I come in peace—don’t shoot. I’m one of yours. As a Spanish conservative committed to building a politically robust and intellectually vibrant movement across Europe, this has become my default opening line—sometimes stated outright, sometimes implied—in private meetings and public speeches abroad. Continue Reading...

from The Prather Point: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

by Andrew Anglin, The Unz Review: “Tel Aviv will be destroyed, their military headquarters will be flattened, the prime minister’s residence will be flattened, Israel will be flattened, its airfields flattened, that’s the future of Israel and there is nothing they can do to stop it.” -Scott Ritter on October 11th, 2023, explaining what his […]

by James Howard Kunstler, All News Pipeline: “Realize where we are.” — Oilfield Rando on “X” Saturday morning, we toodled over to the next town, Salem, New York, (pop. 2,612, per capita income $19,499) fifty miles northeast of Albany, to catch one of the hundreds of “No Kings” demos across the nation sponsored by Shanghai-based […]

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  The Norse god Freyr, with his shining golden boar, was associated with virility, fertility, and good fortune. He was one of the most popular gods in the Viking Age. He was widely worshiped in a trinity along with Odin and Thor. Claimed as a divine ancestor by the Swedish kings, stories about Freyr reveal that he was both a lover and a fighter. Learn more about Freyr and his stories with these six fascinating facts.   1. Freyr Was Married to His Twin Sister Freyja Freyr, by Johannes Gehrts, 1884. Source: Germanic Mythology   While Freyr is always listed in the Old Norse sources as among the principal gods of Asgard, the realm of the Aesir gods, he was not an Aesir. In Norse mythology, the Aesir gods, led by Odin, are just one race or tribe of gods. The Vanir, who lived in the realm of Vanaheim, were another tribe.   While the Aesir gods lived in a structured and fortified community and were rulers of elements such as warfare, the household, and justice, the Vanir gods were more akin to nature spirits. They ruled over elements such as fertility, love, and the sea. The Vanir gods also lived by different societal rules. For example, it was very common for Vanir siblings to marry one another, a practice considered unacceptable by the Aesir gods.   These cultural differences brought the Aesir and the Vanir gods into conflict. They also seem to have disputed who should receive sacrifices from mankind. As a result, the two tribes went to war, as recounted in the Voluspa.   Freyr and Freyja, by Donn T. Crane, 1920. Source: Germanic Mythology   The war ended in a stalemate and the two sides declared a truce. This involved the exchange of hostages. Mimir and Hoenir were sent to Vanaheim to live among the Vanir. Meanwhile, the sea god Njord and his twin children Freyr and Freyja were sent to live in Asgard. When they arrived, Freyr and Freyja were married to one another in the Vanir custom. The Aesir dissolved their marriage and Freyja was swiftly married to the Aesir god Odr.   Nevertheless, the relationship between Freyr and Freyja may never have ended. In the Lokasenna, Loki interrupts a feast of the gods to criticize everyone present. He criticizes the Vanir gods in general for their incestuous practices and claims to have caught Freyr and Freyja having sex together. While Loki is slandering all the gods at the dinner, all his accusations seem to carry a grain of truth.   2. Freyr Was the Prince of the Elven Realm Thor, Odin, and Freyr on the Skog Church Tapestry, Sweden, c. 11th-12th century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   All the Aesir gods are described as having grand halls in Asgard. Thor has an enclosure called Thrundheim (stronghold) with a hall called Bilskirnir (lightning crack), which has 540 rooms. Forseti, the god of justice, has a hall called Glitnir made with pillars of gold and a roof of silver.   No surviving sources describe a hall of Freyr in Asgard. Instead, he is described as the ruler of Alfheim, the realm of the light elves. According to the Grimnismal, he received the realm as a tooth gift, a gift commonly given when infants cut their first tooth. Therefore, he was already the ruler of Alfheim before he was sent to live in Asgard.   This raises questions about the relationship between the Vanir gods and the elves. The alfar or ljosalfar (light elves) are never clearly described in the surviving sources, but they seem to be nature spirits, divine ancestors, or something in between. Moreover, the line between the elves and the gods is not a clear one. They are often described in the same breath using the common saying “Aesir ok Alfar.” Since the Vanir gods are also closely associated with nature, Freyr’s connection with Alfheim may suggest a relationship between the Vanir and the elves, but there is not enough evidence to say more than that.   Freyr riding his boar chariot, by C.E. Brock, 1930. Source: My Norse Digital Image Repository   This story also seems to suggest that Freyr was a kind of “prince” among the Vanir, just like Balder and Thor, as sons of Odin, were princes among the Aesir. Freyr also seems to share many attributes with these two Aesir gods.   Balder’s name means lord or prince in Old Norse, and he seems to have been a god of light or sunshine because he is described as shining like the sun. Freyr also means “lord” and he is linked with sunshine and good weather. One of his attributes is also a golden boar that shines like the sun.   Thor is described as the strongest of the Norse gods and the ideal warrior. Freyr is also considered a great warrior. He is a phallic deity, often represented by phallic objects, which associate him with virility and masculinity. As the god of thunder, Thor was associated with the weather and fertility, while Freyr is a god of fertility and good harvest. So, as princes of their respective tribes, Freyr seems to share many attributes with Thor and Balder.   3. Freyr Was Represented by Phalluses and Boars Statue of Freyr from Rallinge, Sodermanland, Sweden, c. 800-1100 CE. Source: Historiska Museet, Sweden   The Norse gods were often characterized by their attributes. Thor had his mighty hammer Mjolnir, while Odin had a spear called Gungnir and his eight-legged steed Sleipnir. He also famously had only one eye, since he plucked one out as a sacrifice to drink from the Well of Wisdom. Images of Odin are often identified by his horse and the presence of just one eye.   Freyr’s most identifiable symbol was the phallus. According to the 11th-century historian Adam of Bremen, Freyr was represented with a large phallus at the Temple of Uppsala in Sweden. A statue of a seated god with a noticeable phallus from Sodermanland in Sweden is also believed to be Freyr.   The god was also represented by a boar, and images of boars on Viking helmets and shields are believed to be references to Freyr. The Vanir god is described as either riding a boar or in a chariot pulled by a boar, at the funeral of Balder, suggesting that the animal was intrinsic to his identity. According to the Hervarar Saga, boars were sacrificed to Freyr at Yule.   Benty Grange Helmet with boar crest, Sheffield, England, c. 7th century CE. Source: Sheffield Museums, England   The Skaldskaparmal, part of the Prose Edda written by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century, suggests an origin for Freyr’s boar and another treasure owned by the god. This account needs to be taken with a grain of salt. A Christian source, this is the only place where this story is recorded, and conflicting origins exist for some of the other items listed in the tale.   Nevertheless, according to the story, as a joke, Loki decided to permanently remove the golden hair of the goddess Sif, the wife of Thor. When his trick was discovered, Thor demanded that Loki replace the hair with something just as fine or suffer the consequences.   To get what he needed, Loki went to the dwarves, the master craftsmen in the Norse cosmos. He went to two dwarven craftsmen known as the sons of Ivaldi and asked them to make Sif a wig of finely spun gold that could be enchanted to grow on her head. He also asked for two more great treasures to give to the gods to help appease their anger.   The brothers made a spear called Gungnir, which was gifted to Odin. They also made a ship called Skidbladnir. It was enchanted to always have a fair wind and to sail on air as well as water. It was large enough to carry all the gods with their mounts at the same time but could also be folded down like a piece of paper to be carried. The Vikings would often carry their ships over land. This ship was gifted to Freyr.   Eyebrow arch and boar decorations from Helmet, Scania, Sweden, c. 7th century. Source: Research Gate   While among the dwarves, Loki also taunted another pair of dwarven craftsmen, Bokkr and Eitri, saying that no one could make treasures equal to those of the sons of Ivaldi. The dwarves took the challenge, also agreeing to make three treasures for the gods. The gods were to choose the finest treasure, and if it was made by Bokkr and Eitri, they would take Loki’s head.   This pair of dwarves made Thor’s hammer Mjolnir, an enchanted ring for Odin called Draupnir, and a boar with golden hair so bright that it turned night into day. The boar was called Gullinbursti, which means golden bristles, and it could run faster on land, water, and through the air than any horse. Again, it was gifted to Freyr.   That he received gifts alongside Odin and Thor again suggests that Freyr was considered some kind of Vanir prince.   Despite Loki sabotaging Bokkr and Eitri, causing Mjolnir to come out with a handle much shorter than anticipated, the gods still chose it as the finest of the six pieces. But Loki refused to turn over his head, saying that he had not promised his neck and they could not take one without the other. They settled for sewing Loki’s mouth shut, though it was only temporary.   4. Freyr Had an Unbeatable Sword but Will Still Die at Ragnarök Freyr brooding over Gerdr, by W.G. Collingwood, 1908. Source: My Norse Digital Image Repository   Freyr also had a sword that was magically enchanted to fight on its own and would never lose. But, if Snorri Sturluson is to be believed, Freyr lost the sword because of a woman.   One day, Freyr decided to sit in Odin’s seat, Hildskjalf, which allowed the god to look out over all existence. He caught sight of a woman who was raising her hands to open a great door, causing light to gleam from her hands, illuminating both the sky and sea. Freyr fell in love instantly and then fell into a deep depression when he realized that he could not have the woman, who was the giantess Gerdr.   After a period of brooding, Freyr agreed to ask his servant Skirnir to go and woo Gerdr on his behalf. In exchange for doing this, Skirnir requested Freyr’s sword, which he was given. Skirnir started by offering Gerdr many treasures to marry Freyr, but she refused them all. He ended up turning to threats, threatening her life, her father’s life, madness, and misery. His threats included an eternity drinking goat’s urine and suffering from an unbearable desire that could be satisfied by no man.   In the end, Gerdr agrees to the marriage, despite previously pledging never to love one of the Vanir. She agrees to meet Freyr at a tranquil place called Barri, where they would spend nine nights together, and then be wed. Though Freyr did not know how he would contain his lust for this period of waiting, the two eventually married.   This story helps to explain why Freyr no longer had his sword when he did battle with the giant Beli, whom he killed with an antler. But more importantly, it explains why Freyr does not have his sword at Ragnarök, the prophesied great battle between the gods and the giants that will destroy the world.   Freyr fighting Surtr at Ragnarök, by Lorenz Frohlich, 1895. Source: Wikimedia Commons   During Ragnarök, many of the gods will fight to the death with monsters from Norse mythology. Odin will be devoured by the wolf Fenrir who will be killed by Odin’s son Vidarr. Thor and Jormungandr will fight to the death and kill one another, as will Loki and Heimdall.   Freyr will fight with a fire giant called Surtr, who has been trapped in Muspelheim from the time of creation. The chaos caused by Ragnarök will allow the giant to break free and join the attack on the gods with a flaming sword that will set much of the world on fire. Without his enchanted sword, Freyr’s victory is not assured and the two will end up killing one another.   5. The Early Swedish Kings Claimed Descent From Freyr Freyr, Icelandic manuscript AM 738 4to, 36v, 1680. Source: My Norse Digital Image Repository   Freyr is portrayed in some sources as the legendary ancestor of the earliest kings of Sweden. In his Heimskringla, Snorri Sturluson transforms the gods into players in the legendary history of Sweden and Norway. The work opens with the Ynglinga Saga, which tells the story of the Aesir-Vanir war as a battle between two great Viking tribes. The battle ends in the same way, with Njord, Freyr, and Freyja being sent to live among the Aesir. They are made priests of sacrifices and become important leaders within the community.   Odin becomes the king of Sweden. When he dies, he passes power to Njord, not one of his sons. Njord rules for a period of peace and good harvest before he falls ill and dies. He is succeeded by his son Freyr, who was fortunate and had good seasons like his father.   The story credits Freyr with establishing the Temple at Uppsala and ushering in a period of peace and prosperity. In this version of events, Freyr was also known as Yngve, and he gave his name to Sweden’s founding dynasty, the Ynglinger.   When Freyr became sick, his followers built a great burial mound for him. They deposited Freyr’s body there when he died but did not tell the people of his passing. They continued to pay him gold, silver, and other precious items as taxes, and these were placed in the mound. This continued for three years, and they had three years of great prosperity.   When the people realized that Freyr was dead, but prosperity continued, they believed that they would continue to be lucky for as long as Freyr’s body remained in Sweden. They started to venerate him as a god, making blood sacrifices for peace and good fortune.   6. Freyr Was One of the Most Popular Gods Worshiped in the Viking Age  Gullgubber showing Freyr and consort, Sweden, c. 700 CE. Source: Historiska Museet, Sweden   Freyr was one of the most popular gods worshiped in the Viking age, though he seems to have become more popular over time. According to Adam of Bremen, in his 11th-century Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum, Thor was worshiped as the principal god of the harvest. But, according to Snorri Sturluson, by the 12th century, Freyr had usurped this position.   Adam of Bremen also describes a great Norse pagan temple at Uppsala, where Odin, Thor, and Freyr seem to have been worshiped together. He says that the temple is decorated with enormous amounts of gold and has a statue of Thor in the middle and statues of Odin and Freyr on either side. He says that Thor is venerated as the god of weather and crops, Odin as the god of war, and Freyr for bestowing peace and pleasure. He notes that Freyr’s likeness is fashioned with an immense phallus.   According to the 14th-century Icelandic story Ogmundar pattr dytts, Freyr was worshiped as a fertility deity and had to be attended by a female priestess, who assumed the roles of his female counterpart. The Christian writer also suggested that the devil spoke to the people out of the mouth of Freyr’s idol, which was made from gold and transported around the countryside in a wagon.   Depictions of Freyr survive in many contexts, often alongside Odin and Thor as a trio of gods. It is also believed that a dancing couple that appears on many small pieces of gold foil from the pre-Viking Period and used to consecrate sacred spaces, is probably Freyr and a consort, Gerdr or Freyja, representing divine marriage and fertility.

  Since the time of Alexander the Great (336-323 BCE), the Macedonians had dominated the eastern Mediterranean. Their heavy infantry phalanx rolled over the Greek cities and then the Persian Empire. To the west, Roman legionnaires had conquered Italy and were overwhelming Carthage. At the start of the second century BCE, a series of wars pitted these two military machines against each other. After almost two decades of indecisive combat, the first critical clash came in the early summer of 197 BCE at Cynoscephalae.   Before Cynoscephalae: The First Macedonian War  The Macedonian phalanx. Source: Livius.org   The First Macedonian War (215-205 BCE) was a sideshow to the war between Hannibal’s Carthage and the Romans. Philip V (221-179 BCE) had, by this point, reigned as the young King of Macedonia for six years. So far, he had managed to maintain his dynasty’s influence over Greece but was worried by the emerging Roman presence on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea and Macedonia’s western border. As Hannibal defeated Roman armies in Italy, Philip sought an alliance with the Carthaginians. In response, Rome went to war with Macedonia.   Both sides entered this conflict with limited ambitions. The Romans, fighting for their lives in Italy, had few resources to spare and sought only to prevent any assistance from reaching Hannibal. It is unlikely that Philip had ambitions in Italy but instead aimed at removing Roman influence from his borders. The course of this ten-year war reflects these limited ambitions. Philip made some gains in the north but could not expel the Romans. For their part, the Roman contribution was largely limited to their navy, with much of the fighting conducted by Greek allies. This was effective enough to achieve the Roman aim of preventing Philip from aiding Hannibal in Italy.   This first war was a defensive conflict for the Romans. A powerful state had allied with their most dangerous enemy, and they had acted to limit the damage. This war, though, deepened Roman involvement in the affairs of Greece and the Aegean.   Start of the Second Macedonian War  Tetradrachm of Philip V. Source: American Numismatic Society   The Second Macedonian War (200-197 BCE) was a short and decisive conflict that saw a direct clash between the full Roman and Macedonian armies. Its origins lay in disputes that did not, and need not, have directly involved the Romans.   In 202 BCE, in what would be known as the Fifth Syrian War, Philip’s campaigns east of Macedonia in the regions of Thrace and Asia Minor (north-west Turkey) brought him into conflict with the Kingdom of Pergamon, a Roman ally, and the island of Rhodes. A seemingly minor incident of alleged religious sacrilege at Eleusis widened the conflict to Athens and prompted Macedonian raids on the city. While the King of Pergamum would deal a crushing defeat to the Macedonians at the Battle of Chios, the Rhodians, Pergamon, and the Athenians appealed to Rome. Initially, Rome would only send envoys to Greece to form a coalition against Macedon, which Philip took as a sign of weakness and license to continue his campaigns.   The year 200 BCE saw Philip inflicting heavy damage on the countryside around Athens while a Roman fleet raided the key Macedonian base of Chalcis on the island of Euboea. In the following year, Rome and its allies, now including the Aitolians and King Amynander of the Athamanians, pressured Macedonia’s borders without making a breakthrough. With no change in Philip’s behavior, despite some reservations from a war-weary populace, the aristocratic Roman Senate called for war. And so, Rome’s second war against Philip and the Macedonians began. The Romans could claim this was to defend their allies, but the rulers of Rome embraced the opportunity for war.   Enter Titus Quintcius Flamininus Portrait, probably of Flamininus. Source: Museum of Delphi   The war turned with the appointment of Titus Quinctius Flamininus to the command of Roman forces. Ambitious, capable, and energetic, Flamininus had risen to Rome’s highest office, the consulship, before the age of 30. He was born into an aristocratic family active in politics since at least the 4th century BCE. His grandfather had been a famous flamen Dialis, or head priest, of the principal Roman god Jupiter, earning his family the prestigious cognomen Flamininus.   Falamininus was serving in Tarentum in southern Italy under his uncle in 205 BCE, a city that had been fortified because it had previously defected to Hannibal. When his uncle died the same year, despite being just 25 years old, command of the garrison was transferred to Flaminimus. During his three years there, he became familiar with the Greek language and culture. In 201-202 BCE, he was one of a commission of ten men charged with settling Scipio Africanus’ veterans in Southern Italy, which gave him the opportunity to enhance his reputation with the Roman people.   This fueled Flamininus’ successful run for consul in 199 BCE to hold the position in 198 BCE. The official ages set out by the Roman cursus honorum had not yet been defined, but running before the age of 30 was still highly unusual. Even the famous Scipio Africanus first earned the consulship at the age of 31. His candidacy was initially vetoed by two Tribunes of the Plebs on account of his youth, but the Senate forced them to remove their veto and allow him to stand. He was elected in second place after his colleagues Sextus Aelius Paetus Catus, but due to Catus’s lack of military experience, the Second Macedonian War was assigned to Flamininus.   Silver denarius of Cassius Longinus showing a Roman casting his vote, 63 BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Wasting no time, Flamininus set off to take command at the first opportunity. Speaking Greek and presenting himself as a lover of Greek culture, Flamininus was able to win friends and dispel the fear of the Romans as barbarians that had built up following some brutal Roman acts in recent years.  Soon Philip’s key Greek ally, the Achaians, defected, leaving the Macedonians with few remaining friends.   A first attempt at peace in 198 BCE failed as Philip could not accept Roman demands, which would have severely reduced Macedonian influence. Flamininus inflicted a defeat on Philip at the river Aous, significantly damaging the Macedonian army and forcing the king to retreat. Meanwhile, Roman and allied forces continue to pressure Macedonian positions in the Peloponnese and on Euboea. By the start of 197 BCE, the war was going badly for Philip, but he was far from defeated. The matter would have to be settled in a head-to-head battle.   The Campaign of 197 BCE  Wall painting of a Macedonian soldier from the Agioa Athenasios Tomb, Greece, c. 4th century BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons.   In the spring of 197 BCE, the Roman and Macedonian armies moved towards each other. With its Greek allies, the Roman army was probably around 30,000 strong. Of these, around 18,000 were Roman legionnaire infantry, including veterans of the Punic Wars. In addition, the Romans boasted a force of 20 war elephants.   Philip’s army was likely a bit smaller, at around 25,000. The resources of his kingdom seem to have been stretched by the recent wars. For this campaign, he had been forced to call up teenagers and those older than 55 to fill in the gaps. In contrast to the Roman force, Philip was leading an army with a considerable number of inexperienced soldiers.   Map of the 2nd Macedonian War. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The early summer saw these two armies manoeuvring in southern Thessaly. Aware that Philip’s resources were at their limit, Flamininus’ moves aimed at blocking his access to supplies by cutting the road to the Macedonian base of Demetrias on the coast. After an inconclusive skirmish, Philip headed west to seek supplies around the town of Scotussa. Flamininus followed to prevent Philip from resupplying. Both armies were now marching west to the same destination.   A range of hills separated the two armies, making them unaware of each other’s presence. A storm and low, thick mist reduced visibility further. When scouts from the two armies started coming across each other in the mist around the hills known as Cynoscephalae (dog heads), few expected that the day would bring the decisive and long-awaited clash between the Macedonian phalanx and the Roman legion.   Phalanx Versus Legion  Drawing of a Phalanx in battle position. Source The Past   For a hundred and fifty years, the Macedonian phalanx had crushed everything before it. Philip II of Macedon had created an army that his son, Alexander the Great, used to conquer the Persian Empire. At its core was the phalanx, a densely packed body of soldiers wielding an 18-foot pike known as a sarissa. The length of the sarissa allowed five spear points to project out in front of the first rank of soldiers, presenting the enemy with moving walls of spear points. Massed in formations 16 men deep, this wall of spears was virtually unapproachable and unstoppable once it got moving. This collective was extremely strong, but the individual soldier (a phalangite) was weak. The length of the sarissa meant the phalangite could only carry a small shield and sword or dagger. If their formation was broken, they were dangerously vulnerable. Therefore, the phalanx had to be deployed on suitably level ground.   A Roman Legion as depicted on Trajan’s Column, drawing by Marco Dente, 16th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   The Roman legion of roughly 4,500-5,000 men was highly organized and divided into a variety of sub-sections rather than deploying as a single mass. They often went into battle in three lines, organized according to each rank’s experience. Each legionnaire was heavily armed and armored with a large shield, javelins, and a short stabbing sword. In contrast to the phalangite, a legionnaire could defend himself and would not be daunted by being divided into smaller groups.   The two armies stumbling toward each other in the mist at Cynoscephalae would finally bring about the direct confrontation of these two different systems.   The Battle of Cynoscephalae  Roman Republican soldier, 2nd century BCE. Source: Musée du Louvre   Though long anticipated, the battle that took place surprised both commanders. The first scouts confronting each other in the hills gradually drew in more units, creating a significant skirmish. As Philip reached the top of the range of hills, he was presented with a problem.   The Cynoscephalae hills, described at the time as “rough, precipitous and of considerable height” (Polybius 18.22), were not the smooth level ground suited to the phalanx. Nor was Philip’s army in position. Not anticipating a battle, part of his force had been sent out to look for supplies. The king was assembling a powerful force around him, but to his left, his units were still marching up. However, if Philip did nothing, he risked losing the forces currently engaged, which would weaken his already smaller force.   Early positions of the two armies and Philip’s attack on the Roman left. Source: West Point   At various points in his career, Philip had acted courageously and decisively, and after some hesitation, he decided he had to act now. He ordered his phalanx to deploy and to double its ranks from the usual 16 deep to 32, creating a tightly packed and powerful attacking force. The Macedonian left flank under Nicanor was ordered to come up as quickly as possible. Flamininus brought his main forces into position to prepare for the attack.   Both sides charged at each other on the right-hand side of the battlefield. With sarissas lowered and coming downhill, the Macedonians began to push back the Roman left. Seeing his forces retreat, Flamininus reacted by switching attention to the other side of the battlefield. The Roman right, led by 20 war elephants, attacked the Macedonian left and caught them before they were prepared. Upon the hills, the phalanx could not deploy correctly, and the whole Macedonian left wing was defeated.   The day so far had been two separate battles. On the right, Philip was winning. On the left, Flamininus was equally triumphant. What swung this delicate balance was an unnamed Roman officer. Seemingly on his own initiative, a Roman tribune led 20 maniples (small units of around 120 men) from the advancing Roman right and turned on Philip’s soldiers. Having pushed up the hills in pursuit of the Macedonian left these Romans now attacked downhill into the vulnerable flank and rear of the phalanx. On the verge of victory shortly before, these phalangites were now practically defenseless, unable to turn their sarissas around or change formation. The Romans cut them down mercilessly.   Macedonian right advances while the left is defeated. Source: West Point   Philip, seeing his soldiers cut down in front of him and his left wing defeated, pulled together what survivors he could and fled the field. 5,000 Macedonians were reported captured, and around 8,000 killed. The Romans are said to have lost about 700 men. The long-awaited clash between legion and phalanx had resulted in a decisive victory for the Romans.   Aftermath of the Battle of Cynoscephalae Stater of Flamininus, 196 BCE. Source: British Museum   Reflecting on this battle, and the decisive Battle of Pydna between the Romans and Macedonia in 168 BCE during the Third Macedonian War, the Greek historian Polybius sought to understand the result (Polybius 18.28). After all, the Macedonian phalanx had dominated the battlefield for more than a century. The Greeks were shocked that it could be defeated in open battle, while Philip himself seems to have believed in the power of his army right up until the day of battle.   Polybius found that the vulnerability of the phalanx was its inflexibility. It was a powerful method of warfare, but one that could only work on certain battlefields. The Roman army, by contrast, was more flexible. It was not a dense mass, only able to move in one direction. Its units could split up, change direction, and deal with obstacles thrown up by the ground. A legionnaire could fight on his own. A Macedonian phalangite could not. As was seen in the battle, Roman officers were able to use this flexibility to take the initiative. Without orders from his commander, a lower-ranking Roman officer won the battle and the war. By contrast, the Macedonian left was disorganized and quickly defeated in the absence of Philip.   Macedonian phalanx. Source: iStock   Cynoscephalae could be seen as an event decided by contingent factors. The vagaries of weather, terrain, and individual decisions resulted in a Roman victory. But as Polybius recognized, the result was made possible by the contrasting systems of the Macedonian phalanx and Roman legion. This would be proven again in the coming decades as the Macedonian wars continued.   The wars would continue, but in the aftermath of Cynoscephalae, Philip was given relatively lenient terms due to the help he offered the Romans during the Roman Seleucid War in 192-188 BCE. Nevertheless, the Macedonians were constrained to their traditional borders and stripped of all Greek possessions, but the kingdom of Macedonia remained intact. Philip would slowly and skillfully rebuild his strength over his remaining years. Flamininus solidified his favorable position in the eyes of the Greeks by declaring them free from their long Macedonian captivity.   That freedom, though, was strictly limited, and it would not be long before Roman legions were once again marching in Greece and Macedonia. The Third Macedonian War raged between 171-168 BCE, ending with the decisive Battle of Pydna and seeing Macedon and its territory divided into client kingdoms. The Fourth Macedonian War of 150-148 BCE saw Macedon annexed directly as a province. Following the Achaean War in 146 BCE, the rest of mainland Greece was annexed as a Roman Province.

  In 425 BCE, during the early phase of the Peloponnesian War, known as the Archidamian War (431-421 BCE), the Athenians under Demosthenes captured the Island of Pylos. The Athenian capture of Pylos posed a significant threat to Sparta by providing a prime raiding base near Spartan territory. A failed attempt by the Spartans to recapture Pylos resulted in the defeat of its navy and a contingent of Spartans trapped on the island of Sphacteria. This set the scene for the Battle of Sphacteria.   War of Words Spartan bronze shield taken at the Battle of Pylos, Greek, c. 5th century BCE. Source: Ancient Agora Museum of Athens   In 425 BCE, Sparta found itself in a desperate situation. It had just suffered a defeat close to home and the contingent trapped on Sphacteria was no small matter. To put this in context, of the 440 soldiers trapped on the island, 120 were Spartan full-citizen hoplites (Spartiates) and made up approximately a tenth of Sparta’s elite class of warriors. Sparta was desperate to get these men back and immediately sent an embassy to negotiate a truce.   The victory at Pylos put Athens in a position to negotiate for a favorable peace. Thucydides states that the Spartan ambassadors who addressed the Athenian assembly offered peace and an alliance between Sparta and Athens:   “The Spartans accordingly invite you to make a treaty and to end the war, and offer peace and alliance and the most friendly and intimate relations in every way and on every occasion between us; and in return ask for the men on the island” (Thuc. 4.19.1).   The offer was seriously considered as many wanted an end to the war, especially the aristocratic party of Nicias who opposed the aggressive imperialism of the democrats. However, Cleon, a warmongering demagogue and skilled orator who headed Athens’ democratic party, swayed the people in the assembly to demand more severe terms. These included Athens gaining control over Megara and the insistence that Sparta abandon several key allies. Attempts by the Spartan embassy to negotiate in private failed. Cleon rejected the request for talks behind closed doors and demanded they negotiate publicly. Sparta’s hand was forced as it could not discuss the betrayal of her allies in the open and negotiations broke down.   The Island of Sphacteria Map of the Spartan position on the island of Sphacteria in 425 BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Command of the Sphacteria campaign was given to Cleon, who boldly claimed that he did not fear the Spartans and would sail for the island without taking any Athenian citizens to go fight. He took with him contingents from Lemnos and Imbros, and several light troops consisting of peltasts and archers. Upon arrival, he combined his forces with those who were blockading the island. The actual strategist of the campaign was, however, the experienced officer Demosthenes.   The island was extremely wooded, making it difficult to track the Spartan movements. Thus, the Athenians were wary of landing their forces, fearing an ambush. As fortune had it, a wildfire broke out on the island, revealing the Spartan positions as well as the best landing spots.   The Spartans occupied three positions on the island. The main force was stationed close to the center around a fountain that served as their water supply. The second division occupied the remains of an abandoned fort on the highest point of the island. The final and smallest contingent was stationed in the south of the island, acting as sentries to guard against possible landing points in the area.   The Night Attack Greek peltast, by Johnny Shumate. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Athenians had 800 hoplites, 800 peltasts, and 800 archers, supported by an unknown number of additional psiloi (light infantry) drawn from the crews of the ships. They vastly outnumbered their Spartan foes. The renowned Spartan martial reputation, however, was so feared that Demosthenes’ strategy was to avoid a heavy infantry engagement at all costs, despite their numerical superiority. An embassy was sent to offer terms of surrender to the Spartans, but unsurprisingly and in true Spartan fashion, the offer was rejected.   The following night, under the cover of darkness, the Athenians landed a vanguard on the southern points of the island. With a daring night attack, they overran the small contingent, who were completely caught off guard with many of the Spartans killed in their beds:   “The Athenians rushed the first guards and killed them instantly – they were still in bed or grabbing for their weapons. The landing had gone unnoticed, as the guards had thought that the ships were simply moving to their usual nightly anchorage” (Thuc. 4.32.1).   When morning arrived, the rest of the Athenian army disembarked on the island. They quickly surrounded the main Spartan force by occupying the high ground around the Spartan camp. The Spartan hoplites, never shying away from battle, formed up and marched out to meet the enemy, confident in the martial prowess and the defense of their tightly formed phalanx.   Deadly Tactics of Demosthenes Attic black-figure calyx krater displaying hoplite heavy infantry engaged in close-quarters combat, Greek, 530 BCE. Source: National Archaeological Museum of Athens   The Athenian heavy infantry hoplites, embracing Demosthenes’ strategy, refused to engage their Spartan counterparts. The Athenian light troops consisting of javelinmen, archers, and slingers, rushed in and outflanked the Spartans on all sides. What followed was a hailstorm of arrows, stones, and javelins:   “[The Spartans] formed for battle and advanced towards the Athenian hoplites, wanting to come to close quarters: the hoplites were positioned directly in front of them, with the light-armed troops on the flanks and behind them. The Spartans could not get at the hoplites or make use of their own expertise, as they were kept back by a barrage of missiles from the light-armed troops on either side, and also the hoplites would not advance to meet them but stayed where they were” (Thuc. 4.33.1).   Cast of a Roman copy of a bust of Thucydides, Roman, c. 100 BCE. Source: Russian Academy of Arts   The Spartans attempted to respond to the threat by rushing out from their formation, trying to close with their enemies. Clad in their armor and carrying their heavy aspis shields, they were slow while their attackers were swift due to their light gear and lack of armor. To make matters worse, every time the Spartan warriors broke rank and tried to attack the light troops, they found themselves exposed and vulnerable to the enemy’s missiles:   “Being lightly equipped they could easily outpace any pursuit in this difficult terrain, left rough by lack of habitation, and the Spartans in their heavy armor could not chase them over such ground” (Thuc. 4.33.2).   To put it simply, the Spartans had no means to answer the ranged attacks of their enemy. Casualties were mounting among the Spartans, and the once invulnerable image of the Spartan war machine was being chipped away by every warrior that fell. Their fruitless sallies to catch the enemy light troops and the weight of the armor only served to exhaust them.   Sparta’s Last Stand Vase painting showing the deadly art of archer as Odysseus kills the suitors with his bow, Greek, c. 440 BCE. Source: Altes Museum, Berlin   Realizing the hopelessness of the situation, the Spartans tightened their ranks, and under the continuous barrage of missiles, they decided to retreat to the abandoned fort where the other contingent of Spartans were entrenched. A slow and grueling retreat ensued, and more Spartans fell before they reached the fort, which finally awarded some respite among fresh troops. More importantly, the remains of the fort and the natural high ground of the place afforded them some defense against the missiles of their pursuers. What ensued was a stalemate. The Spartans had no means to drive off the assailants, while the light troops of the Athenians, who were starting to run low on ammunition, could not dislodge the Spartans from the high ground.   In the hopes of breaking the stalemate, the captain of the Messenians realized that if they could scale the cliffs behind the fort, the Spartans could be outflanked and attacked in the rear. He thus requested a contingent of archers along with other light troops from Demosthenes, and, in a daring attempt, he circumnavigated the Spartan position and surmounted the cliffs. The sudden appearance of the light troops behind the Spartans caused fear and panic among them while it invigorated the Athenians.   “The Spartans were now under attack from front and rear… so these Spartans could not hold out any longer, caught as they were between two fires. They were few fighting many and weakened by lack of food, and they began to give way with the Athenians controlling every approach to their position” (Thuc. 4.36.3).   Roman funeral stele of Greek hoplite warrior, Roman, c. 1st century BCE. Source: British Museum   The Spartans were now in a dire situation. Had it not been for Cleon and Demosthenes calling a halt to the relentless attack, the Spartans would have all been massacred. Amongst the dead lay Epitadas, the Spartan commander. The second officer, Hippagretus, was severely wounded, a testament to the carnage and effectiveness of light troops. It was thus the third officer, Styphon, who had to accept the armistice offered by Cleon. The remaining Spartans were exhausted, without supplies, surrounded, and outnumbered. They were left with little choice between surrender or death. The Spartans chose to surrender.   How Sphacteria Changed Greece Island of Sphacteria, where Sparta suffered its worst disaster of the Peloponnesian War., Source: Wikimedia Commons   When the unbreakable Spartans broke and surrendered, it sent shockwaves through the Greek world:   “To the Greeks, this was the most surprising event of the whole war. They had thought that Spartans would never surrender their arms, in starvation or any other extremity, but would use them to the last of their strength and die fighting” (Thuc. 4.40.1).   More importantly, the battle was won with light infantry. Sparta’s invincibility was destroyed by the most unlikely soldiers. These slingers, archers, and javelin men were seen as inferior troops and second-class citizens, yet they defeated the greatest warriors in Greece. More than a quarter of the Spartan forces perished in the battle, while the Athenians lost very few men because the battle was not fought at close quarters.   The battle also changed the nature of the war. No longer could Greek armies dominate a battlefield by fielding only heavy infantry. Combined arms became essential in Greek warfare. Even Sparta, the most conservative of the Greeks, realized the importance of fielding combined arms: “Contrary to their usual custom they raised a force of four hundred cavalry and archers” (Thuc. 4.55.2).   Sphacteria also changed the war on a larger scale. Sparta could no longer invade Attica and raid their lands, as any military action in Attica would result in the execution of the Spartan prisoners taken on the island. Spartan lands, however, were under constant threat from the newly created Athenian base on Pylos, which was managed by their Messenian allies. According to Thucydides (5.75.3), Sparta would only regain their reputation seven years later after defeating their enemies at the climactic Battle of Mantinea in 418 BCE, turning the tide of the war in favor of Sparta.

  Also known as “Juneteenth Independence Day” or “Emancipation Day,” Juneteenth is a federal holiday marking the day when enslaved African Americans living in Galveston, Texas, learned of their freedom. While President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, it would take more than two years for news of freedom to reach the farthest corners of the American South. In Galveston, Black Americans found out they were freed only on June 19, 1865. This day became known as Juneteenth, and it is the oldest known celebration of the end of slavery in the US. Read on to discover more about Juneteenth.   When Is Juneteenth? Union General Gordon Granger, ca. 1860-1865. Source: Library of Congress, Washington DC   Juneteenth is celebrated annually on June 19. Indeed, the date of the federal holiday is directly referenced in its name, a combination of the words “June” and “nineteenth.” On June 19, 1865, Union Major General Gordon Granger, whose troops had entered Galveston (Texas) the previous day, issued General Order No. 3, announcing to the town’s enslaved African Americans that they were free:   “The people of Texas are informed that, in accordance with a proclamation from the Executive of the United States, all slaves are free. This involves an absolute equality of personal rights and rights of property between former masters and slaves, and the connection heretofore existing between them becomes that between employer and hired labor. The freedmen are advised to remain quietly at their present homes and work for wages. They are informed that they will not be allowed to collect at military posts and that they will not be supported in idleness either there or elsewhere.”   Nearly two and a half years earlier, in January 1863, President Lincoln had issued the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing enslaved people in the states still under Confederate control. In some of the most remote areas of the South, however, news of their freedom did not reach enslaved Black Americans until after the end of the Civil War. In some places, slaveholders purposely hid news of Lincoln’s proclamation to preserve slavery.   On June 19, 1865, there were more than 250,000 enslaved individuals in Galveston when General Granger delivered General Order No. 3, announcing the end of legalized slavery in Texas and the end of the American Civil War. After the initial shock and jubilation, many Black Americans left Texas to go North. The following year, those who remained celebrated the first anniversary of the end of slavery with prayer meetings, music, and public speeches.   How Is Juneteenth Celebrated? The Texas African American History Memorial in Austin. The centerpiece commemorates Juneteenth and the Emancipation Proclamation. Source: University of South Florida   Today, many cities host large events to celebrate Juneteenth, including parades, music festivals, and re-enactment marches. Many families also organize barbecues and cookouts in their backyards, remembering the end of slavery with foods and aromas that evoke memories of their ancestors. Among the most popular Juneteenth dishes, many are associated with the color red. In cultures like Yoruba and Kongo, brought to the US with the Transatlantic Slave Trade, red holds a great spiritual value, symbolizing sacrifice, transition, and power.   For many Black Americans, Juneteenth is the second independence day, marking the moment when all American citizens were finally free. In this sense, the day is also an occasion to preserve the history and legacy of African Americans while reflecting on the evolution of the American nation. As the National Museum of African American History & Culture explains:   “Juneteenth has always been more than a holiday. The day stands as a testament to and celebration of the unyielding spirit of a people. It is a day for introspection, a platform for education, and a tribute to the monumental contributions of African Americans to the history of this nation. … By celebrating Juneteenth, we foster connections, healing, and revitalization. And we pay tribute to the ongoing fight for social justice and racial equity.”   The Historical Background The 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, by The Strobridge Lith. Co., Cincinnati. Source: Library of Congress   While the conflicts between the North and the South leading to the Civil War were many, the dispute over slavery was a major cause of the internal fighting. As the abolition cause gained momentum thanks to the voices of activists like Frederick Douglass and the Grimké sisters, the Southern states grew increasingly frustrated with the high numbers of fugitives escaping to the North through the Underground Railroad. The acquisition of new territories after the American-Mexican War (1846-1848) also led to a dispute about whether or not slavery should be extended to the new lands.   In the mid-19th century, while the Northern states’ economy became more diversified with industrialization, the Southern economy revolved around slavery and plantations. As the price of cotton increased, Southerners heavily invested in slaves. As the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 made access to the world’s largest source of raw cotton difficult, the South foresaw the intervention of France and England on their side in the conflict.   Their hope, however, was disappointed after Lincoln’s 1863 Emancipation Proclamation. At the beginning of the war, the abolition of slavery was not the main goal of the US government, whose primary concern was preserving the Union. Then, a few days after the 1862 Battle of Antietam (the bloodiest clash in US military history), President Lincoln issued a proclamation that would change the moral aspect of the war by announcing that if the rebellion Confederate states would not return to the Union by the end of the year, all enslaved people under their control would be free.   General Order No. 3 issued by General Gordon Granger on June 19, 1865, in Galveston, Texas. Source: National Archives Catalog   As no Southern state answered to his call, Abraham Lincoln issued the threatened Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, stating that “all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free; and the Executive Government of the United States, including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom.”   While the proclamation had some limits (it did not apply to the Confederate states already under Union control) and did not end slavery, it was a military and political measure that impacted the rest of the war. For the Black Americans who had already secured their freedom, the conflict was now a war for liberty, and many Black men joined the Union Army and Navy to join the fight against slavery. At the same time, the Emancipation Proclamation kept Europe from giving aid and political recognition to the Confederate states.   As the Union forces advanced into the South, enslaved Black Americans learned about their freedom. In the farthest areas of the Trans-Mississippi West, however, enslaved people on the plantations learned about the Emancipation Proclamation nearly two and a half years later. Even after Confederate General Edmund Kirby Smith surrendered to the Union on June 2, 1865, the African Americans living in bondage in Galveston did not yet know they were free.   Juneteenth Throughout History A music band celebrates Juneteenth in Austin on June 19, 1900, photograph by Mrs. Charles Stephenson. Source: Wikimedia Commons / The Portal to Texas History, University of North Texas Libraries   Initially, Juneteenth celebrations were church-centered gatherings, featuring prayers, pageants, speeches from former enslaved people, barbecues, and dances. As the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868 and the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870 granted Black Americans citizenship and the right to vote, the informal holiday became an opportunity to organize rallies to inform freedmen and women about their rights.   In Austin, the Freedman’s Bureau, an agency that supported many Black Americans during the transition from slavery to freedom, organized the 1867 Juneteenth celebration. In 1872, it became an annual tradition.   After the Thirteenth Amendment (December 1865) officially abolished slavery in the US, for many Black people, freedom remained elusive, even as Juneteenth celebrations became a tradition for many Black communities. When the Jim Crow laws enforced racial segregation and discrimination in the US South, African Americans were often forced to celebrate Juneteenth on the outskirts of towns.   To secure safe places to gather every June 19, many groups raise funds to collectively purchase plots of land, commonly known as “emancipation parks.” In 1872, for example, an African American group in Houston signed a deed for a ten-acre site that would later be called Emancipation Park. Similarly, in the early 1900s, the Travis County Emancipation Celebration Association acquired a plot in Austin to celebrate Juneteenth.   Flyer announcing the first annual Juneteenth celebration in Seattle. Source: Seattle Municipal Archives via Flickr (Record Series 7613-01)   Over the following decades, Juneteenth spread from Texas to other Southern states, including Louisiana, Arkansas, Alabama, and Oklahoma. Besides food festivals and dances, music became a staple of later Juneteenth celebrations, with Blues festivals shaping the history of the remembrance.   With the outbreak of World War II, however, Juneteenth’s popularity experienced a decline. In the 1960s, participation in the informal holiday decreased as the Civil Rights Movement gained momentum and the younger generations of African Americans focused on achieving equal rights. Then, in 1968, the Juneteenth Solidarity Day, organized by the Poor People’s Campaign, gave the oldest celebration of the end of slavery a new relevance. Nine years later, in 1979, Texas signed Bill 1016 into law, declaring June 19 a state holiday. The following year, Texas held its first state-held Juneteenth celebration.   How Did Juneteenth Become a Federal Holiday? President Joe Biden signs the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act Bill in the East Room of the White House, photograph by Chandler West, 2021. Source: Wikimedia Commons / The White House   Over the decades, African American activists called for the establishment of Juneteenth as a federal holiday. Among them were Dr. Ronald V. Myers Sr., the founder of the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation, and Opal Lee, a 96-year-old retired teacher from Fort Worth, Texas.   Until his death in 2018, Dr. Myers made frequent trips to Washington to lobby lawmakers to turn Juneteenth into a national holiday. In 2016, Opal Lee, considered by many the “Grandmother of Juneteenth,” began a walk from Fort Worth to Washington DC to bring awareness to Juneteenth and its crucial role in American history. In 2020, George Floyd’s murder brought new momentum to Lee’s campaign, and by June, more than 1 million people signed her petition for Juneteenth.   On June 17, 2021, President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, making June 19 a federal holiday, the first new holiday to be introduced since Martin Luther King Jr. Day in 1983.

FBI Director Kash Patel turned over agency documents on Monday to Congress about an alleged Chinese plot to use fake drivers licenses for securing fraudulent mail-in ballots during the 2020 election. Perhaps even more shockingly, or maybe not so shockingly, that same report had been submitted to American intelligence agencies...