from The Epoch Times: D.C. District Judge Tanya Chutkan has denied former President Donald Trump’s motion to subpoena records from the House of Representatives’ Jan. 6 committee‚ arguing that his requests are like a fishing expedition. Her seven-page decision criticized the scope and alleged vagueness of President Trump’s requests. It also argued that he was […]

from World Alternative Media: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

The Goodboy Galaxy team has released their debut game‚ Goodboy Galaxy for Game Boy Advance. Alongside the GBA version‚ its also being released for Evercade‚ with PC and Nintendo Switch version coming out next year. Digital version of GBA game is avilable now for $20‚ together with Evercade release. Physical GBA cartridges will ship this […]

‘Tis the season for charcuterie boards! READ MORE...

They stocked up on pantry staples and meat to freeze for later. READ MORE...

  How did ancient Mesopotamians imagine the creation of the world? Or the creation of mankind? Since the decipherment of cuneiform writing roughly 150 years ago‚ a vast number of clay tablets have been unearthed in and around Mesopotamia‚ offering a glimpse into the thoughts and ideas of long-lost civilizations. One of the most famous accounts of the creation of the world and mankind from the fertile crescent is the Babylonian creation myth named Enuma Elish (“When the heavens above”) after the first two words of the text. The exact date when the poem was first written is still debated. However‚ the version we know today consists of seven tablets of roughly 160 lines each and was most likely put into clay towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE by an unknown author in Babylon.   What Is the Enuma Elish About? A divine being fighting against a monster‚ by Austen Henry Layard‚ drawing according to a relief from Nimrud‚ 1853‚ via The New York Public Library‚ New York.   The largest part of the Enuma Elish is dedicated to the origin of the gods and the fight of the god Marduk against the primordial creature and mother of all gods‚ Tiamat and her servants‚ and Marduk’s subsequent rise to the top of the Babylonian pantheon. The actual creation part‚ dealing with the making of our human world and mankind‚ is described rather briefly towards the end of the poem. Thus‚ the poem is often also referred to as the Song of Marduk since he is the most prominent figure and the driving force behind the development of the plot.   As a mythological text‚ the Enuma Elish primarily fulfills two functions. First‚ it explains the origin and genealogy of gods (theogony). Second‚ it describes the beginning of humanity and our world (cosmogony). However‚ the Enuma Elish must also be read in the context of Babylon’s rise to power in Mesopotamia in the 2nd millennium BCE. With this in mind‚ the Enuma Elish gives us‚ as we shall see‚ an interesting insight into the use of religious texts as political propaganda tools more than 3000 years ago.   In this article‚ we shall first look at the plot of the poem and then at the larger historical context and purpose of the poem. All quotes from the Enuma Elish follow the 2013 translation by Lambert and the full text of the poem can be found here.   Theogony: How Were the Gods Created? Two winged figures‚ wearing a horned cap representing Mesopotamian deities‚ by Austen Henry Layard‚ drawing according to a relief from Nineveh‚ 1849‚ via The New York Public Library‚ New York   The poem begins with the following lines:   When the heavens above did not exist‚ And earth beneath had not come into being— There was Apsû‚ the first in order‚ their begetter‚ And demiurge Tiāmat‚ who gave birth to them all; They had mingled their waters together Before meadow-land had coalesced and reed-bed was to be found— When not one of the gods had been formed Or had come into being‚ when no destinies had been decreed‚ The gods were created within them. (Tablet I‚ 1-9)   Before anything had come into being‚ only two large bodies of water existed: Apsu‚ which literally means sweet water‚ and Tiamat‚ which can be translated as salt water. Whereas Apsu is conceived as the primordial father of all things‚ Tiamat is his female counterpart. The moment these two bodies of water mingled together‚ the divine beings Lahmu and Lahamu were born. The etymology of their names and their attributes are still unclear. However‚ this pair is presented as the progenitors of all the gods that came afterward into being. First‚ the gods Anshar and Kishar (literally‚ the upper and lower universes) emerged. It seems that Anshar and Kishar have been rather indefinable deities who did not figure prominently in Mesopotamia’s belief systems and religious practices. However‚ their son‚ the sky god Anu‚ is usually understood to be the highest god in the Mesopotamian pantheon‚ followed by his son Ea‚ the god of wisdom and incantations‚ who is referred to in the poem by his lesser-known name‚ Nudimud.   Unrest Among the Gods and the Killing of Apsu An Assyrian King rides into battle on his chariot‚ by Austen Henry Layard‚ drawing according to a relief from Nineveh‚ 1849‚ via The New York Public Library‚ New York   Soon Apsu and Tiamat‚ the primordial parents of the new gods‚ feel disturbed by the presence of their offspring. Used to the eternal silence of the vast emptiness in which they lived before‚ they cannot find rest during the day and sleep at night because the young gods are simply too loud. Thus‚ Apsu and Tiamat hold a council on what to do with their noisy children. While Tiamat proposes to tighten the discipline among the gods‚ Apsu advocates for a more radical solution. Under the malicious influence of his councilor Mummu‚ Apsu plans to murder all the young gods. Despite Tiamat’s rejection of such cruel punishment‚ Apsu is determined to put an end to the gods’ misbehavior. Yet the god Ea‚ in his wisdom‚ perceives Apsu’s plan and decides to act before his father. Reciting a magical incantation‚ Ea puts Apsu into a deep slumber and kills him.   The Birth of Marduk Depiction of a Mushhushshu-dragon‚ usually associated with Marduk‚ from Babylon‚ via Detroit Institute of Arts‚ Detroit   After the slaying of Apsu‚ Ea decides to put up his dwelling place in the depths of the sweet water ocean where Apsu was living before. There‚ his son Marduk is born‚ who shall later surpass all other gods. The poem describes Marduk’s terrifying and powerful appearance and how his grandfather‚ Anu‚ formed the four winds and gave them to Marduk with the command‚ “My son‚ let them whirl!” (Tablet I‚ 106). Marduk follows the order of Anu‚ causing great havoc not only to Tiamat but to an unnamed group of other gods as well. Helpless‚ these gods plead for Tiamat’s help to stop wild Marduk. Confusingly‚ the text does not specify who exactly are these other gods. However‚ they must be a group of gods opposing Marduk and his divine relatives. Tiamat agrees to take up arms against Marduk and the gods supporting him. Thus‚ she prepares for war and assembles an army of demons and monsters around her.   She created the Hydra‚ the Dragon‚ the Hairy Hero‚ The Great Demon‚ the Savage Dog‚ and the Scorpion-man‚ Fierce demons‚ the Fish-man‚ and the Mighty Bull‚ Carriers of merciless weapons‚ fearless in the face of battle. Her commands were tremendous‚ not to be resisted. Altogether she made eleven of that kind Tablet I‚ 141-146   Marduk vs. Tiamat Marduk accompanied by a mušḫuÅ¡Å¡u (his sacred animal) standing on water‚ symbolizing his victory over Tiamat‚ drawing of a cylinder seal by F. H. Weissenbach‚ 1902‚ via Wikimedia Commons   As the leader of her army‚ Tiamat appoints her new spouse‚ Kingu. Afraid of Tiamat’s power‚ Anshar sends his sons Ea and Anu to confront and appease Tiamat. However‚ both falter in the face of her immense power. Thus‚ Anshar turns to Marduk and asks him to set out against Tiamat and her army. Marduk agrees‚ but only under the condition that all the gods must bow before him and accept him as their supreme leader and highest among all the gods once he has defeated Tiamat. As a demonstration of his strength‚ Marduk creates a constellation of stars in the night sky and makes them disappear and reappear.   Convinced of Marduk’s might‚ the gods rejoice and send him out against Tiamat. But first‚ Marduk prepares for battle: Armed with his mighty bow and club and accompanied by winds and the storm flood‚ Marduk‚ breathing fire and filled with an aura of terror and might‚ sets out in his chariot to confront Tiamat.   As he draws closer to Tiamat and her army of daemons‚ Marduk gathers all his courage and unleashes his forces. In the ensuing battle‚ Marduk casts a net around Tiamat and sends his winds against her. Unable to withstand his assault‚ Tiamat is bound and killed by Marduk. After the death of Tiamat‚ her leaderless army retreats‚ and the battle comes to an end. Her spouse and general‚ Kingu‚ is taken as a prisoner awaiting his punishment. Now‚ in the moment of his greatest triumph‚ Marduk fashions another plan that should increase his glory even more.    Cosmogony: The Creation of the World and Mankind View of Babylon: In the front Marduk’s temple Esagil‚ drawing by Robert Koldewey‚ 1919‚ via Zentral und Landesbibliothek‚ Berlin   Standing in front of Tiamat’s dead body‚ Marduk takes her corpse and splits it into two. With one half‚ he forms the heavens above and places therein the moon‚ sun‚ and stars. Here the author weaves in the vast astronomical knowledge of ancient Babylon (for a detailed account‚ see Lambert 2013 172-192). First‚ the stars are created and grouped into certain constellations. Further‚ the division of the year is fixed by assigning three specific stars to each of the 12 months in one year. Then Marduk decrees the path of the moon god Nanna (Sin) through the night sky‚ thus fixing the division of the month according to the lunar phases. Lastly‚ the sun god Shamash is assigned to his task of regulating the day (tablet V).   After all the celestial bodies are set in place‚ Marduk turns to the creation of the earth. Again‚ he takes the other part of Tiamat’s body and forms the world we humans are living in. From her eyes‚ he let flow the two rivers Euphrates and Tigris; he heaps up mountain ranges on her breasts and digs wells into her body. Finally‚ Marduk conceives the desire to accomplish one last deed to elevate him even further. After taking counsel with Ea‚ the god of wisdom and incantations‚ Marduk formulates the following plan:   I will bring together blood and form bone‚ I will bring into being Lullû‚ whose name shall be ‘man’‚ I will create Lullû-man On whom the toil of the gods will be laid that they may rest. Tablet VI‚ 5-8   From the blood of the traitor Kingu‚ the lover of Tiamat and leader of her armies‚ Marduk creates mankind. The purpose of the creation of humans is clear from the beginning; we are here to serve and work for the gods so that they may rest. After the creation of the world and mankind‚ the gods fulfilled their promise and accepted Marduk as their supreme leader and highest among them. In addition‚ the gods showed their gratitude to Marduk by building Babylon and his temple and dwelling place‚ Esagil. Finally‚ the poem comes to an end with a long list of different names and praises of Marduk.   Historical Context and Purpose of the Text Hammurabi worshipping the sun god Shamash‚ detail from the code of Hammurabi‚ via The Oriental Institute‚ Chicago   Apart from fulfilling the basic function of a mythological text‚ i.e. giving an explanation of natural and cultural phenomena of a given society‚ the Enuma Elish also contains a highly political message. During the reign of Hammurabi I in the 18th century BCE‚ Babylon turned from a small city-state into a large empire. It became the political as well as cultural center of Mesopotamia and the surrounding region. Accordingly‚ the city’s main deity‚ Marduk‚ rose from a minor god‚ only worshipped in Babylon‚ to one of the most important deities of the Mesopotamian pantheon.   The rulers of Babylon must have understood that their reign in Mesopotamia‚ with its many city-states‚ each worshipping different gods‚ needed an ideological foundation that was strong enough to support and justify their claim to power. And this is exactly what the Enuma Elish does. It represents Babylon’s claim to rule as a natural circumstance originating from the supreme leadership of Marduk. As Marduk is presiding over the spiritual world of Mesopotamia‚ it seems fitting that the rulers of Babylon are dominating the material world.   Research has shown that the Enuma Elish was performed publicly during the Akitu festival‚ the Babylonian celebration of renewal in the spring‚ indicating that it was heard by many people and spread throughout the Mesopotamian world. Thus‚ turning it into a powerful tool of political propaganda that explains and justifies the rise of Babylon. Against this background‚ the Enuma Elish is not just a mythological text but also a very clever piece of propaganda literature supporting Babylon’s dominion in Mesopotamia.

  Emperor Caligula was undoubtedly one of the most controversial (if not most controversial) rulers of the Roman Empire. Caligula’s rise to power was rapid‚ and the early months of his reign were marked by the cordial relationship with the Senate. However‚ the honeymoon did not last for long. Following the emperor’s sudden‚ near-mortal illness in 37 CE‚ Caligula became increasingly hostile to the Senate‚ challenging its power and pushing the idea of the Roman monarchy further than any of his predecessors. No wonder Caligula was hated by the senators and historians who came predominantly from the senatorial circle.   Historians like Suetonius are responsible for our distorted image of the young autocrat as a mad‚ perverted tyrant. They are the ones who tarnished Emperor Caligula’s name after his sudden and violent death. And who left us the fascinating and infamous (but exaggerated) tales of the young emperor’s scandalous reign. Here are five juiciest ones.    Emperor Caligula And His Close Relationship with His Sisters Copper coin of Caligula’s with reverse depiction of his three sisters (Drusilla in the middle)‚ 37-38 CE. Source: the British Museum‚ London   Even those uninterested in the Roman Empire had heard about one of most salacious tales about Emperor Caligula. According to Suetonius‚ the young ruler had a particularly close (perhaps too close) relationship with his three sisters – Agrippina the Younger‚ Livilla‚ and Drusilla‚ the latter being the emperor’s favorite. Apparently‚ Caligula’s love for his younger sister was so great that he named her his heir and proclaimed Drusilla a goddess upon her untimely death. However‚ for other historians‚ like Tacitus‚ or a witness of one of the (scandalous) imperial banquets‚ Philo of Alexandria‚ the incestual relationship was nothing more than a rumor. The senators probably exploited Caligula’s close bond with his three sisters against the emperor they despised.    But if it had indeed happened‚ Caligula’s intimate relationship with his sisters could have been a part of Caligula’s growing fascination with the East. To emulate the Hellenistic kings such as the Ptolemies and to keep the imperial lineage pure.   The Emperor and His Horse‚ the “Consul” Incitatus Caligula Appointing His Horse Incitatus to the Consulship‚ unknown author‚ 1616–1669. Source: The Art Institute Chicago   Another infamous story comes‚ once again‚ from Suetonius. It is the tale of Incitatus – Caligula’s favorite racehorse. Reportedly‚ Caligula loved Incitatus so much that he wanted to bestow on him one of the highest public offices in the Roman Empire – the consulship. Such an act‚ unsurprisingly‚ shocked the senators‚ serving as another of cases for the emperor’s madness.   The story‚ however‚ is more complex. Caligula’ disliked the Senate and did everything in his power to show them their place and to display his autocratic power. Thus‚ the story of Incitatus seems to be one of many emperor’s pranks‚ intended to show the senators how meaningless their job was since even a horse could do it better. Above all‚ it was a clear and present demonstration of the sheer power of the mightiest man in Rome – the emperor.   Caligula and the “War on the Sea” Copper alloy coin of emperor Caligula with reverse depiction of the emperor addressing the soldiers‚ 40-41 CE. Source: The British Museum   Among many controversial tales‚ the weirdest one is of that time when the emperor declared war on…the sea! The son of a war hero‚ Germanicus‚ Caligula planned a magnificent conquest of the still untamed isle of Britain. However‚ the campaign never took off‚ and if we are to believe Suetonius‚ enraged Caligula declared war on Neptune‚ the god of the sea‚ having the waves whipped. He also ordered legionaries to collect seashells as prizes of war. While such a behavior points to an act of a madman‚ collecting seashells could be a lenient punishment‚ unlike deadly decimation (killing one in every ten men).    The tale could also refer to the construction of a military camp (the Latin term for shells – muscula – also described engineering tents) on the French side of the Channel‚ used by Caligula’s successor Claudius as a staging ground for the conquest of Britain in 43 CE.   Caligula and the Bridge over the Bay of Naples Statue of a youth on horseback (probably representing emperor Caligula)‚ early 1st century CE‚ via the British Museum‚ London   Young and powerful‚ Emperor Caligula took great pleasure in mocking the wealthy senators and humiliating them with various pranks. Despite his failed conquest‚ Caligula demanded a triumph. When the Senate denied it‚ the emperor ordered the legionaries to build a pontoon bridge over the Bay of Naples‚ near senatorial estates at Baiae. Once completed‚ the emperor crossed it with his troops and then engaged in drunken debauchery to annoy the resting senators. Super-wealthy and well-educated‚ the senators could do little to stop the emperor‚ who had an entire Roman army as his protector.    The cold war turned hot when Caligula began imprisoning and exiling the senators as the answer to the assassination plots‚ both real and imagined. The bloody purges claimed the lives of no less than thirty senators.   Emperor Caligula and the Divine Ruler Cuirass bust of Emperor Caligula‚ 37-41 CE.   The conflict between the emperor and the Senate culminated in 40 CE‚ when Caligula declared himself a living god. This unprecedented act could have resulted from Caligula’s growing fascination with the Hellenistic East‚ where the rulers‚ starting with Alexander the Great‚ were routinely deified. For the Senate‚ however‚ this was an affront to the Roman tradition.   Things got worse when Caligula declared his intention to move the imperial capital to Alexandria‚ the city the senators could not access without the emperor’s permission. For the Senate‚ this was the moment to act. When Caligula‚ in one of his typical acts of arrogance‚ insulted an officer of the Praetorian Guard‚ the conspirators made their move‚ assassinating the emperor in 41 CE. Yet‚ their hopes to restore the Republic fell short after the Praetorians elected Caligula’s uncle Claudius as a new emperor.    The Senate‚ however‚ had the last laugh. Senators like Suetonius were the ones who wrote history and who vilified the reputation of the ill-fated rulers to justify their removal and legitimize later imperial dynasties. Thus‚ they painted Caligula – an arrogant‚ narcissistic boy and an average autocrat – as a madman and epic villain.

"He did not say a word to me‚ and he grabbed my face and he kissed me‚" Ballerini says. Continue reading…