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  Today, we often envision ancient goddesses as the epitome of the ideal woman: beautiful, nurturing, and maternal. In contrast, male gods are often described in more ambiguous terms, juxtaposing heroic and dangerous characteristics. However, these female portrayals are often modern constructs based on contemporary ideas about the role of women in culture. In the ancient world, there were many dark goddesses who were compelling but dangerous deities. Meet nine of the most fascinating, dangerous goddesses from across the ancient world.   1. Tiamat, Ancient Mesopotamia Cylinder seal depicting Tiamat in a dragon/serpent form with other battle-ready deities, c. 900-750 BCE. Source: British Museum   In the ancient Mesopotamian creation myth, the Enuma Elish, the goddess Tiamat represents the chaotic force of salt water, thereby symbolizing the ocean and seas. Together with her lover Apsu, the god of fresh water, that created the primordial waters from which life originated. Their children, Lahmu and Lahamu (two serpent siblings), became a couple who had their own children, Anshar and Kishar, the “ends” of the heavens and earth. This brother and sister also fostered a romantic connection, and from it, Anu and Ki, the sky and the earth, were born. The family tree of gods continued to expand.   From here, the few remaining versions of the Enuma Elish differ. In one variation, the original couple grew frustrated and tired of their offspring, and one of the seventh divine generation, Enki or Ea, was suspicious that Apsu planned to slaughter the younger deities. Enki was correct, and he took Apsu prisoner and held him under Apsu’s own temple and had him executed.   Marduk, absorbing aspects of Enlil, accompanied by a mušḫuššu (his sacred animal) standing on water, symbolizing his victory over Tiamat, drawing of a cylinder seal by F. H. Weissenbach, 1902. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In another version, the seventh generation of gods and goddesses go on strike as they have been forced to work and tend the earth by their predecessors. This caused Apsu to threaten the destruction of the cosmos and all the deities living in it. In response, Enki puts Apsu into a supernatural sleep and transforms him into irrigation canals.   Whichever version you read, the next part is largely the same: enraged at the treatment of Apsu and the insubordination of the younger deities, Tiamat created eleven monstrous creatures to aid her in a battle against the younger gods, which included serpent monsters, a scorpion-man, and a dragon. However, Enlil proved to be the better warrior thanks to the magical gifts bestowed upon him by other gods.   Despite the majority of deities’ belief that Tiamat was an unbeatable entity, Enlil spilled her blood and mixed it with clay to create humans who would now perform the work the gods had refused to do. While Tiamat was defeated in the creation myth, her power and ambivalence towards her own family are notable, proving her status as a dangerous goddess.   2. Ishtar, Ancient Assyria Bronze amulet depicting Ishar atop a lion wearing armor, c. 800-600 BCE. Source: British Museum   One of the oldest known deities in the world today, Ishtar was a complicated being from the start, but under the Assyrians, her cult reached new heights. Ishtar is often conflated with the goddess Inanna. Ishtar had Akkadian origins while Inanna came from Sumerian culture, they were conflated over time.   Inanna was associated with storehouses, rain, and storms, which later evolved into her status as a goddess of fertility and regeneration. She was often depicted with a lion, indicative of the roar of thunder. Ishtar’s beginnings are more obscure, but she appears to have developed as a fearsome local spirit worshipped in Uruk before her elevation to the status of a goddess. She was a goddess of war, sexual love, and fertility. She was also often associated with the lion, and considered the patron protectress of the Assyrian kings (and prostitutes).   Akkadian Cylinder Seal depicting Ishtar, c. 2254-2193 BCE. Source: Oriental Institute, Chicago   In the story of Ishtar’s Descent to the Netherworld, it is not explicitly stated why, but she decides to make the journey to the land of the dead to see her sister Ereshkigal, who is the Queen of the Dead. As she travels through the underworld, Ishtar must remove a piece of clothing or jewellery before entering each of the seven gates. Upon her passing through the last gate, Ereshkigal killed her sister and had her body hung from a nail.   Ishtar’s absence caused her brother, the god Enki, to send divine representatives to retrieve her. Ishtar was resurrected, and Ereshkigal stated that she would be allowed to leave if she could find a substitute to replace her. Consequently, Ishtar, accompanied by a host of demons, returns to the land of the living to discover many people mourning her death, except for her consort, Tammuz. She immediately has him taken away as her substitute for the underworld.   Relief of Ishtar holding a symbol of leadership, c. early 2nd millennium BCE. Source: The Conversation   In the myth of The Epic of Gilgamesh, the semi-divine King Gilgamesh of Uruk rejects Ishtar’s advances and ultimately insults her greatly. The goddess is enraged and asks one of the most powerful gods, Anu, for the Bull of Heaven, a monstrous bull capable of mass destruction. When Anu declined to give Ishtar the bull, she threatened to raise the dead who would devour the living. Reluctantly, Anu gives Ishtar the bull, which she unleashes on Uruk, destroying much of the city and killing many civilians.   Overall, Ishtar was a foundational goddess among many Mesopotamian civilizations, and she was especially associated with the royal family of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. She is typically depicted as a female figure dressed in male armour with a variety of weapons strapped to her back.   3. Sekhmet, Ancient Egypt Menat (type of necklace) showing Taharqo being breastfed by Sekhmet, Nubia, c. 690-664 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   The physical manifestation of the wrath of her father, the sun god Ra, Sekhmet was a powerful goddess from ancient Egypt. Sekhmet is usually depicted as a female deity with the head of a lioness and a sun disk on her head. She came into being from Ra’s burning eye when he first looked upon the earth. Sekhmet was born as a ready-made weapon to enact divine retribution on mortals, breathing fire through the harsh desert wind. But she was also the protector of the pharaohs, leading them into battle.   Amulet of Sekhmet, Third Intermediate Period, c. 1070-664 BCE; Necklace Counterpoise with Aegis of Sekhmet, New Kingdom, c. 1295-1070 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   In one of the primary myths involving Sekhmet, Ra was outraged that the citizens of Egypt had plotted against him. In an act of vengeance, he unleashed Sekhmet upon the mortal world. However, Sekhmet was frenzied and completely out of control, threatening to destroy the entire Egyptian civilization. To stop her murderous rampage, the other gods created a lake of beer and dyed it red to look like blood, tricking Sekhmet into drinking it. She became so drunk that she forgot her mission and returned to the gods.   Additionally, Sekhmet was the goddess of plagues and pestilence. Not only could she smite mortals with her warring prowess, but also with famine and disease. Consequently, this made her a patron of doctors as she could bring about and cure illnesses.   Sekhmet and Ptah, c. 760-332 BCE. Source: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston   Interestingly, Sekhmet was originally associated with Hathor, the goddess of love and fertility. Sekhmet was the aspect of Hathor that expressed her unbridled rage. By the time of the Middle Kingdom, Sekhmet and Hathor had become so distinct that they were perceived as two separate entities. Sekhmet was also associated with Bastet, the cat protector goddess, who acted as Sekhmet’s opposite. Moreover, Bastet was seen as Sekhmet in a tame and non-aggressive state.   4. Kali, Hindu Goddess Kali, lithograph by Raja Ravi Varma, c. 1910-1920 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Perhaps the most famous Hindu goddess, Kali, was revered as the patron of time and death. Her name originates from the Sanskrit word “kala,” indicative of time, or rather, the end of time. She represents the concept of doomsday and the subsequent rebirth of life.   The history of Hinduism encompasses multiple religions native to the Indian subcontinent and the Indus Valley, which have coalesced into modern Hinduism. There is evidence of the goddess Kali from as early as the Vedic period, dating back to around 1500 BCE, although her mythology became widely known in the 6th century CE.   Kali is most famous for her role in the Devi Mahatmyam, a Hindu mythological work, written around 400-600 CE. Versions of Kali’s emergence differ, but the consensus is that the goddess Kaushiki was attacked by two asuras (demons), and she became so enraged that she turned dark and either assumed the alternate form of Kali or that Kali emerged from her.   Kali dancing on Shiva, India, c. 19th century. Source: Wellcome Library   Immediately, Kali defeats the two asuras and turns her attention to another asura, Raktabija. Raktabija possessed the ability to duplicate himself when a drop of his blood made contact with the ground. As expected, when Kali fought Raktabija, he produced many clones, but Kali drained his body of blood by sucking it out of his body, and upon his death, she ate his remaining duplicates. In some versions, she also dances on their corpses.   Kali’s fearsome actions are also reflected in her iconography. She is noticeably dark blue or black with contrasting red eyes and a bright red tongue that hangs out of her mouth. Her open mouth also reveals sharp fangs, and in some depictions, she has three eyes, representative of the past, present, and future.   Kali. Source: National Museum, New Delhi   The goddess also appears naked, apart from a myriad of gruesome adornments. Kali is typically described as the wearer of a skirt made of severed limbs and a necklace of skulls and decapitated heads. In many depictions, she has four arms, one of which is always holding a weapon, and another holding a severed head. Another gory accompaniment manifests in the rendering of her partner, Shiva, who is frequently trampled beneath her.   Despite her spine-chilling looks, Kali is the first of the ten Mahavidya, Hindu goddesses of wisdom, and Kali is typically considered the highest deity in the Tantric spiritual system. Furthermore, the Mahavidyas are seen as the ten aspects of the great mother goddess, Durga. As the first of the Mahavidyas, Kali is the epitome of Brahman, the fundamental reality underlying all phenomena, as described in the Hindu scriptures.   5. Nemesis, Ancient Greece Justice and Divine Vengeance Pursuing Crime, by Pierre-Paul Prud’hon, c. 1805-1806 CE. Source: Getty Center   Today, we know the Greek word “nemesis” to mean a long-time rival or the agent of someone’s downfall. That word comes from the ancient Greek goddess Nemesis, daughter of Nyx, and the personification of night and darkness. Although Nemesis represented a sense of cosmic balance, similar to the Egyptian goddess Ma’at, she also embodied the idea of divine retribution and vengeance.   Nemesis is first mentioned in Hesiod’s Theogony, where she is the daughter of Nyx and had no father. Hesiod describes how Nyx gave birth to a host of deities, with no male counterpart, each of whom embodied fundamental yet ominous forces, such as Hypnos (sleep), Oizys (pain), the Moirai (the Fates), and Thanatos (death).   In the original mythology, Nemesis was a purveyor of fate, but by the 4th century BCE, Nemesis had begun to encompass wrath. Moreover, Nemesis was the enemy of hubris and would punish those who showed heightened arrogance.   In the Metamorphoses by Ovid, Nemesis punished Narcissus for his rejection of a nymph. The man was enticed into a pool where he famously fell in love with his own reflection, which ultimately led to his death.   Engraving of Nemesis, by Albrecht Dürer, c. 1502. Source: Staatliche Kunsthalle Karlsruhe   However, Nemesis was also integral to the everyday life of mortals and would ensure all were dealt a fair amount of happiness and pain. Therefore, in iconography, she is often an accompaniment of Tyche, the goddess of good fortune, to ensure she was never too extravagant with her favors. This creative choice was designed to emphasise that a sudden increase in prosperity could be taken away if the recipient became too conceited.   Consequently, Nemesis was both revered and feared by the people of ancient Greece. In the majority of her depictions, she is shown as a formidable winged goddess with an unmistakable frown. It is unsurprising, as her role in the cosmos was one of a messenger, but of consistently bad news.   6. Mór-Ríoghan, Irish Mythology Cuchulain Riding his Chariot into Battle, by Joseph Leyendecker, c. 1911 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Morrigan, or Mór-ríoghan in modern Irish, is a complicated Celtic goddess, most notably described as the goddess of death. Evidence of the Morrigan can seemingly be traced back to Neolithic Ireland, but her form known today is first conclusively mentioned in Latin sources dating to the 8th century CE. The mythology and culture associated with the Morrigan is vast and complex, yet overall, her character is one of foreboding magic and destruction.   The name Morrigan is translated as “Phantom Queen.” It appears “mor” comes from the Indo-European root word, which means terror, and “rigan” from the Irish word meaning queen. In the earliest textual references, the Morrigan is a triple goddess, similar to the Greek goddess Hecate, and is not considered a single figure until around the 11th century. However, for much of the medieval period, she can be interpreted as both a singular and a triple goddess. Historians describe these three components as the Morrigan, Badb, and Nemain, or Morrigan, Badb, and Macha in other instances.   Viking age figurine of a Valkyrie found at Harby, Denmark, Source: Atlas Obscura   The Morrigan encompasses a range of aspects related to violence. Firstly, she encouraged war and supposedly attained pleasure from assembled armies. Additionally, she appeared before battles and foretold victory and defeat. Her magical powers could bestow favor on mortals as well as gods and sway the tide of battle as she desired. In Irish mythology, sometimes she cast showers of blood rain on troops and shrieked, which induced frenzy among warriors. The element of the goddess known as Nemain was attributed to the frenzy experienced in the chaos of war. Likewise, the Morrigan would transform into a crow or raven and fly over battlefields. This form of the Morrigan is known as Badb, and she is an omen of death. In this form she has remarkable similarities with the Norse god Odin, a god of war associated with ravens, and the Valkyrie, his demonic shieldmaidens.   The Morrigan is frequently depicted as a crow, an old hag, or a beautiful young woman, all of which served specific motives. Usually, the crow was a message of death, whereas the old woman’s guise was to deliver a message, although this message usually also foretold death, and the younger embodiment was to rouse troops for warfare.   7. Angrboda, Norse Mythology Loki’s Brood, by Emil Doepler, 1905 CE. Source: Nordic Culture   While Norse mythology details many ferocious and terrifying supernatural beings, few compare to Angrboda, a giant or jotun in Norse mythology. Her name means “bringer of grief,” and through her marriage to Loki, she also gave birth to some of the most formidable monsters in Norse mythology, earning the title “mother of monsters.”   The first of these children was Fenrir, the great wolf; the second was the couple’s goddess daughter, Hel, who ruled Helheim, or the underworld, and the final child was Jormungandr, the giant serpent who was so poisonous he could kill gods. The gods so feared the children of such a monstrous union that they imprisoned each of them somewhere in the cosmos that they would do the least harm. As a result, all three have a role to play in the Ragnarok prophecy of the end of days.   Elsewhere, Angrboda is described as living in the Ironwood, a dense forest area that is near the borders of Jotunheim, the realm of the giants, and Midgard, the realm of men. There she is the leader of a wolfpack, and the mother of most of the mighty wolves. One of these wolves, called Moongram, is also destined to swallow the sun and the moon and plunge the world into darkness at Ragnarok.   8. Coatlicue, Aztec Civilization Statue of Coatlicue, 8.3 ft tall, Tenochtitlan, c. 1430-1491 CE. Source: National Anthropology Museum in Mexico City   In the Aztec culture, the goddess of life and fertility was also the patron of death. Coatlicue was a menacing goddess whose name translates to “snake skirt,” and she appeared wearing her skirt of living snakes and a necklace full of body parts such as skulls, hands, and human hearts. The goddess also possessed great claws, had low hanging breasts, and had two additional snake heads, which emerged when she was decapitated.   Coatlicue’s narrative began when she was performing her duties as a priestess atop the Snake Mountain. Her peace was interrupted when she was magically impregnated, which angered her daughter, Coyolxauhqui, who thought the pregnancy disgraced their family. To rectify this, Coyolxauhqui rallied her brothers, the Centzonhuītznāhua, to attack Coatlicue.   The children beheaded their mother, but the moment Coatlicue died, she gave birth to the Aztec sun god and god of war, Huitzilopochtli. Born fully grown, he took revenge by killing and dismembering Coyolxauhqui, throwing her body parts into the sky to form the moon. He murdered many of his brothers and chased the others far and wide until they eventually became the scattered stars of the night sky.   Coatlicue de Cozcatlán, c. 1500. Source: National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico   Aside from her son, Coatlicue was feared in her own right. The body parts that hung around her neck did not magically appear, they were trophies from her victims. The Aztecs believed that many of the most powerful deities required human sacrifices to consume and that if the sun failed to rise, they and a host of demonic powers would feast on the mortal population. When Coatlicue met a group of diviners during the reign of Moctezuma (1440-1469 CE), she allegedly told them they had become weak and, as a result, the Aztec Empire would fall, which she would find pleasure in.   Coatlicue, in the simplest way, symbolises the complex relationship between humans and the earth. Just as the earth can be fertile and generous, it can also be dangerous and, at times, monstrous.   9. Mami Wata, West Africa Wooden figurine of Mami Wata, Nigeria. c. 1950s. Source: Minneapolis Institute of Art   In West African Pidgin English, Mami Wata translates to “mother water.” Like many of the goddesses in this list, Mami Wata could be a generous entity with the potential to grant good fortune, but she was also capable of bestowing harsh punishment. Her presence is noted across Africa, and due to colonial exploits, she is often mentioned in Caribbean mythology and Afro-American cultures.   Mami Wata is both a singular goddess and a collective of water spirits, typically portrayed as female. Her origins are widely debated. While she is present throughout West Africa, potentially originating on the Guinean coast around 4,000 years ago, others argue that she emerged during the era of European and American imperialism in Africa.   Mami Wata is commonly portrayed as a mermaid-like figure, with the lower body of a fish or serpent and the upper body of a beautiful woman, often associated with combs and mirrors. She was a fertility goddess, protecting worthy mothers, but could punish the unworthy with infertility. She was often benevolent towards men, offering them great wealth in exchange for celibacy. But if they break their vow, they would lose everything and be driven to insanity.   Chromolithograph of a snake charmer, inspired by the performer Maladamatjaute (Nala Damajanti), printed in the 1880s by the Adolph Friedlander Company in Hamburg, the poster gave rise to the common image of Mami Wata. Source: Smithsonian   As a protective deity, it is fitting that Mami Wata traveled with enslaved Africans to the Americas, where tales even speak of her capsizing slave ships in defiance. During colonization, as European powers disrupted local economies, she became increasingly linked with wealth and prosperity. It was believed that those who remained devoted to her through such hardship could receive material blessings.   Mami Wata’s mythology serves as both a cautionary tale, highlighting the perils of water and the seductive nature of wealth, and a source of comfort, offering a protective and benevolent presence in times of adversity. To conclude, Mami Wata was as powerful and ungovernable as water, which made her a dangerous goddess for both her worshipers and invaders seeking to harm those who followed her.

Attic funerary relief of Sosias & Kephisodorus, ca. 410 BCE, in the Altes Museum, Berlin   Many Ancient Greek soldiers faced brutal combat disorders; this was because they fought in close battle quarters using weapons such as spears and swords. As such, the psychological toll was immense. While the term Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder didn’t exist, the symptoms were clearly recognized, as many ancient historians and physicians wrote about them.   Which Greek Historical Accounts Recognized Combat Stress? Plan of the Battle of Marathon, 1832. Source: Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation   Some of the earliest historical texts that provide accounts of combat stress disorders include those written by Herodotus, the famous historian. He recorded a famous case when he wrote about the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE in which the Greeks defeated the Persians. Herodotus told the story of a soldier named Epizelus who was an Athenian hoplite. He was fighting in the thick of the battle when he suddenly lost his sight.   The blindness had no physical cause as he had not been struck in the head or eyes. According to Herodotus, Epizelus saw a giant phantom warrior – a ghost-like figure that stood beside him while in battle and the phantom killed the Athenian soldier next to Epizelus. The shock of this vision supposedly blinded him and Herodotus notes that Epizelus remained blind for the rest of his life. Modern analysis suggests it was a case of psychogenic blindness and a physical manifestation of extreme psychological trauma. Today, it is recognized as a conversion disorder. The account from Herodotus is considered to be a clear observation of a severe stress reaction.   Herodotus marble statue. Source: Sky History   The Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta that lasted from 431 to 404 BCE also generated many accounts of psychological distress. According to the historian Thucydides who wrote about the mental state of soldiers, he described how many men became despondent. Many of them lost their will to fight. He also noted how a plague in Athens destroyed soldiers’ morale. In his view, the combination of disease and constant warfare created an atmosphere of hopelessness and terror. How Did Greek Philosophers Understand Combat Trauma? P. Oxy. 3679, manuscript from the 3rd century CE, containing fragments of Plato’s Republic   While Greek philosophers tried to understand the warrior’s mind, they did not use medical terms. Plato, the Greek philosopher who lived from roughly 428 to 348 BCE wrote about the structure of the human soul in his work The Republic. In the text, he wrote that the soul had three parts. One part was reason, the other was appetite, and the third was the spirited element or thumos.   Thumos was the source of courage and ambition. As such, a good soldier needed a strong and healthy thumos. While military training was designed to strengthen this part of the soul, Plato understood that it could be damaged due to an extreme feeling of fear or shame from battle. These factors, he believed, could overwhelm the thumos and thus create an imbalance in the soul. Consequently, a soldier with a broken thumos was likely to become cowardly or uncontrollably aggressive.   What Were the Medical Theories and Treatments? The four elements, four qualities, four humors, and four seasons. Source: The Wellcome Collection   The Greek physician, Hippocrates (460 BCE to 370 BCE), offered a different perspective. Often called the Father of Medicine, Hippocrates and his followers rejected supernatural causes for illness. He believed that diseases had natural physical origins and this included mental illnesses. Their central concept was the theory of the four humors.    In this theory, the body contained four fluids and they were blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. The concept hypothesized that a healthy person had these humors in perfect balance. However, an imbalance caused sickness. Factors such as intense stress, grief or fear could disrupt this balance, and the Hippocratic school of thought believed that combat trauma could lead to the excess production of black bile. According to their conclusion, an excess of this humor could cause a condition that they called melancholia. The word literally means black bile. Some of the symptoms of this condition were sadness, fear, anxiety, and withdrawal. They were very similar to modern descriptions of depression and PTSD.   Depiction of Four Humors, from Quinta Essentia, by Leonhart Thurneisser zum Thurn, 1574. Source: arsgravis.com   While treatment was focused on restoring balance, doctors did not use talk therapy. Instead, they prescribed physical remedies so a soldier suffering from melancholy would be told to rest. At times, he would be given a specific diet and warm baths. Gentle exercises were also common prescriptions. The treatments were intended to purge the excess black bile. They aimed to calm the body and therefore the mind.   How Did the Greeks Try to Cope with Combat Trauma?   Greek society also used religion to attempt to treat combat trauma. For example, soldiers made offerings to the gods before battle and prayed to Ares the god of war. The men also prayed to his sons Phobos (Fear) and Deimos (Terror). After a battle a soldier would undergo ritual purification meant to cleanse him of the spiritual stain of killing. And if a soldier was deeply troubled, he would also seek help at a temple.

  On the Ides of March, 44 BCE, Julius Caesar was assassinated. Punctured by as many as 23 stab wounds, the death of the dictator threw the Roman world into civil war once more. On one side, the “Liberators.” Led by Brutus and Cassius, these men conspired to kill Caesar ostensibly to restore the Republic. On the other side was a fragile alliance of Caesar’s allies, Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Caesar’s adopted son, Octavian. The climactic battle for control of Rome would take place at Philippi in October 42 BCE.   Background to Philippi: Caesar’s Assassination Julius Caesar Crossing the Rubicon, by Philip de László, 1891. Source: De Laszlo Archive Trust   In 49 BCE, Julius Caesar had crossed the Rubicon, a shallow river in northeastern Italy. This seemingly innocuous act was a catalyst for the collapse of the Roman Republic, which had endured since 509 BCE. His march across the Rubicon with the armies that had conquered Gaul was tantamount to a declaration of war.   The civil war that followed would last four years and rage right across the vast expanses of the empire, including Greece, Egypt, and Hispania. Upon his return to Rome, Caesar was appointed dictator perpetuo (dictator in perpetuity). Rome had had dictators before, but never one in perpetuity. To some senators, Caesar was becoming a monarch in all but name. A king was antithetical to the values of the Republic, and a conspiracy was soon hatched to topple Caesar.   The Death of Julius Caesar, by Vincenzo Camuccini, 1806. Source: National Museum of Capodimonte, Naples   On the morning of the Ides of March (15th) 44 BCE, Calpurnia, Caesar’s wife, begged the dictator not to attend to his business that day. She had been plagued by visions of her husband’s death, according to Plutarch. For a moment, he hesitated. His wife was not usually one for “womanish superstition,” the later biographer noted. In the end, however, he departed, and his fate was sealed.   At the Senate meeting, hosted at the Curia (Senate House) located in the Theatre of Pompey, the conspirators, numbering around 60 or 70 senators, began to crowd around Caesar. Ostensibly, they sought Caesar’s approval of a petition. In reality, they closed around him to deliver the fatal blows. The dictator was stabbed at least 23 times by the conspirators. After the conspirators fled, Caesar’s allies mobilized. Rome was heading for civil war.   For the Republic: The Liberators at Philippi The Death of Caesar, by Jean-Leon Gerome, 1859-1867. Source: Walters Art Museum   According to Appian, a wax statue of Caesar was erected in the Forum. The posthumous depiction of the slain dictator included the 23 stab wounds he had sustained at the hands of the so-called Liberators. There was public uproar at the death of the popular general. A large mob gathered and set the Curia on fire.   Although they had not envisaged it, by killing Caesar, the Liberators had exacerbated the cracks forming in the Republic’s political structures. Popular with the people, Caesar’s assassination was taken as an abhorrent abuse of senatorial power. The political outlook for the Liberators was further worsened when Mark Antony, several days after the assassination, managed to persuade the Senate to ensure that Caesar’s political appointments would remain valid.   The furious reaction to the news of Caesar’s murder, coupled with the reaffirmation of his political appointments, effectively forced the Liberators out of Italy. In a similar move to Pompey and the anti-Caesarian party of just a few years previously, the Liberators fled the peninsula.   They gathered their forces in Greece and mobilized the forces of the eastern provinces. At sea, the Liberators could count on the fleet of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus. A distant relative of the future emperor Nero, Ahenobarbus was effective in harrying the enemies of the Liberators. Led by Brutus and Cassius, the Republican forces had by this time established themselves on the high ground, just slightly to the west of the city of Philippi in Macedonia.   An Uneasy Alliance: The Second Triumvirate Silver denarius with obverse portrait of Mark Antony and reverse portrait of Octavian, 41 BCE. Source: British Museum   Arrayed against the forces of the Liberators massing in the east was the Second Triumvirate. This uneasy alliance comprised Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Mark Antony, and Gaius Octavian, Caesar’s great-nephew adopted by Caesar as his son and heir in his will. The alliance had been established in 43 BCE, when Octavian, as consul, travelled north from Rome to establish a treaty with Antony. The relationship between the two had been tense as Octavian’s adoption by Caesar was a tremendous blow to Antony’s own plans for supremacy. Their new alliance was confirmed by marriage. Octavian would marry Antony’s step-daughter, Clodia, as a mark of good faith between the two men.   Sculpture of Cicero, c. 1st Century BCE. Source: Capitoline Museums, Rome   Assured in their partnership, at least for now, the Second Triumvirate could turn its attention to a war of vengeance against the Liberators. In all, some forty legions were massed. They also sought to consolidate control of Italy and ensure they had sufficient resources for war. To do so, they turned to the terror tactic of proscriptions. These lists of enemies, used so infamously during Sulla’s dictatorship, named around 300 senators as wanted men. If caught, they would be executed and their property and wealth seized. Concessions were made by each triumvir to show support for their union. This was bad news for one of the most famous of all Roman senators, Cicero. Despite holding him in high regard, Octavian was compelled to acquiesce to Antony’s proscribing of Cicero. The former consul had been openly critical of Antony for too long, excoriating him in his Philippics, named after the famous orations of Demosthenes against Philip II of Macedon several centuries earlier.   The First Battle of Philippi: Cassius’ End Denarius with obverse depiction of Libertas and reverse image of a trophy with two spears, minted by C. Cassius Longinus, 43-42 BCE. Source: British Museum   Perhaps unfairly, Lepidus is sometimes characterised as a rather “beige” figure in the tumultuous decades of the end of the Roman Republic. Whether or not such a view is historically valid, it certainly is not helped by his absence from some of the more decisive events of the period. For instance, it was decided by the triumvirs that Lepidus would remain in Italy when, in 42 BCE, Antony and Octavian set sail for Greece. They were accompanied by 28 legions, their best fighting men. Ashore, the forces were divided. An advance party of eight legions was sent ahead, the remainder divided between Antony and Octavian. While Antony was able to follow the scouts, Octavian’s forces were temporarily delayed by the young man’s ill health, a recurring issue he faced. They eventually regrouped to face the forces of the Liberators at Philippi.   Red jasper sealstone with possible portrait of Mark Antony, c. 40-30 BCE. Source: British Museum   Although Antony did his best to tempt the Liberators into an engagement, Brutus and Cassius remained reluctant to leave their fortified position. Antony was eventually able to bring Cassius to battle, but only by attempting a dangerous maneuver of leading his men through the marshes to the south of the Liberators’ position.   While Antony’s forces engaged those of Cassius, Brutus led his forces against Octavian’s legions. They took the young man’s forces completely by surprise. Octavian’s legions lost three standards and were driven in disarray right back to their camp, which was captured by Brutus’ forces. Fortunately for the triumvirs, Antony was having significantly more success. Cassius’ fortifications had been utterly demolished and his camp overrun. Although the battle so far had been something of an even contest, Cassius was unaware of this. He believed that his ally, Brutus, had suffered a devastating defeat, and so he ordered his freedman, Pindarus, to kill him. It was a crushing blow to the morale of the Liberators.   Brutus’ Defeat: The Second Battle of Philippi Marble bust, the so-called Brutus, c. 30-15 BCE. Source: Palazzo Massimo alle Terme   Despite the death of one of their leaders, all was not lost for the Liberators. At the same time that the first engagement was underway, their naval forces had obliterated a fleet of reinforcements and supplies en route to the triumvir army. However, Brutus lacked the strategic nous of his fallen comrade, and the Liberators were unable to capitalize on the advantage won at sea. The military experience, which Brutus lacked, proved a decisive factor against the forces of Octavian and the battle-hardened Antony. Slowly but surely, the creeping advance of the triumvir forces stretched the battlelines of Brutus’ army ever thinner.   Dangerously close to being cut off, despite his naval superiority, Brutus had no choice but to engage the triumvirs on the battlefield. Plutarch’s account of the Battle of Philippi describes how Brutus’ initial advance was successful. However, on the other side of his army, the triumvir forces punched through the lines of his overextended legions. Although it began gradually, the Republican forces were flanked, eroding both men and their resolve. The envelopment was so complete that the legions under Octavian’s command were able to capture Brutus’ encampment. The triumvir’s victory was total, and Brutus was left with no option but to flee.   With a small force of just four legions, the Liberator fled. In the wilderness about Philippi, Brutus fell upon his sword. Although Brutus allegedly faced his end with courage, his body was treated gruesomely. Suetonius describes how Octavian had the body decapitated, and the head dispatched to Rome, where it was to be displayed before a statue of Caesar.   After the Battle of Philippi: Octavian Against Antony The Battle of Actium, 2 September 31 BC, by Lorenzo A. Castro, 1672. Source: Royal Museums Greenwich   The victory of Antony and Octavian at Philippi was final. What was left of the Liberators’ army was rounded up, and around 14,000 men were enrolled in the triumvir’s army. The fate of many of the leading aristocrats who had sided with the Liberators was less positive. Many died, either in battle or by their own hand. This included Marcus Porcius Cato (the son of Cato the Younger), as well as Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus, the father of Livia, Octavian’s future wife. Marcus would have had no idea that, through his daughter, his descendants would go on to shape the course of Roman history.   Despite the overwhelming victory achieved by the triumvirs, there was to be no peace. Tensions between Octavian and Antony, a constant undercurrent of the triumviral relationship, flared when they had no shared enemy to be tempered against. It became increasingly clear that the battle for control of Rome was not yet over.   Augustus of Prima Porta, c. 1st century CE. Source: Musei Vaticani, Rome   The decisive battle took place at sea. In 31 BCE, the forces of Octavian would meet the combined fleet of Antony and Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic Queen of Egypt, at Actium. Octavian, with the help of Agrippa, would triumph. Control of the Roman world was his. Years later, a monument was set up by Octavian, who was then known as Augustus, to commemorate Philippi, the first step on his journey to ruling the entire Empire. The Res Gestae of Augustus simply recorded: “I sent into exile the murderers of my father [Julius Caesar]… when they made war upon the Republic, I twice defeated them in battle.”

  Horyu-ji, located in modern-day Nara Prefecture, is one of Japan’s most venerated temples. Its origins trace back to the mid-Asuka Period (538–710) when Buddhism was beginning to thrive in the country. The world has changed greatly since then, but Horyu-ji has mostly remained the same, and today is home to some of the oldest wooden structures in the world. For this and other reasons, it was registered as the first UNESCO World Heritage Site in Japan. Here is everything you need to know about Japan’s oldest temple.   A Place of Recovery and Rebirth Inner Gate and Five-storied Pagoda of Horyu-ji, by 663highland, 2010. Source: Wikimedia Commons   According to records preserved in the temple and early Japanese chronicles, the catalyst for the creation of Horyu-ji was Emperor Yomei (540–587). Gravely ill, the emperor ordered the construction of a temple dedicated to the healing “Medicine Buddha” (Yakushi Nyorai/Bhaisajyaguru) sometime in the 580s in order to aid in his recovery. Although he did not live long enough to see the project completed, his son, the semi-mythical Prince Shotoku—who over the centuries grew a cult-like following around himself because of his deep devotion to Buddhism—realized his father’s vision. With his help and that of his mother, Empress Suiko, Horyu-ji, then known as Ikaruga Temple, was completed in 607.   However, the entire temple was destroyed in a fire in 670 (sadly common with Buddhist temples). The Nihon Shoki, the second-oldest Japanese chronicle, states clearly that “Not a single building was left” (Aston, p. 293). The entire complex had to be rebuilt from scratch between 708 and 714. For the longest time, that has been the accepted timeline, but as early as the 20th century, there have been dissenting voices questioning the extent of Ikaruga Temple’s destruction. It is now accepted that the central pillar of the temple’s Five-Story Pagoda (Goju-no-To), was made from a cypress that was cut down in 594. It seems improbable that the Horyu-ji reconstruction would use a random century-old pillar with no connection to Ikaruga whatsoever, meaning that some parts of it had to survive.   Designing Transcendence Horyuji Temple main hall and pagoda, by Cun Cun, 2019. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Horyu-ji is made up of the Western Precinct (Saiin Garan) and the Eastern Precinct (Toin Garan) housing the Five-Story Pagoda, the Kondo Main Hall (“the world’s oldest extant wooden structure”), and other buildings all laid out in an asymmetrical design. The complex is accessible via the Chumon Middle Gate, the threshold to the sacred interior of Horyu-ji guarded by fearsome Nio guardian statues. As you pass through it, you enter a courtyard surrounded by the Kairo Covered Corridor (a cloister) with the Daikodo Great Lecture Hall across from the Chumon but not aligning perfectly with it. A short distance from the gate, but notably not in the center of the courtyard, there is the pagoda to the left and the Main Hall to the right.   This departure from axial symmetry typical of Chinese temples has been interpreted by some scholars as an early attempt at a distinctively Japanese architectural style. While it is possible that Horyu-ji’s layout reproduces a lesser-known, now-lost trend once found in mainland Asian Buddhist temples, it is equally likely that the irregularity and a purposeful abandonment of pursuing perfection has been partially inspired by the design of Shinto shrines.   Kuse Kannon (Yumedono Kannon) at Horyu-ji, by Ogawa Kazumasa, 1888/1889. Source: Department of Image Collections, National Gallery of Art Library, Washington, DC via Wikimedia Commons   An interesting detail is the Kairo whose pillars exhibit a subtle bulging known in classic architecture as entasis, an element reminiscent of ancient Greek buildings. This has actually led earlier researchers to speculate about a possible Hellenistic influence on Horyu-ji via Gandhara (modern-day northwest Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan). However, the scholarly consensus today is that the similarities between Horyu-ji and ancient Greek architecture is little more than an interesting coincidence and further proof of the temple’s indigenous design, as entasis is not found in historic Buddhist temples in China or Korea.   Other structures within the complex include the Shoro Bell Tower, the Kyozo Sutra Repository, and the octagonal Yumedono Hall of Dreams that forms the center of the Eastern Precinct (with the Western one focusing around the pagoda and Main Hall) and which was constructed on the former site of Prince Shotoku’s private residence. The name of the hall comes from a legend involving the prince seeing a golden Buddha in his dreams, who tasked him with spreading Buddhism all throughout Japan. The dream has been immortalized in the form of Kuse Kannon, a gilded camphorwood statue that the temple only unveils two times a year.   A Repository of Buddhist Beauty Kudara Kannon, by the Imperial Japanese Commission to the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, 1915. Source: Japanese Temples and their Treasures via Wikimedia Commons   Besides being an architectural marvel, Horyu-ji is also home to over 2,300 historically significant Buddhist artifacts. Among them, nearly 190 have been designated as National Treasures or Important Cultural Properties of Japan. The Main Hall contains some interesting examples of Buddhist art like a collection of statues representing various Buddhist figures, including that of Shakyamuni (also known as Gautama), the historical Buddha, whose visage was most likely based on the likeness of Prince Shotoku. But the majority of the temple treasures are housed in the Great Treasure Gallery.   Constructed in 1998, the gallery now houses such masterpieces as Kudara Kannon, a 2.1-meter-tall statue of the goddess of compassion and mercy carved from a single camphor trunk. Despite its name referencing the ancient Korean kingdom of Baekje, scholars believe that the statue was produced in Japan. Another standout is the Tamamushi Shrine, a seventh-century miniature altar adorned with intricate Buddhist imagery, which might have originally belonged to Empress Suiko. Also of note is the statue of the “Dream-Changer” Yumechigai Kannon, believed to have the power to transform nightmares into peaceful dreams, and the Lady Tachibana Shrine, featuring a delicate bronze Amida triad with notable Tang Dynasty influences.   Yumechigai Kannon, by Unknown, 1913. Source: Tokyo Fine Arts School and Tokyo Music School via Wikimedia Commons   Among the most historically significant and stunning treasures of Horyu-ji are the One Million Pagodas, a set of miniature wooden towers commissioned by Empress Koken in the 8th century. Each houses a printed Buddhist charm and acts as a talisman in order to bring peace to the land. The pagodas were originally distributed among the 10 major temples of Nara, with each one receiving 100,000 miniatures. Horyu-ji is the only temple that has retained a significant number of them, today housing over 46,000 tiny pagodas.   Secrets of the Five-Story Pagoda Wooden joinery at Horyu-ji temple, by z tanuki, 2013. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Of all the structures within Horyu-ji, the Five-Story Pagoda is perhaps the most iconic. It is also the most sophisticated. Measuring approximately 32.5 meters in height, it is widely regarded as the oldest wooden pagoda in Japan and one of the oldest wooden towers on the planet. Inspired by Indian stupas, it was constructed to enshrine relics of the historical Buddha and ashes of important devotees that are believed to rest around three meters beneath its base.   One of the most fascinating things about the pagoda is its structural ingenuity that makes it resilient against earthquakes and typhoons, two natural disasters unfortunately common in Japan. The key to the pagoda’s long life is the shinbashira, the aforementioned 6th-century pillar made from cypress that runs vertically throughout the tower.   The flexible monopole skeleton of the Goju-no-To effectively acts as a quake dampener, absorbing seismic energy and making the pagoda sway when the ground moves, thus keeping it standing upright for the last 1,300 years. The tower’s architecture also employs traditional Japanese joinery techniques, which, because they do not use nails, allow the components of the pagoda to shift during earthquakes, dissipating the seismic energy to prevent a catastrophic collapse. The pagoda’s survival across centuries of war and disasters is a true testament to the superb skills of its builders.   The sorin of Horyu-ji temple’s pagoda, by Jean-Pierre Dalbéra, 2018. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Atop the pagoda you will find a spire called a sorin made up of many elements such as rings, a flame-shaped ornament known as suien (“water smoke”), so called to protect against the destructive power of fire through word magic, and a hoshu (or hoju) jewel meant to symbolize dreams coming true. In Buddhism, that means achieving nirvana, which creates an allegorical representation of Buddhism itself with the symbol of enlightenment being placed high above the ashes of the faithful under the tower, emphasizing the heights that humans should strive for in life.   Further enhancing the pagoda’s spiritual and artistic heritage is the series of clay tableaux at its base. Dating back to 711, these dioramas depict significant episodes from the life of the Buddha. With 97 intricately crafted figures, these scenes provide a visual insight into the tenets of the Buddhist religion (or philosophy) without which Horyu-ji temple would never have existed.   Sources:   Translated by Aston, W. G. (2008). Nihongi Volume II – Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697.

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