The tour riders of musicians can be full of wild requests. Taylor Swift's is relatively normal in comparison, but here's the ice cream she requested.

from Jim Crenshaw:  TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

  Most Christians know of King Herod only because of Matthew 2 and its account of the slaughter of the innocents in Bethlehem, all male children two years and under. Yet, there was much more to Herod the Great than just that single event. His back story includes famous names like Pompey, Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, and Emperor Augustus. He had a continuous challenge for acceptance among the Jews, who he claimed to be part of. His legacy, however, shows that he acted in self-interest, rather than promoting that of the Jewish people.   King Herod’s Rise to Power Bust of Herod the Great, the Roman-appointed king of Judea, c. 4 BCE, 17th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Herod was born in 73 BCE to Antipater and was of Edomite and Arab descent. On his father’s side, his family has been practicing the Jewish faith for a century, but due to the importance of lineage in Judaism, Jews regarded the family as outsiders. Though the family was wealthy, they could never rise to prominence or power in traditional Jewish society. However, that did not stifle Antipater’s ambition for himself and his family.   Antipater, through wily politics and taking every opportunity that presented itself, became the procurator of Judea in 47 BCE by order of Julius Caesar. Antipater supported Caesar rather than Pompey despite their former alignment. Caesar rewarded him with Roman citizenship which he passed on to his sons, including Herod. Antipater had Herod installed as governor of Galilee and he soon showed what kind of a ruler he would be.   Herod’s first order of business was to deal with some dissidents who opposed the Roman-backed rulers in Jerusalem. They called themselves the “New Maccabees” in remembrance of the previous rebel group who successfully shook off the rule of the Seleucid Empire in Judea. They were hiding away in caves and instead of waging conventional war with them, Herod instructed his soldiers to enter the caves and massacre everyone. The slaughter resulted in riots in Jerusalem, but Herod successfully defended his right to act as he did before the highest priests in Judaism. He got off scot-free from his brutal slaying of many souls.   Western Wall in the Old City of Jerusalem, the most important Jewish religious site, a remnant of King Herod’s construction work. Source: Wikimedia Commons   One of his tax collectors assassinated Herod’s father in 43 BCE and Herod had the man killed for his treasonous act. Shortly after, Mark Antony defeated the armies of Cassius, who had betrayed and killed Julius Caesar in 44 BCE and held sway in Judea. Antony, who met and became close friends with a 16-year-old Herod many years earlier when suppressing an uprising in Jerusalem, installed Herod as Tetrarch of Judea.   The Jews were not comfortable with the rule of someone they considered not an authentic Jew, and who aligned himself with the Romans whom the Jews despised. Soon the Parthians rose to topple the government in Jerusalem, and most of the Jews supported their cause. Herod’s brother committed suicide but Herod escaped by fleeing to Rome. There he asked for the support of Antony and Octavian to retake Judea. They agreed to assist but Herod had to lead the effort.   It took Herod three years to expel the Parthians from Judea with the help of the Roman army, an act that made him even less popular with the Jews. This conquest saw Herod take the position of King of Judea after retaking it in 37 BCE.   Herod’s Rule A model of Herod’s Temple adjacent to the Shrine of the Book exhibit at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Herod did his utmost to gain the favor of the Jews. He had the defeated Parthians return Hyrcanus II, a co-ruler of Judea and high priest. The Parthians mutilated and exiled Hyrcanus to Babylon after they took Jerusalem. Hyrcanus was still popular among the Jews but did not challenge Herod’s rule.   Herod further engaged in construction work to strengthen the walls of Jerusalem and to wall the Temple. He called the latter the construction Antonia, in honor of Mark Antony. He also minted coins with his likeness along with some significant Jewish objects to gain favor with his Jewish populace.   Yet another civil war in Rome saw Mark Antony and Octavian taking each other on to be the sole ruler of the empire. Herod supported his old friend Antony, and Octavian called him to appear before him after he had defeated Antony. Before Herod departed, he had Hyrcanus II executed to ensure the rulership of Judea did not fall on the Jewish priest, should Herod not return from his trip.   Herod explained his alignment with Antony as evidence of loyalty and assured Octavian that he would be as loyal to him as he was to his late friend. Surprisingly, his bold honesty about why he chose sides against Octavian seems to have paid off, for Octavian confirmed Herod’s rule in Judea. Octavian later took the name he is best known by: Augustus.   Gold Coin, Octavian on the right, Mark Antony on the left, 39 BCE. Source: The British Museum   Back in Judea, Herod focused on gaining favor with the Jewish population while remaining in the good graces of Rome. Herod embarked on a construction spree for several years, rebuilding structures destroyed by natural disasters, building new infrastructure, and expanding existing ones. He also fortified the kingdom by constructing forts which included the famous Masada near the Dead Sea.   Herod even attempted to raise the profile and image of Judea abroad, sponsoring construction in foreign cities such as Damascus and Beirut. The power and influence of Judea grew and the powers in Rome increased the area of Herod’s rule. The profile of Judea rose, and Jerusalem became a mecca of art and culture in that part of the world, attracting many travelers from far away.   During a famine that lasted from 25 to 24 BCE, Herod’s influence and connections in other parts of the world allowed his people to suffer much less than they otherwise would have. Shipments of grain and supplies prevented large-scale starvation among Judeans as foreign surpluses covered local shortages.   Struggles and Fall of Herod The Magi in the House of Herod, by James Tissot, between 1886 and 1894. Source: The Brooklyn Museum   The rise of Jerusalem and Judea on the world stage came at a cost, literally and figuratively. Herod extracted heavy taxes from the citizenry to pay for all the construction and expansion while Jews were never convinced of Herod’s claim of authentic Jewishness.   To endear himself with the Jewish citizenry, Herod engaged in a construction project that would see the Temple in Jerusalem upgraded and improved. Unfortunately, his obsession with appeasing Rome resulted in the inclusion of too many offensive Roman icons and figures in the structures he built.   One emblem of Rome which represented its military power and authority was the eagle. One such eagle was featured above one of the gates leading to the Temple. To the Jewish mind, this constituted idolatry. A group of devout Jews tore down the statue, which drew the ire of Herod. He was terribly ill when the incident occurred but when Herod recovered, he had the offenders arrested and brought before him for interrogation.   Their defense was that the eagle was offensive to their religion and a symbol of paganism. Likely seeking the favor of his Roman overlords, he had the men executed for their destructive behavior. Not surprisingly, Herod’s actions offended the Jewish population, and he would never recover from the unpopular view they had of him.   In the last years of his reign, he had many people tortured and executed. He even had his wife, sons, mother, grandfather, and other members of his family killed to prevent any usurpation.   Claims that Herod even desecrated the tombs of David and Solomon also circulated. Whether the claims were true or not, Herod did become the textbook definition of a tyrant by the end of his rule.   Massacre of the Innocents The Massacre of the Innocents, by Jacopo Tintoretto, between 1582 and 1587, Scuola Grande di San Rocco. Source: Web Gallery of Art   Undoubtedly, the massacre of the innocents was Herod’s most infamous act. Matthew 2 details Herod’s instructions to locate the expected new king of the Jews. When this failed, Herod had all the male children in Bethlehem of two years and under, slaughtered. Only one of the four gospels records this vile act.   Neither Josephus nor other historians of that period refer to the event. Some scholars argue that the absence of corroborating evidence shows that the record is ahistorical, though others argue that historians omitted the event because it had a localized impact and was not significant enough to record.   We should, however, note that such an act is consistent with Herod’s paranoia about challenges to his kingship. The idea of a new king being born to reign among the Jewish people would undoubtedly have sparked a strong reaction in Herod.   Possibly sparked by a flesh-eating illness that he contracted, Herod’s actions became increasingly erratic in his final days. He allegedly attempted suicide not long before he eventually passed away in the first part of 4 BCE.   Though called Herod the Great, his Jewish citizens never considered him a great leader. His legacy, despite some of the things he did to elevate the stature of Judea in the ancient world, is one of murdered innocents, whether they be Jewish babies, his own family, or others that he considered a threat to his ambitions.

  Ancient Greece is famous for its heroic history, and one of the most notable city-states that was a part of this glorious chapter of the human past was Sparta. It was known for its soldiers who fought until the end to bring glory and victory to their state and people. Besides being brave soldiers, Spartans were extremely patriotic. They managed to make a close-to-perfect political system that would lead Sparta to become one of the strongest city-states in ancient Greece. Read on to learn more about Sparta’s political system.   Sparta’s Political System Was a Dual Monarchy The Spartan Mother, by Louis-Jean-François Lagrenée, 1770. Source: Wikimedia Commons / National Trust, UK   According to the Spartan political structure, the city-state was jointly governed by two kings. In the past, two kings were from different dynasties and performed major state functions. Both Thucydides and Herodotus wrote about Sparta’s two kings. As is the case with several other Greek historical establishments, this one has a mythological link. By the mythological tradition, Eurysthenes and Procles, twin brothers, established the Spartan system of two kings.   There were many duties the kings of Spartans performed. The duties ranged over various areas, including religion, military, diplomacy, and law. Kings were also priests and played a significant part in religious activities. Because Sparta was very closely connected with the military, one of the kings always fought with the soldiers, while the other held the city and managed all the other affairs. They were also judges on various issues of inheritance and public property. And like other kings, they were Sparta’s ambassadors to other city-states.   According to the political laws of the Spartans, there were no ultimate authoritative institutions, which meant that the kings did not have absolute powers. Institutions like the Gerousia, the Ephorate, and the Apella had the ability to veto, or for that matter, challenge the kings’ decisions. For centuries, Sparta had two kings. Then, in the 1st century BC, kingship was downgraded to a formal position. The dual monarchy is one of the most notable features of Sparta’s political system.   Gerousia—Council of Elders The Magnanimity of Lycurgus, by Jean-Jacques-François Le Barbier, 1791. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Museum of Fine Arts Boston   One of the key political institutions in ancient Sparta was the Gerousia. It was established after the institution of two kings. According to ancient Greek historians, it appeared around the time of Lycurgus, the legendary Spartan lawmaker whose historical existence is still debated today.   The Gerousia functioned like a council. It comprised 30 members—two kings and 28 gerontes, or elders. To become a member of the Gerousia, one had to be a full Spartan citizen (more about that later) and 60 years old. Members were elected based on their family nobility and reputation. The election was organized by another political institution, the Apella. The candidates for the Gerousia were elected in an interesting way, by the loudness and the amount of noise they would get from the Apella assembly.   As a leading institution in Sparta, the Gerousia had important responsibilities and extensive authority and duties. As a major legislative body, the Gerousia created new laws that the Apella’s members then confirmed or rejected. As the top court, the Gerousia declared final rulings that no one could change. The Gerousia also served as an advisory group in key matters. As senior advisors to Sparta’s rulers, gerontes helped leaders make decisions that would benefit their city-state.   The members of Gerousia, gerontes, functioned in their respective capacities for and on behalf of Sparta until their death. They were very influential in Spartan society. However, as with the institution of two kings, their authority was limited. They were supervised by other institutions, such as the Apella and the Ephorate. Geronts were blamed for being traditional and conservative since they usually resisted change and the reform of the city-state.   Ephorate—Ephors Statue of Lycurgus, Lawgiver of Sparta, at the Law Courts of Brussels, December 30, 2013. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Another important institution of Sparta’s political system was the Ephorate. According to ancient historians, it was also established around the time of Lycourgus. It functioned as a council of five ephors elected annually from the class of full Spartan citizens.   Unlike gerontes, every male spartan citizen over the age of 30 could become an ephor. The Ephorate’s members were also elected by the Apella. However, the mandate lasted only one year, and one could not be elected twice for the position. That measure was brought up to ensure the power would not be abused.   Ephors had a lot of functions and duties in the following areas: executive, judicial, military, diplomatic, educational, and moral oversight. The Ephorate was required to ensure that all aspects of the city-state ran efficiently and policies were carried out. Being judges and principal executors of Spartan law, ephors could even sit as jurors in trials against Sparta’s kings if they had violated the law.   Ephors were also involved in the control of the military, ensuring that all that was being done complied with the agreed-upon military strategy. Like the kings, ephors were involved in diplomatic processes. They decided whether the city-state should engage in a war or not. Also, they controlled one of the most concealed Spartan traditions: the Spartan children’s upbringing and education, an area that strictly followed severe and conservative rules.   The Ephorate was also supervised by other institutions like the Gerousia and the Apella. In the 1st century BC, this institution was considered one of the most influential in Sparta, besides the two kings.   Apella—Assembly The Intervention of the Sabine Women, Jacques-Louis David, 1799. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Louvre Museum, Paris   When it comes to Sparta’s political system, we can find multiple political elements and different political institutions that aimed to include more Spartan men in political life. The Apella was the citizen assembly. It can also be traced to the time of the legendary Lycurgus.   All male spartan citizens older than 30 years of age who had completed their military training could become members of the Apella. According to ancient historians and tradition, the Apella’s members would meet during a full moon to vote in the Gerousia and Ephorate elections. They would vote by shouting, so the loudest noise would grant candidates a position in one of the political institutions.   The Apella performed legislative, electoral, and judiciary tasks, as well as tasks regarding foreign relations and war. The Apella also had the power to approve or disapprove the bills and laws that the Gerousia brought forward. Moreover, any matter related to war and peace or the formation of alliances or treaties with other city-states needed the approval of the Apella. Sometimes, the Apella functioned as a court in cases that fell under its jurisdiction.   The Apella was a representation of Spartan citizenship. It had significant powers; however, it also had a lot of limitations. The Apella was generally controlled by the Gerousia and the Ephorate. Additionally, while citizens could cast their ballots, the elites had full power over everything else.   One of the weaknesses of the Apella was the lack of open debate and communication between citizens and the elites in other institutions. Nevertheless, the Apella was one of the key institutions of Sparta’s political system, building a strong foundation for the city-state to prosper.   Political Participation and the Spartan Elite The Spartan, by Olivier Bertrand, 2020. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Voting in the political process was only allowed for full Spartan citizens, known as Spartiate or Homoioi (Equal). Full citizens had the privilege to vote and participate in Sparta’s political system. They could enter the military, own land, appeal to laws, and partake in public customs. However, what has not been explored is the fact that political participation was closely associated with military obligations. Sparta was a militant polis, and military training and mobilization were key elements of its political system. Even if a person was born in a Spartan household, which meant they had full citizenship rights, they could lose them if they did not join the military and fulfill their duties.   Which people of Sparta had no voting privileges and citizenship? They were divided into two categories—Perioeci and Helots. The Perioeci were an independent population. However, they were non-citizens who resided in the city-state and its territories. They also served in the army, but not as a special force. Instead, they served as hoplites—citizen-soldiers.   In Sparta’s political system, women could not vote and were mostly involved in the economic activities of society. Since the Spartans’ lives nearly entirely revolved around military matters, the city-state needed somebody to handle trade, economy, and artistry. The Perioeci would create and manufacture tools, other products, and weapons. They were essential in running the city-state, as they allowed Spartans to concentrate on matters of war and politics.   Spartan Warrior, Malcolm Lidbury, 2011. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Another group of non-citizens was the Helots. Unlike the Perioeci, they were not free, but they were enslaved. They were bound to the land. They were considered to be state owned. At times, they also fought in wars as light-armed troops. In the course of Sparta’s history, there were quite a few Helots’ rebellions because they wanted freedom as they lived in poor conditions and experienced cruelty.   Legacy of Sparta’s Political System Three Spartan Boys Practising Archery, Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg, 1812. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Hirschsprung Collection, Copenhagen, Denmark   Sparta had a complex and multilayered political system containing elements of monarchy, democracy, and oligarchy. All institutions held the others accountable, and there was limited room for power abuse. However, ultimately, Sparta was a military oligarchy.   Sparta successfully blended military and politics; one could not exist without the other. Even though it had certain democratic elements, such as the Apella, Sparta can be seen as a military oligarchy. Why? Because there was the rule of few over the many. Additionally, the state’s main goal was military success and expansion.   The political system of Sparta allowed the city-state to extend its dominance to other territories and polis. At the same time, there were several demerits with this kind of political establishment. The state was discriminative against the majority of the population, which, in the end, led to the decline of citizens with political power, the Spartans. The power was concentrated in the hands of a few, a practice which would eventually be detrimental to the city-state.   Leonidas at Thermopylae, by Jacques-Louis David, 1814. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Louvre Museum, Paris   Sparta’s complex political structure influenced the institutions of ancient Rome. We can see this influence in institutions such as the Roman consulate, the senate, and the popular assemblies. Sparta also shaped modern political theory since scholars started examining the balance of power in the state. Sparta is an important example of a political system that mixed different political elements. Today, Sparta’s political system teaches us the importance of inclusivity and the principle of checks and balances to avoid abuse of power, which is possible in every political system.

  The Second Triumvirate was very different from the First Triumvirate, which saw Julius Caesar, Pompey Magnus, and Crassus, three of the most powerful men in Rome in 60 BCE, form a secret alliance to further their political agendas. The First Triumvirate would ultimately result in civil war. In contrast, the Second Triumvirate was formally constituted in Roman law, initially in 43 BCE, to grant Caesar’s three heirs, Mark Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus, absolute power over the crumbling Republic. This alliance would also end in civil war and the rise of imperial Rome.   Who Were the Triumvirs? Denarius featuring portraits of Mark Antony and Octavian, Ephesus, 41 BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   By 44 BCE, Julius Caesar had won absolute power in Rome, rejecting the hated title of rex (king) but establishing himself as dictator perpetuo (dictator for life). This was too much for many to accept. Caesar was assassinated by a group of senators on March 15, 44 BCE. This left an enormous power vacuum in Roman politics, which Caesar’s three principal heirs fought to occupy.   Marcus Antonius, better known as Mark Antony, was a distant relative of Julius Caesar. He served with Caesar during his conquest of Gaul, and when Caesar was made dictator, several times starting in 49 BCE, Antony served as his Master of Horse (second in command). Relations between the pair soured in 46 BCE and Antony was left as a private citizen, but they reconciled in 45 BCE, and Caesar ensured that Antony was made consul in 44 BCE. Antony was in Rome when Caesar was assassinated and seized control of the state treasury. Caesar’s widow Calpurnia presented him with Caesar’s personal papers, essentially recognizing him as Caesar’s successor.   Marcus Aemilius Lepidus was another one of Caesar’s important military allies. He was left in charge of Rome in 49 BCE while Caesar battled Pompey in Greece and then served as governor of Hispania. He served as consul in 46 BCE and was then made Caesar’s new Master of the Horse. He was also in Rome when Caesar was killed and occupied the Campus Martius with troops. Along with Mark Antony, he negotiated an initial truce in the wake of the assassination and was appointed as Caesar’s successor in the position of pontifex maximus (chief priest).   Coin featuring portraits of Lepidus and Octavian, Italy, 42 BCE. Source: British Museum   Gaius Octavius, better known as Octavian and later as Augustus, was the great-nephew of Julius Caesar. In 46 BCE at the age of 17, Octavian was set to join Caesar on a campaign in Hispania and start his military career, but he fell ill and was unable to travel. He later traveled to join Caesar alone, suffering a shipwreck and crossing hostile territory to reach his great-uncle’s camp. It was, reportedly, after this demonstration of courage that Caesar decided to adopt Octavian in his will, which he deposited in the temple of the Vestal Virgins, as was the custom.   Octavian was completing his military training in Illyria when Caesar died. He immediately made his way to Rome. Landing in Italy, he received confirmation that he had been adopted as Caesar’s heir and received two-thirds of his estate. Antony initially challenged Octavian’s adoption and refused to hand over funds that were his due.   The First Settlement With the Liberatores Mark Antony’s Famous Funeral Oration, by George Edward Robertson, c. late 19th-early 20th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Following Caesar’s death in 44 BCE, there was initially a settlement between Caesar’s supporters and his assassins, who styled themselves the liberatores (liberators). This included confirming the validity of Caesar’s actions while in office, amnesty for his assassins, and the abolition of the position of dictator, theoretically so that no one could accumulate so much power again. Power was divided between important players on both sides, with many given provincial commands.   While he may have negotiated the initial settlement, the ambitious Antony pushed through legislation that allowed him to illegally take control of Cisalpine Gaul and Transalpine Gaul from their appointed governors. This gave him control of large Caesarian armies just outside Italy, so he could menace the Senate and force their cooperation. He convinced the Senate to strip Caesar’s two principal assassins, Brutus and Cassius, of their military positions and assign them to grain supply roles. This was considered an insult and set the scene for renewed conflict.   Meanwhile, Octavian was looking to secure his position among the Caesarians currently under Antony’s command. In the eyes of many, Octavian had the superior claim. He started to attract the loyalty of many of Caesar’s veterans, especially the most extreme, forming a personal army. He placed himself in opposition to Antony by supporting the governors of the Gallic provinces who had been displaced.   Cicero, by Michael Burghers, 1692-1727. Source: British Museum   In December of 44 BCE, Cicero, a long-standing adversary of Mark Antony in the Senate, took Octavian’s side, convincing the Senate to honor the youth and support his move against Antony. Octavian and the two consuls then led the Senate’s forces against Antony, putting him to flight at the Battle of Mutina in April 43 BCE. Cicero took the news of the victory as an opportunity to have Antony declared a public enemy. But Octavian had his eye on power. Both the consuls died in the conflict, so he marched to Rome to secure the consulship for himself.   Octavian used his new power to confirm his adoption and condemn Caesar’s assassins. He also repealed the declaration against Antony, with whom he was now prepared to negotiate from a stronger footing.   Creation of the Second Triumvirate Coin of Brutus marking the Ides of March, Greece, c. 43-42 BCE. Source: Numismatica Ars Classica   Octavian and Antony met in late 43 BCE, with Octavian traveling to meet Antony under the protection of Lepidus. An agreement was struck between the three and sealed by Octavian marrying Antony’s stepdaughter Clodia. The three men called themselves triumviri rei publicae constituendae, which identified them as three men with responsibility for restoring the Republic. With the cooperation of a friendly Tribune of the Plebs, the Lex Titia was passed, granting them extraordinary power for a period of five years.   Far more than resembling the private agreement of the First Triumvirate, the agreement was modeled on the Lex Valeria of 82 BCE which established Sulla as dictator and gave him extraordinary powers to reform the Roman constitution. They all received the power to issue legally binding edicts, they were given imperium maius, which gave them superior military command over Rome’s consuls and provincial governors, and they received the power to call meetings of the Senate and appoint magistrates and provincial governors. These powers placed the triumvirs above the consuls in the political hierarchy, and they used those powers to have Caesar declared a god.   They also used their power to deal with their enemies in Rome through proscriptions, which allowed them to seize the property and wealth of those whose names were placed on the death list to fund their activities. They reportedly had around 300 senators and 2,000 equestrians killed, while others escaped, joining the liberatores forces under Brutus and Cassius or Sextus Pompey, the son of Pompey Magnus who was carving out naval power for himself around Sicily. Cicero was one of the most famous victims of the proscriptions.   Marcus Lepidus, replica bust from the Pushkin Museum. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The triumvirs gave themselves provincial commands, with Antony continuing with Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul plus the eastern provinces, Lepidus taking Gallia Narbonensis and Hispania, and Octavian taking Africa, Sardinia, and Sicily. This set the triumvirs up to wage war against the liberatores.   The assassins were defeated in October 42 BCE after two battles at Philippi, mostly thanks to Mark Antony. This secured his position as the senior and most prestigious member of the triumvirate.   Dividing East and West Marble Bust of Mark Antony, photo by Nathan Hughes Hamilton, c. 30 BCE. Source: Flickr   With Caesar’s assassins dead, the triumvirs could focus on “rebuilding” the Republic. Mark Antony took the opportunity to claim most of Rome’s provinces, including the eastern provinces, Transalpine Gaul, and Gallia Narbonensis. He focused on the east while leaving trusted allies in Gaul to deal with any issues in Italy. Lepidus was given Africa, and Octavian was given the dubious privilege of settling the veterans of Philippi in Italy and leading the war against Sextus Pompey in Sicily.   Antony used his power to move against Parthia, which had supported the liberatores and Pompey, seeking the kind of military honor and respect that Caesar had earned in Gaul. He also focused on building support for himself in the East. He was careful not to tax local communities too harshly and toured cultural centers to honor their history and tradition. He confirmed the positions of allied subject rulers, such as Cleopatra in Egypt.   Meanwhile, Octavian was struggling to settle things in Italy due to famine caused by Sextus Pompey’s naval blockade. Antony’s supporters blamed Octavian for the situation, building support for an uprising against the young Caesar. This led the consuls of 41 BCE, one of whom was Antony’s brother Lucius Antonius, to occupy Rome. They were beaten back by Octavian who besieged them at Perusia, eventually sacking the city but sparing the consuls. He used his victory to take control of Antony’s two Gallic provinces. This essentially split the empire into East under Antony and West under Octavian.   Head of a Young Octavian, c. 1st century BCE. Source: British Museum   To strengthen his position, Octavian also tried to ally with Sextus Pompeius, marrying Pompey’s sister-in-law Scribonia in 40 BCE. But Sextus was playing both sides and started raiding southern Italy while Antony returned to reaffirm his position. Octavian and Antony eventually met at Brundisium, and while there were skirmishes, they ended up negotiating a new agreement.   Octavian’s power in Gaul was confirmed. He was also granted Illyricum and the right to deal with Sextus Pompey, either through treaty or war. Antony was made master of the East and given responsibility for the campaign against Parthia. Lepidus was still limited to Africa. Amnesty was granted to all former Republicans. While Italy was not awarded to anyone, Octavian’s presence in Italy left it largely under his control. This treaty was sealed by another marriage, this time of Mark Antony to Octavian’s sister Octavia.   In 37 BCE, the powers of the triumvirs were renewed for another five years. Their current powers had expired at the end of 38 BCE, at which time it would have been normal for a magistrate to abdicate, but the triumvirs chose not to do so. To maintain the illusion of constitutional power, the three worked together to officially renew their powers for another five years, now set to expire at the end of 33 BCE.   Mark Antony in the East Tetradrachm featuring portraits of Cleopatra and Mark Antony, Ptolemaic Egypt, c. 30s BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Mark Antony was now free to focus his attention on the East, which required a change in strategy. Winning support among the Romans with their militaristic and disciplined society was different from ingratiating himself in the decadent (according to the Romans) East, where the people were accustomed to worshiping their kings as gods. Playing up for the local audience, Antony identified with the god Dionysus and allowed the locals to venerate him.   Antony’s actions in 36 BCE were more political than military, largely due to internal dynastic struggles within Parthia. Antony used the opportunity to strengthen relationships with local client kings, such as Herod in Judaea and Cleopatra in Egypt. In particular, he fathered a son on Cleopatra and publicly acknowledged both this son and the twins she had in 40 BCE. Moreover, he gave the Egyptians Crete and Cyrene, in theory giving away territory that belonged to Rome. Antony probably meant for Egypt to be his new base and wished to reinforce his position there, but this made him unpopular in Italy.   War would eventually come with Parthia when Antony demanded the return of the military standard taken from Crassus, and the Parthians refused. Antony marched through Armenia and into Persia, and then quickly moved towards the Parthian capital. But he was impatient, leaving his siege engines behind, and was also abandoned by his Armenian allies. Consequently, he was forced to retreat, which cost him about a third of his army. This, combined with his other activities, damaged Antony’s reputation.   Octavian in the West Portrait of Augustus, Roman, c. 1st century BCE. Source: Walters Art Museum   Octavian was also active on the military front, allying with Lepidus to deal with Sextus Pompey once and for all in 36 BCE. While Octavian was personally defeated, his campaign was successful thanks to his general and close friend and ally for decades, Marcus Agrippa.   Lepidus, encouraged by his participation in the victory, attempted to negotiate with Octavian to expand his territory. But Octavian saw this as an opportunity to get rid of Lepidus. He reportedly walked into Lepidus’s camp alone and won over the loyalty of his troops. Disenfranchised, Lepidus was stripped of his triumviral powers and provincial command. While he was allowed to live and retain the office of Pontifex Maximus, he spent the rest of his life in exile.   But more important than Octavian’s military campaigns was his propaganda campaign against Antony. He highlighted how Antony was no longer a Roman general, but styling himself an eastern king. It was only a matter of time before he tried to make himself king in Rome. Was it not Antony who had offered Julius Caesar the diadem that he had refused? Antony did not help himself by participating in a religious procession in the guise of Dionysus in Alexandria and crowning his children with Cleopatra as oriental monarchs.   While the Antonians made counter-propaganda campaigns, accusing Octavian of being a coward, treating Lepidus poorly, and stealing the wives of ex-consuls, referring to his marriage to Livia in 38 BCE, Octavian won the war of opinion. He started preparing his troops, training them in Illyricum, and leading them to easy victories over local tribes. He was waiting for the right moment to strike against Antony.   End of the Second Triumvirate The Battle of Actium, 2 September 31 BC, by Lorenzo A. Castro, 1672. Source: Royal Museums Greenwich   Things came to a head when the term of the triumvirate expired on December 31, 33 BCE. While again the triumvirs did not abdicate their power, the consuls for the new year decided to try and exert their power and move against Octavian. He forced them to flee Rome and head east to Antony. They were followed by many senators, allowing Antony to form a counter-Senate in the East. Antony also divorced Octavia, formally breaking with Octavian and making it appear that he accepted his new role as an eastern king alongside Cleopatra.   Octavian reinforced this idea by opening the will that Mark Antony had lodged with the Vestal Virgins. Whether what Octavian reported was inside the will was true or not is questionable, but he alleged that Antony planned to be buried in Alexandria, to recognize Caesar’s son by Cleopatra, Caesarian, and to leave Roman lands to his children with Cleopatra. This was enough to win over public support. Octavian had a civil oath made to his person. This allowed him to declare war on Cleopatra in the name of Rome and strip Antony of his formal powers and position.   Golden coin of Augustus, showing the crocodile with the legend “Aegypto Capta” (Egypt Captured), 27 BCE. Source: British Museum   The war began in earnest in 31 BCE, with Agrippa launching surprise attacks on Antony’s Greek harbors, cutting off his supply lines. Octavian and Agrippa had a decisive victory at the Battle of Actium on September 2, 31 BCE. Antony and Cleopatra fled back to Egypt while most of their forces surrendered to Octavian. Many eastern client kings followed suit and defected. Octavian marched into Egypt, ostensibly ready to negotiate, but both Antony and Cleopatra chose suicide.   The final defeat of Mark Antony left Octavian unchallenged as the most powerful man in the Roman world, with his triumviral powers intact. He spent the next four decades establishing a way to formalize his absolute power in Rome within the trappings of the Republic that the Roman elite still clung to. He was again granted imperium maius in 19 BCE, received tribunicia potestas (tribunician power) in 23 BCE, and eventually became pontifex maximus in 12 BCE following the death of Lepidus. In many ways, this was the final piece of the puzzle of his patchwork of powers which enabled him to become pater patriae (father of his country) in 2 BCE.   But importantly, he had sufficient personal auctoritas in 27 BCE that he could finally abdicate his triumviral powers. This was also the year he was granted the name Augustus, which singled out his central, integral, and indispensable role in the new Roman state. The year 27 BCE is generally chosen for dating the official start of the imperial period in Rome.

  Croesus ruled the kingdom of Lydia from 560 BCE to 546 BCE. His capital, Sardis, was a prosperous cultural center renowned for its wealth, architecture, and thriving economy. Under his rule, Lydia became one the most powerful empires in the ancient world, controlling key trade routes and abundant natural resources. Croesus’ name became synonymous with wealth, but he became enamored with his own success. His arrogance led him to challenge the budding empire of Persia, a decision that would ultimately lead to the downfall of his empire. The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) wrote about the life of Croesus in his Histories. By Herodotus’ time, Croesus had become a legendary figure whose life was blended with myth.   Croesus of the Mermnad Dynasty Gyges, Candaules, and Rhodope, by Dosso Dossi, 1508-1510 CE. Source: Galleria Borghese, Rome   Croesus was part of the Mermnad dynasty. His ancestor, Gyges, was a bodyguard to King Candaules, a descendant of Heracles. The king was obsessed with his own wife’s beauty and wanted to prove to Gyges that she was the most beautiful woman in the world. In order to prove this, Candaules had a plan to allow Gyges to see his wife naked without her knowing. While Gyges initially refused, he soon gave in at the king’s insistence. The plan was to have Gyges hide behind the bedroom door and spy on the king’s wife as she removed her clothes. But the king’s wife caught a glimpse of Gyges as he slipped from the room and knew what her husband had done.   The next day, she summoned Gyges and presented him with an ultimatum: he could kill the king and take her as his own wife or be killed. To answer for the shame he had caused her and unable to persuade her to change her mind, he agreed to save his own life. They plotted to kill the king in the same way that the king made Gyges view his wife. Gyges hid behind the door, and once the king was asleep, he came out and stabbed him with a knife. Thus Gyges became king of Lydia, and his reign was ordained by the oracle at Delphi.   Rich Like Croesus Gold Stater coins, minted in Lydia, c. 560-546 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Five generations later, Croesus came to the throne at the age of 35 after the death of his father, Alyattes. He inherited an already powerful kingdom and wasted no time in pursuing his own imperial ambitions. He immediately set out to attack the Ephesians and then moved on to conquer the cities along the Aeolian and Ionian coasts. At its height, the Lydian empire was said to control all territories West of the Halys River.   Croesus amassed a vast fortune from the gold and silver mines in his territory, as well as from fertile agricultural lands. He could gather gold dust from the Pactolus River which flowed through his kingdom, the same river that the mythical King Midas used to wash away the curse of his golden touch. Lydia was also located at the center of a trade route that connected the East with the West. Croesus controlled the wealthy port cities of the Ionian coast, no doubt collecting taxes and tribute from all the merchants that passed through. All these factors made Croesus the richest man in the ancient world. His name became synonymous with wealth, coining the phrase “rich as Croesus.”   Meeting With the Sage Solon Defending his Laws Against the Objections of the Athenians, by Noël Coypel, c. 1673 CE. Source: Louvre Museum   At the height of Croesus’ power and influence, he was visited by Solon, the legendary Athenian lawgiver hailed by Plato as one of the seven sages of Greece. Croesus hosted Solon at his palace and, after a few days of flouting his riches, asked the Athenian who he thought was the happiest man he’d seen, fully expecting to hear his own name. But Solon answered that it was an Athenian by the name of Tellus. He came from a prosperous city and had virtuous children, all of whom had children of their own. He had a glorious death in battle after routing the enemy and was buried with honors at public expense.   Assuming this was just a nationalistic bias, Croesus then asked who Solon thought was the second happiest, figuring that surely if he wasn’t first, he’d be second. Again Solon surprised him, answering that the second happiest were two brothers from Argos named Cleobis and Biton. These two brothers lived within their means, were physically strong, and had won athletic contests. During a festival for Hera, their mother had to be conveyed to the goddess’s temple by a team of oxen, but their oxen hadn’t come back from the fields in time, so they put the yoke over their own shoulders and pulled the wagon themselves. Upon completing this labor, they were praised and celebrated by the citizens. After making sacrifices and feasting, they lay down in the temple and fell asleep, never to awaken. The Argive people made and dedicated statues of them at Delphi.   Croesus was annoyed that Solon considered common men to be happier than himself. Solon said that in an assumed lifespan of 70 years, a person has 26,250 days, none of which are the same as the last, and each may bring with them fortune or misfortune. The only way to determine if a person’s life is happy is if their life ends well. Until then, the best that can be said is that they are lucky. Croesus didn’t like Solon’s response and sent him away.   Portents and Prophecies Adonis, by Antonio Corradini, c. 1723-1725 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   After Solon left, Croesus had a dream that his favored son, Atys, would be killed by an iron spear. Fearing that the dream was a vision of the future, Croesus quickly had his son marry and hid away all the javelins and spears from the men’s apartments. After Atys’ marriage, Adrastus, son of the Phrygian king Gordias, having been exiled by his father, came to Croesus seeking purification for the accidental killing of his brother. Croesus pitied the man and obliged him, allowing him to remain in Sardis as a guest.   Around this time, Croesus was told that a monstrous boar, reminiscent of Heracles’ fourth labor, had come down from the mountains to ravage the Mysian fields. Messengers asked Croesus to send his son and some men to slay the boar. Croesus agreed to help but refused to send Atys, using the recent wedding as a pretense. However Atys heard of the messengers’ request and questioned his father. Croesus told him of his dream and assured his son that it was not due to a fault in his character that he wasn’t sending him but because he wanted to protect him. Atys reassured his father that if the dream said he would die by an iron spear then hunting a boar should pose no threat. Seeing the logic in this, Croesus changed his mind and allowed Atys to go hunt the boar.   “You say that the dream told you that I should be killed by a spear of iron? But has a boar hands? Has it that iron spear which you dread? Had the dream said I should be killed by a tusk or some other thing proper to a boar, you would be right in acting as you act; but no, it was to be by a spear. Therefore, since it is not against men that we are to fight, let me go.” (Histories, 1.39.2)   The Oracle, by Célestin Nanteuil, c. 1837-1870 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Croesus then summoned Adrastus and asked him to accompany his son and to protect him from any harm that might befall him. Atys, Adrastus, and a group of young men went to Mysia and found the boar that was terrorizing the population. They surrounded the animal and hurled their spears at it. But Adrastus’ spear missed the boar and struck Atys, killing him and realizing Croesus’ prophetic dream.   Croesus was distraught at the loss of his son but didn’t blame Adrastus for his death, despite the Phrygian prince being the instrument of it. Instead, he blamed the god who had sent him the dream. Croesus buried his son, and Adrastus, who was wracked with guilt at having killed the son of the man who purified him and hosted him when he was at his lowest and committed suicide by Atys’ grave.   Testing the Oracles The Pythia of Delphi Going to the Sanctuary, by Henry James Richter, 1797 CE. Source: British Museum   For two years, Croesus mourned his son but was shaken from it by the growing power of Persia. He wanted to prevent them from becoming too powerful, so he decided to ask an oracle whether he should attack Persia. However, he first needed to know which of the many oracles could be trusted. He sent out messengers to the oracles in Greece and Egypt, telling the messengers to count one hundred days from their departure and to ask the oracles what Croesus was doing on the hundredth day. Only the oracle at Delphi divined the correct answer.   “I know the number of the grains of sand and the extent of the sea, And understand the mute and hear the voiceless. The smell has come to my senses of a strong-shelled tortoise Boiling in a cauldron together with a lamb’s flesh, Under which is bronze and over which is bronze.” (Histories, 1.47.3)   Croesus had cut up a lamb and a tortoise and then boiled them in a bronze cauldron with a bronze lid. Satisfied that the Delphic oracle spoke the truth, he made large sacrifices to Apollo in order to win the god’s favor and sent lavish offerings to the temple. He then asked the Oracle whether he should send an army against Persia. The oracle’s reply became one of the best-known prophecies from antiquity. It demonstrated the ambiguous nature of prophecy. In the original Greek, as related by Herodotus, she said,   “ἢν στρατεύηται ἐπὶ Πέρσας, μεγάλην ἀρχὴν μιν καταλύσειν” (Histories, 1.53.3) If [Croesus] should send an army against Persia, he will destroy a great kingdom.   Croesus was pleased at this response, believing that he would conquer Persia. Yet he was still skeptical and asked the oracle one more question to confirm his interpretation. He asked how long he would rule Lydia. The oracle replied that he would rule until the Persians had a mule as king. Croesus was ecstatic. A mule could never become a king, so his victory was all but assured.   The Fall of Sardis Plaque with Horned Lion-Griffin, Achaemenid, c. 6th-4th century BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Croesus marshaled his army and crossed the Halys River into Scythia. He razed farms and attacked the city of Pteria, enslaving its citizens. The king of Persia, who would later become known as Cyrus the Great, raised his own army to oppose Croesus, and the two armies clashed. The fighting lasted until nightfall, with neither side gaining the upper hand. The next day Cyrus didn’t attack, so Croesus took the opportunity to return to Sardis with the intention of summoning allies to aid in his conquest. When he arrived back in Sardis, Croesus dismissed the mercenaries in his army, then sent messengers to the Spartans, Egyptians, and Babylonians to assemble at Sardis in five months’ time when winter was over.   Head of a Persian Guard, Achaemenid, c. 486-465 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   However, against all expectations, Cyrus marched his army into Lydia. Croesus arrayed what was left of his army in the plains before Sardis to defend his capital. The Lydian cavalry charged the Persian army, but Cyrus had sent up all his camels to screen his infantry, knowing that horses couldn’t stand the sight or smell of the animals. The cavalry’s horses turned and fled, forcing the riders to jump off their mounts and fight on foot. The Lydians fought desperately but were ultimately routed and driven back behind the city walls.   Sardis, by Harry John Johnson, 1841-1885 CE. Source: British Museum   The Persian army besieged the city of Sardis for 14 days, probing its defenses for weaknesses. They found one side of the acropolis that was undefended, the hill being so steep that the Lydians assumed it was impossible to assault. One of Cyrus’ soldiers noticed a Lydian descend from this spot, chasing after a dropped helmet and then climbing back up. The Persians ascended from this side, entered the city, and sacked it. Croesus was taken prisoner and brought before Cyrus. The Persian king ordered Croesus chained and placed atop a funeral pyre to be burned alive.   The Fate of Croesus Croesus Before Cyrus, by Gaspar van den Hoecke, c. 1600-1648 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As the oracle of Delphi predicted, by marching an army against Persia, Croesus destroyed a great empire, it just happened to be his own. As the pyre on which he stood was being lit, Croesus recalled Solon’s words that a person can’t be considered happy until the end of their life is known. Croesus told Cyrus of his conversation with the Athenian and that he had learned the lesson too late. The Persian king considered his words and decided to offer him mercy. He told his men to douse the fire, but the flames were too strong. Croesus prayed to Apollo to save him from his fate. From a clear sky, clouds formed, and rain fell to douse the flames. From then on, Croesus became one of Cyrus’ advisors.   In his lifetime, Croesus ascended to the throne of one of the most powerful kingdoms of the ancient world, expanding its borders and amassing such riches that his name is still synonymous with wealth even 2,500 years after his death. Yet he suffered from the fatal flaw of hubris, an excessive arrogance that made him believe that he could control fate.   He blamed his defeat at the hands of the Persians on Apollo, believing that the oracular god had betrayed him and pushed him into attacking a more powerful enemy. He inquired again with the oracle at Delphi, chastising the god for lying to him and being ungrateful for all the gifts he had given. But the oracle replied that the fault lay with Croesus for misinterpreting the meaning of the god’s prophecies. He didn’t consider that the great empire that would be destroyed could be his own, nor did he understand the meaning of the mule becoming king of Persia. Being born of two peoples, a Medean princess and a Persian subject, Cyrus was the prophesied mule. And so the oracle had told Croesus all that would transpire, but Croesus, in his certainty that his understanding was on the same level as a god’s, sealed his own fate.

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August 26, 2025 — Today's Conservative Cartoon