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  Since its discovery in 1901 off the coast of the Greek island of Antikythera, the Antikythera Mechanism has fascinated scholars in many fields. Studies of the inscriptions on the mechanism and reconstructions of its gears have established that it was an astronomical calculator. It has gears for telling time and predicting eclipses and planetary positions. The Antikythera Mechanism reveals that mechanical technology in the Hellenistic period was much more advanced than previously thought, rivaling early modern Western Europe. It also reveals how astronomical knowledge was integrated into everyday life.   The Discovery of the Antikythera Mechanism 82 fragments of the Antikythera Mechanism that were found in a Roman shipwreck. Source: National Archaeological Museum, Athens   In 1901, Greek sponge divers off the coast of the island of Antikythera discovered a shipwreck filled with ancient artifacts, which were later revealed to be from the Hellenistic Period, circa 100 BCE. After their discovery was announced, the artifacts were taken to the National Archaeological Museum in Athens.   One of the artifacts was a peculiar work of artifice, which did not generate much interest until a few months later when it broke into pieces and revealed a system of circular gears. It was long suspected to be an astronomical calculator of some sort (Price 1974; Wright 2005), but significant progress was made in interpreting the purpose of the Antikythera Mechanism in the 2000s when high-tech imaging techniques were used to decipher the inscriptions on the individual gears and accurately reconstruct the gear structure using X-ray images (Freeth et al. 2006).   By 2005, it was confirmed that one of the back gears was used to predict eclipses. By 2008, it was determined that one of the subsidiary back gears was related to calculating the Olympiad, a time-period of four years based on the ancient Olympic Games. It is now known that the Antikythera Mechanism incorporates numerous cycles known to the ancient Greeks that were important for their civil calendars, including the Metonic lunar phase cycle and the Saros eclipse cycle. More recent studies have provided evidence that it also functioned as a planetarium and could predict the motion of the planets visible in antiquity: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. This has led to a significant advancement in understanding the purpose of the Antikythera Mechanism and what it reveals about the astronomical knowledge and mechanical capabilities of Hellenistic civilization around 100 BCE.   Structure of the Back of the Antikythera Mechanism A schematic view of the mechanism to illustrate the position of major inscriptions and dials. Source: Nature   The Antikythera Mechanism is a rectangular-shaped mechanism that was probably contained in a wooden box (Price 1974). It contains a front section and a back section, each with unique gears with inscriptions. The back section has two large dials with three subsidiary dials. The large upper back dial has been shown to reflect the Metonic cycle, based on inscriptions (Wright 2005; Freeth et al. 2006). The Metonic cycle is a 19-year, or 235-month, lunar phase cycle in which a lunar phase will occur on the same date in the year about every 19 years. The Metonic cycle would have been important for managing the lunar-based calendars used by ancient Greek cities because there was a need to adjust the lunar calendar to keep it synced with the seasons.   Within the large upper back dial are also two smaller dials. One has been shown to be related to calculating the Olympiad. The Olympic Games occurred every four years and were important for social, religious, and chronological purposes. This dial is divided into four parts and each part is labelled according to intermediate games that happened between the Olympic Games (Freeth et al. 2008). Although not completely preserved, there is evidence of another subsidiary dial within the Metonic dial that recorded the 76-year Callippic cycle (Freeth et al. 2008). The Callippic cycle was incorporated to make the Metonic-based lunar calendar more accurate. Since the 235 months of the Metonic cycle do not equal exactly 19 years, the Metonic cycle time-period was multiplied by four to create a whole number period of days 76 years long, which is called the Callippic cycle.   The lower large dial has been shown, based on inscriptions, to be related to the 223 months Saros cycle (Freeth et al., 2008; Freeth, 2014). The Saros cycle predicts that an eclipse, lunar or solar, will be followed by an almost identical eclipse 223 months later due to an almost identical configuration of the sun, the moon, and Earth.   Structure of the Front of the Antikythera Mechanism A Model of the Cosmos in the ancient Greek Antikythera Mechanism. Source: Nature   The front of the Antikythera Mechanism consists of a single large dial upon which a large network of complex gears was originally attached. Analysis of inscriptions and digital reconstructions suggests that the gears were used to predict the motion of the sun, moon, and five classical planets visible in antiquity, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn (Freeth et al. 2021).   The movements of the mechanical gears were based on the geocentric cosmology that was favoured by most ancient Greek astronomers. In this model, the earth is at the center of the universe and the sun, moon, and planets orbit the earth. One of the major mysteries of ancient astronomy was the retrograde motion of Mars. Because Mars is farther from the sun than Earth, and Earth orbits the sun faster than Mars, the Earth overtakes Mars as they circle the sun. As a result, from the perspective of an observer on Earth, Mars appears to backtrack in its path over the course of the year before resuming a forward course. This is very hard to explain in the geocentric model.   Ancient Greek astronomers tried to explain this by arguing that the planets orbited the earth in a great circle while also moving in smaller circles, or epicycles, as they circled the earth, which could explain the retrograde motion of Mars. This cosmological model is believed to be used for organizing the gears so that the planets, the sun, and the moon follow motions expected by this epicyclic model (Freeth et al. 2021). In this way, the front dial appears to represent a model of the ancient Greek cosmos, while the back dial appears to be for telling time. Both parts of the Antikythera Mechanism worked together to allow observers to predict the motion of the celestial bodies and to predict astronomical events like eclipses, making it essentially a mechanical planetarium.   Background and Purpose of the Antikythera Mechanism Archimedes, by Domenico Fetti in Mantua, 1620. Source: Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden   The shipwreck in which the Antikythera Mechanism was found dates to about 100 BCE (Freeth et al. 2006), placing it in the middle of the Hellenistic Period. The names of the months used on the Metonic calendar dial suggest an origin in the Corinthian colonies, which would have included Syracuse. This suggests a connection to the Greek inventor Archimedes, who died in 212 BCE in the Roman attack on Syracuse (Freeth et al. 2008). Interestingly, the Roman orator Cicero talks about a mechanical planetarium designed by Archimedes (Freeth et al. 2008). While it can never be known with certainty, this does make it plausible that the Antikythera Mechanism may have been a copy of the one invented by Archimedes.   Another clue to its historical context is that the month names on the calendar are common month names associated with a specific civil calendar rather than technical names used by astronomers (Freeth et al. 2008). This suggests that the Antikythera Mechanism may have been used for civil purposes and not just as a scientific instrument. This has implications for the degree to which scientific and technological knowledge was integrated into Hellenistic society.   Historical implications of the Antikythera Mechanism Ptolemy II talking with Jewish Scholars in the Library of Alexandria, by Jean-Baptiste de Champagne, 1627. Source: Google Arts & Culture   The Antikythera Mechanism, using complex mechanical workings combined with astronomical knowledge to make predictions about the motion of the planets, suggests that Hellenistic technology was surprisingly advanced. Devices comparable to the Antikythera Mechanism in terms of mechanical sophistication do not appear again until the early modern period (Freeth et al. 2021). Technological devices, such as the Antikythera Mechanism, reveal evidence of accelerating technological progress through the Hellenistic Period. This adds to the mystery of why Hellenistic science and technology did not continue to advance and why there was no industrial revolution in the eastern Mediterranean around the time of Christ.   Antikythera Mechanism. Source: Wikimedia Commons   It is notable that analogous technical artifacts are rare in the Hellenistic world and are usually only found in connection with specific inventors who may have been more interested in using their inventions to advance their scientific investigations than applying the technology to solve practical problems in society. The possible use of the Antikythera Mechanism to regulate the civil calendar in the Corinthian colonies could represent an exception to that rule.   References   Freeth, T., Bitsakis, Y., Moussas, X., Seiradakis, J. H., Tselikas, A., Mangou, H., … & Edmunds,  M. G. (2006). Decoding the ancient Greek astronomical calculator known as the Antikythera Mechanism. Nature, 444(7119), 587-591. Freeth, T., Jones, A., Steele, J. M., & Bitsakis, Y. (2008). Calendars with Olympiad display and eclipse prediction on the Antikythera Mechanism. Nature, 454(7204), 614-617. Freeth, T. (2014). Eclipse prediction on the ancient Greek astronomical calculating machine known as the Antikythera Mechanism. Plos One, 9(7), e103275. Freeth, T., Higgon, D., Dacanalis, A., MacDonald, L., Georgakopoulou, M., & Wojcik, A. (2021). A Model of the Cosmos in the ancient Greek Antikythera Mechanism. Scientific reports, 11(1), 5821. Price, D. (1974). Gears from the Greeks. The Antikythera mechanism: a calendar computer from ca. 80 BC. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 1-70. Wright, M. T. (2005). The Antikythera mechanism: a new gearing scheme. Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society, 85, 2-7.

  Egypt is known the world over for its archaeological wonders—impressive tombs that froze dynasties in time, complete with massive treasures and wonders of history. The Valley of the Kings is one of the most incredible locations in the country, home to dozens of tombs that Egyptians used to inter historical regents and their belongings. Despite extensive examination, there are still wonders to be discovered in this popular destination. With over a million people visiting annually, this unique desert landmark provides intrigue that few others can offer.   1. It Was Part of the Ancient City of Thebes Once known as Thebes, Luxor is now reflective of many other modern cities. Source: Vyacheslav Argenberg / Wikimedia Commons   Located across the Nile from the former city of Thebes proper, the Valley of the Kings now resides in the Egyptian city of Luxor. Thebes is approximately 800 kilometers (500 miles) south of the Mediterranean Sea, along the Nile River. Locals called the city Waset, and it was once the capital of Egypt.   It is a hot and dry locale, subject to the annual flooding of the Nile in late summer. There were many well-traveled trade routes leading to and through the city, but the most convenient way to travel was by boat. Currently, Luxor is a hot destination for history buffs, boasting ruins that date back as far as the 14th century BCE. The area has a strong Islamic culture, and most citizens today speak a local Arabic dialect. Though Egypt has been subject to unrest and terrorism since major political changes in 2011, the area in which the Valley of the Kings is located is considered relatively safe.   A 2007 aerial view of the Valley of the Kings. Source: Vyacheslav Argenberg / Wikimedia Commons   Traditionally, Egyptian burial grounds were placed on the west side of the Nile, and the Valley of the Kings is no exception. The western location is significant because the sun god of ancient Egyptian mythology, Ra, “died” each day on the western horizon, later to be reborn as morning returned. As a result, the western location became deeply tied to Egyptian funerary rites. The valley is split into Eastern and Western locations, though the western side contains far fewer tombs. The burial locations were built into existing cliffs, with underground tombs selected in hopes of minimizing grave robbing.   2. Who’s There? The funerary mask of King Tutankhamun, one of the most popular exhibits at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Source: Roland Unger / Wikimedia Commons   The Valley of the Kings earned its fame by being home to the resting places of some of Egypt’s most famous ancient rulers. These pharaohs belonged to the New Kingdom, which lasted from approximately 1550-1070 BCE. In addition to the famous rulers, select priests and nobles found their permanent resting place in the Valley of the Kings. Some of the more famous rulers buried in the Valley include Ramses II, who was one of ancient Egypt’s longest-ruling monarchs, and the legendary King Tutankhamun, or King “Tut.”   The ruins of Dayr al Madinah, photographed in 2007. Source: Vyacheslav Argenberg / Wikimedia Commons   Although they weren’t interred there, the men who worked on the tombs left evidence of their lives in the Valley of the Kings as well. The valley is home to the remnants of Dayr al Madinah, a village that was home to the dozens of workmen who built the incredible monuments to their royals. Between 30 and 120 men worked on the building projects, depending on the size of the tomb. They had a two-shift workday, with each shift comprising four hours. The workweek was made up of eight days, followed by two days of rest. A great deal of papyri, or written documents, were recovered from Dayr al Madinah, allowing modern historians to learn much about the village itself and the tomb-building process in the valley.   3. Parts of the Valley Remain Unexplored This topographical depiction of the valley was made by John Gardner Wilkinson in 1830, and is still referenced today. Source: John Gardner Wilkinson / Wikimedia Commons   People began getting interested in the Valley of the Kings as far back as the third century when the Greeks arrived. Graffiti from the Greco-Roman era has been discovered, along with artifacts from the Byzantine period and beyond. Scholars, artists, and researchers visited the valley in the eighteenth century, and in the late nineteenth century, Egyptian antiquities became en vogue in Europe. Initial incursions into the tombs were unorganized, rushed, and often destructive in order to meet this demand. As the twentieth century progressed, expeditions became more organized and careful. Excavation of the valley continues today, as parts of it have yet to be discovered.   A 1926 “necropolis sheet” lists tomb numbers and their owners. Source: Survey of Egypt, British Government / Wikimedia Commons   There are 64 numbered tombs located in the Valley of the Kings. Some of the tombs have numbers that correspond to names, while others are simply referred to by their number, as their occupants are unknown. The burial chambers range widely in size, from small pits to some with maze-like corridors and dozens of chambers. Some historians believe there are more to be found, and work on the known tombs is still ongoing. The Western Valley is the least explored area and is much larger, indicating that there may be new discoveries awaiting.   4. It Was Robbed in Antiquity This pectoral from King Tut’s tomb is just an example of the many treasures that occupied the valley. Source: D. Denisenkov / Wikimedia Commons   Egyptian royals were buried in accordance with their beliefs, with everything they might need to keep them comfortable in the afterlife. Of course, this often included large amounts of treasure that seemed like easy pickings to graverobbers. For example, the contents of King Tut’s tomb alone are valued at around three-quarters of a billion dollars by today’s standards. Even the corpses were under threat, as jewels and amulets were often interwoven in the mummy’s linen wrappings. There is even evidence of some necropolis employees taking bribes in exchange for granting thieves access to the graves they were supposed to be protecting.   While graverobbing has been a concern of scholars and historians since excavation began in the Valley of the Kings, it is a violation that occurred long before the tombs were first explored by outsiders. The architects of the Valley of the Kings took some precautions to reduce the incidence of this, as they saw tombs from previous eras destroyed by invaders. They chose the valley partly for its isolated location and underground tomb locations. However, it did little to prevent graverobbing from occurring, often within days of a tomb being sealed.   5. Tourism Is Rampant, and So Are Its Effects Tourism in the Valley of the Kings in 2008. Source: Jerome Bon / Wikimedia Commons   Over the last two centuries, tourism has grown in popularity in Egypt, and it remains a top industry in the country. Millions of tourists, generating billions of dollars for the Egyptian economy, visit annually, with 1.5 million heading to the Valley of the Kings every year. While these tourists are welcomed by the Egyptian economy, these visits come with some negative effects as well. Exposure to crowds has resulted in pollution, graffiti, and overall deterioration of these historical locations. A site management plan was created in 2010 that would allow visitors to enjoy the rich history of the valley while still remaining mindful of its delicate status. Railings, signage, and lighting are among the measures put in place to help manage tourist impact, as well as numerous conservation projects that restore and preserve artifacts in place.   6. It’s a UNESCO Site The UNESCO flag. Source: Mouagip / Wikimedia Commons   Adding to its popularity as a tourist destination is the fact that the Valley of the Kings is a UNESCO site. UNESCO stands for United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, which is focused on identifying, protecting, and preserving “cultural and natural” heritage around the world. UNESCO maintains a list of World Heritage Sites and provides support for these sites through training, technical assistance, and emergency aid. The Valley of the Kings is one of seven UNESCO sites in Egypt, and one of a total of 1,223 properties worldwide. The valley is actually just a part of its total site, as the entire ancient city of Thebes is considered under the designation.   7. It’s Considered to Be Haunted A full-scale replica of King Tut’s chariot, though the ghostly one he is said to drive today is pulled by fiery black horses. Source: Evan Howard / Wikimedia Commons   Rumors abound about the metaphysical nature of the Valley of the Kings. Numerous ghost encounters and spooky happenings have been reported over the years. Much of this is attributed to the supposed curse that was placed on those who opened King Tut’s sealed tomb in 1922. Visitors to the valley have heard strange sounds at night, and some have even claimed to have seen King Tut’s ghost driving his chariot through the valley.   The Valley of the Kings holds many wonders, such as this display from the tomb of Ramses IX. Source: Luigi Rosa / Wikimedia Commons   The Valley of the Kings is many things to many people. It holds centuries of historical and archaeological knowledge, remains a premier tourist destination, and is a cultural center for millions of Egyptians. Its wide-ranging value has marked it as a priority for those working in preservation, and continued focus on these measures will be essential to maintain this impressive location for future generations.

  Athena is one of the most famous deities from Greek antiquity. Born in full armor, springing forth from the head of her father Zeus, the virgin goddess was her father’s favorite daughter. She was also a favorite among the Greek people as the patron of not just Athens but also Pergamon and Sparta, among others. But what did the ancient Greeks believe Athena was the goddess of? Why was she so popular?   Wisdom Pallas Athene, attributed to Rembrandt, c. 1657. Source: Calouste Gulbenkian Museum   One of the principal domains associated with Athena was wisdom. Born out of the mind of Zeus, the association existed from the moment of her divine creation. From her wisdom grew many characteristics that came to define perceptions of the goddess in Greek culture.   She was viewed as having unmatched cunning, and was known for her calculated reasoning and pragmatism. As such, she was a major figure in military conflict, representing the strategic aspect. This intellect was also found outside the battlefield. Her wisdom was sought by those looking for insight and those who required good counsel.   Probably representing Athena in her guise as the goddess of wisdom, she was, and still is, associated with the owl. While academics have many theories on why the owl was represented in depictions of Athena, the owl is still considered a symbol of wisdom today, largely thanks to Athena.   War Statuette of Athena with an owl, Greek, c. 460 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   The Greek world was not constrained by having one deity to represent a single concept. Gods were multifaceted with many associations, and there was often significant crossover between the domains of different gods.   Athena and Ares were the two Greek gods most closely associated with war. This led to a rivalry between the two beings, who, through the epic stories, came into conflict on more than one occasion.   However, while Ares represented the fury and bloody nature of battle, Athena represented the strategic side of military conflict. Athena also had influence over other aspects of war.   She counseled Zeus in his war against the Titans, and it was Athena who gave Zeus the potion that he used on Kronos, causing the Titan to regurgitate all of Zeus’ siblings. Thus Athena was instrumental in Zeus’ victory. As such, Athena was the goddess of victory.   Detail from a vase depicting combat between hoplites on the Chigi Vase, Greek, c. 7th century BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Athena was also a commanding figure in the realm of personal skill in martial prowess. She was often depicted wearing the armor of a warrior or a soldier. The most striking symbols of her role as a warrior were her helm, shield, and spear. Most depictions of Athena include these three objects.   Weaving Athena Changing Arachne into a Spider, by Antonio Tempesta, 1606. Source: Los Angeles County Museum of Art   Athena wasn’t only tied to the serious business of war and outsmarting her enemies. She was also associated with handicrafts. She was most closely associated with the art of weaving, and she was seen as a protector of those whose livelihood revolved around the loom. By extension, Athena came to symbolize patronage of all handicrafts.   According to the mythological tales, a mortal, and pupil of Athena, Arachne, challenged Athena to a weaving contest. Such was Athena’s ire upon seeing the quality of her opponent’s work that she chastised her pupil, tearing her work to shreds. Arachne was so dismayed she hanged herself, after which Athena took pity on her and turned her into a spider.   Such was Athena’s importance to the weaving industry that every four years, a new peplos (robe worn by women in ancient Greece) was woven for the statue of Athena on the Acropolis. This was a major undertaking, as the statue was 38 feet (12 meters) tall!   Athena embodied the spirit of much that the Greek world held dear, and reverence for her was widespread. From the realm of war to far more peaceful pursuits, she was a beloved part of the Greek pantheon.

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