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Ancient Rome was celebrated for its significant contributions to architecture‚ literature‚ and politics. It was also a society where certain aspects of sexual expression and relationships exhibited a degree of openness and complexity that still shocks people today.  During the reign of Emperor Nero‚ homosexuality‚ though not openly discussed or embraced‚ could still be found within the private spheres of Roman life.  This brings us to one of the strangest relationships in Roman history. The marriage of Emperor Nero to Sporus.  In this article‚ we will give historical context about marriage and relationships within ancient Roman culture. We will also explore the tumultuous reign of Emperor Nero and why he decided to marry a man and pass him off as his wife. Busts of Poppaea Sabina on the left‚ and possibly Sporus on the right‚ showing similarities in their faces Traditional Relationships in Ancient Rome Marriage in ancient Rome was a pivotal institution that played a central role in the social and political fabric of society.  It was viewed not only as a union between two individuals but also as a means of securing alliances‚ managing family honor‚ and ensuring the continuity of the bloodline.  While the expectation was for heterosexual unions to fulfill political and societal obligations‚ instances of same-sex relationships were not uncommon. Early Life of Sporus Born into relative anonymity‚ historical records provide sparse information regarding the circumstances of his birth and upbringing.  The exact circumstances that brought Sporus into Nero‘s inner circle remain unclear. But it was within this environment of political maneuvering‚ eccentricity‚ and unorthodox relationships that Sporus rose to prominence. Scholars have theorized that the name Sporus was possibly bestowed upon him as a derogatory epithet when the mistreatment began. This interpretation is rooted in the word’s Greek origin‚ σπόρος‚ which translates to “seed” or “semen.”  The choice of this epithet could be linked to the assertion that Sporus was unable to father children‚ reflecting the degrading nature of the title. Brief Overview of Emperor Nero Nero was the last ruler of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He ascended to the throne in AD 54 at the age of 16 following the death of his stepfather‚ Emperor Claudius.  Nero’s reign became known for its eccentricities‚ artistic pursuits‚ and tyranny.  There is debate about whether Nero was directly responsible for starting The Great Fire of Rome in AD 64 or whether he “played the fiddle while Rome burned.” His name today has become synonymous with fire and tyranny.  Emperor Nero. Plaster cast in Pushkin museum Nero’s legacy endures in several public works projects‚ including the construction of the Domus Aurea‚ a grand palace in Rome‚ and the completion of the Circus Maximus.  He also sought to boost cultural and athletic events. He wanted to showcase his artistic inclinations and contribute to the flourishing of Roman arts. After a series of events that culminated in a revolt against his rule‚ Nero was forced out of his position as Emperor. In the year 68 AD‚ discontent among many groups‚ including the Senate‚ the military‚ and provincial governors‚ grew significantly.  His extravagant lifestyle‚ autocratic behavior‚ and the rumors of his negligence during the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD were a tipping point for the Roman people. As anger against him spread‚ Nero’s support dwindled‚ and several provinces declared their allegiance to other candidates for the throne. In the face of growing opposition and the threat of imminent removal by force‚ Nero lost the support of the palace guard tasked with protecting him. Faced with the prospect of execution and the end of his reign‚ Nero fled to a villa outside the city with four loyal freedmen‚ Epaphroditus‚ Phaon‚ Neophytus‚ and Sporus. Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him.  Some accounts say that Nero died by suicide‚ while other accounts say that he could not bring himself to do it and forced his private secretary‚ Epaphroditus‚ to perform the task.  Regardless of how it happened‚ Nero died on June 9‚ 68 AD. This marked the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and the beginning of the Year of the Four Emperors‚ a period of civil war and political upheaval in Rome. Nero’s Marriage to Sporus The strange arrangement began after the death of Nero’s wife‚ Poppaea Sabina‚ in 65 AD. The official story is that she died in childbirth but there were rumors abound that Nero kicked her to death in a fit of rage.  In 67‚ Nero married Sporus who looked a lot like Poppaea. He had the young man castrated to preserve his youthful and feminine looks and publicly presented Sporus as his wife.  During a trip to Greece‚ Nero and Sporus were accompanied by the “mistress of the wardrobe.” They dressed Sporus in the attire customary for Roman empresses.   The unconventional nature of the marriage extended beyond societal expectations. Prior to Sporus‚ Nero had married another freedman named Pythagoras‚ who had played the role of Nero’s husband. With Sporus‚ Nero reversed the roles‚ portraying him as Nero’s wife. The motivations behind Nero’s marriages to freedmen like Sporus and Pythagoras are not precisely known and subject to historical interpretation. Some scholars suggest that Nero’s actions were driven by a desire to defy social norms and challenge the establishment‚ or maybe he just didn’t care what people thought.  What is known is that the relationship stood in stark contrast to the societal expectations of ancient Rome Sporus After Nero’s Death The details of Sporus’s life after Nero’s death are shrouded in mystery‚ with limited contemporary records surviving. Following Nero’s downfall and the subsequent civil war in Rome‚ Sporus faced an uncertain future.  The fate and legacy of Sporus remain foggy. Whether he faded into obscurity‚ faced persecution‚ or managed to carve out a meaningful existence in the aftermath of Nero’s reign remains forever lost to time.  Interpreting Nero’s Relationships in a Modern Context The cultural‚ social‚ and moral norms of ancient Rome were very different from the world we live in today. This makes it challenging to apply our current understanding of relationships‚ sexuality‚ and social standing without bias. Nero’s actions‚ viewed through the lens of ancient Roman society‚ may have been driven by a myriad of factors‚ such as political strategy‚ personal preferences‚ or a desire to challenge established norms.  As modern observers‚ our interpretations are inevitably shaped by our own cultural context‚ and it’s crucial to avoid imposing present-day values onto the past. The post Sporus and Nero: The Controversial Union in Ancient Rome first appeared on History Defined.

Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen was the first person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.  He discovered the radiation wavelength range known in English as X-rays. In many languages‚ these wavelengths are still called Röntgen radiation. Photograph of Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen. 1900 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen Röntgen was the child of a German cloth merchant. He was born in 1845 in the Kingdom of Prussia and raised in the Netherlands. At the age of twenty‚ he was expelled from Utrecht Technical School for drawing a caricature of one of his teachers‚ though he insisted that it had been drawn by another student. This made it impossible for him to attend university in the Netherlands. He passed the entrance exam for the Federal Polytechnic Institute in Switzerland and moved there to study mechanical engineering. He went on to earn his PhD at the University of Zurich. From there‚ Röntgen moved to France and worked as a lecturer at the University of Strasbourg. Following Strasbourg‚ he taught at several universities in Germany.  He accepted a position at the University of Columbia in the United States after he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. But the start of the Great War foiled his plans and he remained in Germany for the rest of his life. Röntgen Radiation In the course of his research in 1895‚ Röntgen worked to learn more about a new type of radiant energy. This energy passed through solid objects and generated a mysterious glow.  Other scientists detected this type of radiation over one hundred years earlier. But they were never able to use it to create images. Nicola Tesla was working with X-rays at the same time as Röntgen. He developed his own method of creating images shortly after Röntgen did. Röntgen wrote the first scientific paper on X-rays in December of 1895. He was the one to use the letter X to represent this unknown wavelength. It is used the same way that X is used in mathematical equations to represent an unknown variable.  Shortly after writing that first paper‚ he created an X-ray image of his wife’s hand – the first ever X-ray image used to photograph human bones. “I have seen my death‚” Bertha Röntgen said when she first saw the image. This new discovery caused a sensation in the scientific community. Over one thousand articles were written about X-rays in 1896. An early X-ray picture (radiograph) by Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923) of Albert von Kölliker’s left hand The Nobel Prize in Physics Alfred Nobel died in 1896. His will bequeathed his wealth to be given to people who had best-served mankind in the fields of physics‚ chemistry‚ medicine‚ literature‚ and peace. Röntgen was awarded the first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901 “in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently named after him.”  Though he was not a wealthy man‚ Röntgen donated his prize of fifty thousand krona to the university for further research. To this day‚ the Nobel Prize in Physics remains the most prestigious award that physicists can earn.  Radiology Around the World Röntgen never attempted to patent the X-ray or any of his other discoveries; he believed that they should be available to all.  He wrote to physicians across Europe immediately after creating his first X-ray image because the potential value to the medical community was obvious.  Within a month of Röntgen’s discovery‚ dozens of scientists throughout Europe and North America were working to reproduce his results.  Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton‚ an electrical engineer in Scotland‚ was the first person after Röntgen to create an X-ray image. His was also of a hand.  The English medical doctor John Hall-Edwards was the first person to use X-rays for medical purposes. He created an X-ray image of a needle stuck in a man’s hand in January of 1896.  The following month‚ he used X-ray images to prepare for a surgical operation. He also was the first person to take an X-ray of a human spine.  In the early years‚ when X-rays were a new sensation and the dangers were not yet known‚ they were offered at fairs and in shoe stores as an enticing novelty.  An early X-ray of a child’s ribcage who had swallowed a coin. 1904 The Dangers of X-rays  Shortly after X-rays were popularized‚ the Georgian scientist Ivan Romanovich Tarkhanov used X-rays on frogs and insects. He realized that in addition to creating images‚ these rays affected the creatures themselves. In 1896‚ Thomas Edison invented the Vitascope. This became the first mass-produced device to allow people to view X-rays in real-time. Edison abandoned X-ray research when his associate Clarence Dally developed aggressive and deadly tumors in his hands after extensive imaging. Around the time of that first documented death caused by X-rays‚ the physicist Mihajlo Pupin developed a new technology that reduced the exposure time of each image from an hour to a few minutes.  In the same year that Dally was killed by Röntgen radiation‚ many other scientists documented other worrisome effects such as burns and hair loss. It was also linked to cancer and infertility.  Other Scientists Who Worked With Radiation Radiographer Elizabeth Fleischman worked extensively with X-rays and eventually realized that the damage she was experiencing‚ such as burns on her hands‚ was from the radiation itself. She continued to work with X-rays while advocating for the use of protective screens made of glass and metal.  Cancer worked its way up Fleischman’s arms and into her lungs‚ and she died in 1905. She was 38 years old. Her gravestone reads‚ “I think I did some good in this world.” Marie and Pierre Curie were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 for their theory of radioactivity. Despite mounting evidence of the dangers of working with radiation‚ Marie Curie continued her work for decades after her husband’s death in 1906.  Curie invented mobile radiography machines for use in field hospitals during the Great War and became the director of the Red Cross Radiology Service. She died at the age of 66 from aplastic anemia caused by her many years of exposure to radiation.  The books and papers that she handled are still so radioactive that they’re stored in lead boxes and only handled through protective clothing and gloves. The post Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen: The Inventor of the X-ray first appeared on History Defined.