence from the earlier Aegean cultures. The pre-classical cultures of the Minoans and Mycenaeans focused their artistic energies on frescoes and architecture‚ so the Greeks had to look east. As the Greeks entered what modern scholars have termed the “Archaic Period” (c. 800-480 BCE)‚ they began building temples. A primary feature of these early temples were cult statues‚ which were believed to be the earthly avatar of a particular deity. The Sanctuary of Hera (the Heraion) on the island of Samos is one of the most interesting archaeological sites of the Archaic period for art historical reasons.   A number of objects of Near Eastern origin were discovered at the Heraion‚ the most important of which was a bronze statue of the Egyptian goddess Mut. This object likely provided the template for Greek artists to create a wooden statuette of the goddess Hera that was also discovered in the temple. The Greek statue‚ though‚ has some noticeably different details. The fabric of Hera is much more detailed and is overall less “fleshy” than its Egyptian counterpart.   The New York Kouros‚ Archaic Greek‚ 590-580 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   The Egyptian-influenced statuettes gave way to a distinct sculptural form known as the kouros in the 6th century. Kouros is the term for a male version of this type of statue‚ while kore is the term used for female figures. One of the earliest and best-known kouros statues is the “New York Kouros”‚ which is currently in the Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York. The New York Kouros and later kouroi (plural of kouros) statues followed the Egyptian sculptural canon of proportions‚ but a closer examination reveals some notable differences.   Greek artists did not employ the supporting pillar that was nearly universal in Egyptian statuary and harder granite was usually the preferred medium. Greek kouroi are also notable for being nude‚ while Egyptian figures were always dressed in a kilt. It should be pointed out that Greek korai (female kore) were always clothed‚ usually with well-detailed dresses. Overall‚ Greek kouroi did not embody or symbolize power the way that Egyptian statues did. Perhaps this is because Greek kouroi were used in a variety of different settings that were not always sacred.   Priest of Amun‚ Egyptian Late Period‚ 30th Dynasty (381-362 BCE). Source: Brooklyn Museum‚ New York   The Egyptians’ influence on Greek statuary can be traced back to the late 8th and early 7th centuries BCE‚ particularly during the 25th and 26th dynasties. It was after the Nubians conquered Egypt and established the 25th dynasty that a form of “realism” that combined elements of “idealism” entered Egyptian art. Egyptian artists employed sculptural techniques of early periods and added new elements that gave each figure a degree of individuality. They also added a characteristic “smile” to their sculptures that‚ along with the canon of proportions‚ was adopted by Greek artists. This combination of idealism and individuality would be the first steps toward true portraiture that was later achieved by Greek artists. The “Boston Green Head” is a perfect example of how this process continued on Egyptian soil. But by that time the Greeks had entered the Classical period and were producing works of true portraiture.   Hellenism and Beyond Boston Green Head‚ Egyptian Late Period‚ 30th Dynasty (380-332 BCE). Source: Museum of Fine Arts‚ Boston   By the late 4th century BCE‚ the Hellenic world and the Near East had become intertwined in many ways and artistic influences had come full circle. The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) was eclectic in many ways‚ especially in terms of art and architecture. Achaemenid Persian sculpture in particular was influenced by Egypt and Mesopotamian precedents‚ but it also clearly borrowed from its Greek rivals to the west. The Achaemenid style did not last very long‚ though‚ as it was replaced by Hellenism.   When Alexander the Great (ruled 336-323 BCE) conquered the Achaemenid Empire he initiated the era of Hellenism‚ when Greek culture spread throughout the Near East. Greek artistic styles impressed themselves on the older cultures of the Near East‚ but another round of Near Eastern influences manifested in Hellenistic art. Near Eastern influences on Hellenistic art‚ though‚ were much more superficial‚ as Hellenistic art was grand‚ ostentatious‚ and some would say pretentious. Artists used Near Eastern techniques with Greek forms while Near Eastern subject matters and forms were often Hellenized. This blending of artistic styles was most apparent in Egypt‚ where the initial influence on Archaic Greek sculpture began.   Head of a Ptolemaic King‚ Ptolemaic Period‚ Late 2nd Century BCE or Early 1st Century BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   The blending of Egyptian and Greek styles became so ubiquitous in Egypt that today it is difficult to differentiate sculpture of the 30th dynasty from the Ptolemaic period. Eventually‚ Egyptian sculpture acquired a more Hellenistic style with only superficial Egyptian features. This superficial “Egyptianness” is exemplified by the stone head of a Ptolemaic king loaned from the Yale Peabody Museum to the Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York. Smith noted that the “Egyptian headdress grafted on to the imperial portrait does not disguise the Greek curls escaping underneath.” It is believed to be either Ptolemy VIII (ruled 170-163 BCE and 145-116 BCE) or Ptolemy X (ruled 107-88 BCE). The superficial use of Egyptian accouterments on Hellenistic sculpture was adopted by the Romans‚ who then developed their own form of sculptural realism.   Egyptian Influences on Roman Verism  Copy of a marble head of an athlete‚ Imperial Roman‚ 138-192 CE. Original: Classical Greek‚ ~450-425 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   Artists often employed the superficial use of Egyptian features and accouterments on statuary that was otherwise Hellenistic in style. Perhaps one of the best known examples of this is the statue of Osiris-Antinous now in the Vatican Museum. Antinous was a friend of the Emperor Hadrian (ruled 117-138 CE) who drowned in the Nile River. The emperor deified Antinous and syncretized him with Osiris‚ the Egyptian god of the dead. The statue of Antinous-Osiris is clearly Hellenistic in style‚ with the Egyptian nemes headdress almost being an afterthought.   Marble statue of Antinous as Osiris‚ Imperial Roman‚ c. 117-138 CE. Source: Vatican Museum   Art historians often point to Roman Republican sculpture portraiture as the natural extension of Classical Greek and Hellenistic portraiture. Although this is certainly true to a great extent‚ it mitigates the innovation of Roman sculpture as well as the influence of Egyptian style. The sculptural realism that Egyptian artists began employing in the late 8th century BCE found a home in the realism of late Republican sculpture‚ often termed “verism‚” Notable art historians‚ such as Bernard Bothmer‚ argued that the verism seen in sagacious middle-aged Roman senators can be traced directly back to the sculptures of the Nubian and Saite kings of Egypt’s 25th and 26th dynasties.

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It's not hard to find a landmine when asking White House press secretary Karine Jean-Pierre a question. The Biden administration official has frequently cut off members of the press who push against President Joe Biden‚ shutting down dissent of him. Unfortunately‚ when such a massive mess of an administration is...